INDIAN HIGHWAYS

A REVIEW OF ROAD AND ROAD TRANSPORT DEVELOPMENT

Volume 41

Number 8

August 2013

Contents

ISSN 0376-7256

Page
2-3

From the Editors Desk

Advertisement Tariff

CSIR-CRRI Training Programmes for the Year 2013-14

Engineering Challenges on Controlling Road Accident (Case Study)

Nandanandan Das

14

Damaging Effects of Super Single Tyres : An International Experience

Abhishek Mittal and Sunil Bose

26

Laboratory Performance Evaluation of A Ready-To-Use Patch Mix

Abhishek Mittal, P.K. Jain and Amit Kumar

35

Improvement in Properties of Subgrade Soil by Using Pond Ash and Chemical Additive
B.M. Patil and K.A. Patil

42

Effect of Purity of Lime on Strength and Durability of Soil-Lime Mixes

Uma Arun, V.K. Kanaujia, Alok Ranjan, R.K. Swami and Sudhir Mathur

50

Good Environmental Management Practices : Case Study & Review of Tree Transplantation for Highways Project in India
Arijit Choudhury, Raj Kumar Sing and V.K. Ganju

62

Errata to IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'

70

Obituary

71-72

Circular Issued by MORT&H

73

Tender Notice of PWD B&R Gurgaon Circle

74

Tender Notice of NH Circle Kanpur

75

Tender Notice of NH Tirunelveli

76

Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow

77

Tender Notice of NH Circle Bareilly

78

Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow

79

Tender Notice of NH Circle Lucknow

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From the Editors Desk

ROAD SECTOR REGULATOR A NEED

Dear Readers,
In the budget for the current year provides for creation for regulator for the road infrastructure
sector. This is a much needed requirement to accelerate further the developmental efforts in
this crucial infrastructure sector.
The experience of private sector financed projects in the road sector during about last one
and a half decade is a mix bag of success and failures. The issues and aspects involved in the
road sector have their own complexities and the same gets more compounded when for the
same issues multi-organization participation is involved. As of now both school of thoughts
exists i.e. one which supports the creation of regulator for the road infrastructure sector and
the other does not support for the same. However, the need of the hour is to take a more
pragmatic and positive approach for the betterment of this sector.
A number of infrastructure sector have witnessed creation of regulatory organizations
which includes the power sector, telecom sector, port sector, etc. The commonality as a
result of these regulatory authorities has been in the areas of public/consumer satisfaction,
enhanced public confidence and conducive environment for more investment. The biggest
enabling condition which gets created on account of regulator in a sector is the creation of
level playing field between the private and public so that the two become apparently equal
partners in the developmental model.
The need for the regulator in the road infrastructure sector is felt may be because of
managing the policy framework & guidelines as well as implementation/execution of
contractual agreements by the same road owning authorities/organizations. This situation is
more pronounced when the issues related to toll (including policy framework and collection
with monitoring issues), maintenance of level of service, parity of users, safety as well as
satisfaction of road users, technology/techniques choices, use of public money, etc. get
raised.
In private financed road projects, these issues coupled with the issues related to land
management including land acquisition and other related clearances matters in a road project
suggests for a dedicated organization keeping in view that the concession period in such
projects are for long duration ranging from 12 to 30 years.
2

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

EDITORIAL

The contractual conflicts especially related to assessment of performance across the various
parameters of the stakeholders involved in the project, extension of time or imposition of
penalties on any account are some of the areas which requires timely and relevant solutions
to keep the sector in a robust health. It is not out of place to mention that as per the decision
given by Honble Supreme Court in the matter of Today Homes & Infrastructure Limited
Versus Ludhiana Improvement Trust, the arbitration clause will survive even if the main
agreement between the two parties are void. The long duration private sector financed
projects in the road infrastructure sector have some inherent risk factors especially related
to assumption of traffic, input cost, tariff, etc. which are also dependent on overall economic
condition and the prediction about overall economic scenario and economic growth rate for
next 12 to 30 year time frame which is not a very easy affair.
The eventualities arising in such scenario and keeping in view the need of not only asset
creation and asset preservation in the road sector but also for optimizing the resources as
well as creating conducive condition for continuous fund flow may support the need of
setting up an independent road regulator which should be independent of executing and
policy making road owning authorities.
Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see
Mark Twain

Place: New Delhi 

Dated: 23rd July, 2013

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Vishnu Shankar Prasad

Secretary General

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INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

CSIR-CRRI TRAINING PROGRAMMES FOR THE YEAR 2013-2014

TITLE OF THE COURSE

DURATION
WITH DATES

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+ 12.36 % S.T.

A. PAVEMENT ENGINEERING & MATERIALS

Design, Construction and Maintenance of

Flexible Pavements

02-06 Sep., 2013

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Dr. P.K. Jain

Rigid Pavements: Design, Construction &

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Pavement Evaluation Techniques and their

applications for Maintenance and
Rehabilitation

16-20 Dec. 2013

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Sh. K.
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B. ROAD DEVELOPMENT PLANNING &

MANAGEMENT

International Course on Dissemination of

HDM-4

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Dr. Divesh Tiwari

Geo-Spatial Technology (GIS, GPS, RS etc)

for Road and Transportation

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Dr. B.K. Duarai

Sh. A. Mohan Rao

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Dr. Kishor Kumar

25-29 Nov. 2013

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Dr. Lakshmy P.

02-05 Dec., 2013

Rs. 10, 000/-

C. GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical and Landslide Investigations

for Highway Projects

D. BRIDGES & STRUCTURES

Bridge Design and Construction

E. TRAFFIC & TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and

Environmental Clearance Process for Road
& Highway Projects

Dr. Niraj Sharma

Customized Tailor Made Programmes:

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P.O.CRRI, Delhi-Mathura Road,
New Delhi 110 025

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

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TECHNICAL PAPERS

ENGINEERING CHALLENGES ON CONTROLLING ROAD

ACCIDENT (Case study)
Nandanandan Das*

ABSTRACT
It is true that Death is imminent for any living being. But Death
due to road accident is maximum for human beings in our country.
This is due to lack of awareness among common people and also
lack of government administration as covered in the various
Paragraphs on Primary Cause of accidents on road. There are
various reasons for occurring road accident in the country. If all
the concerned authorities and the people, in general are careful
and sincerely adopt the principles of road safety and abide by it,
then the road accidents can be avoided. Author has taken care
of all most all points considering from various angles and cited
here for control of accidents in reality. He has put forth various
means about safety on road as per actual performances during
his long experience on different types of road projects. The topic
Controlling road accident-Road accident-Over view put forth
by Er Nandanandan Das, was critically discussed and approved
by technical experts of works department of Government of
Odisha during 2001. These have been circulated to all engineering
departments as ideal guide as per the recommendation of the
committee. Lot of methods for prevention of accidents have been
codified by IRC for implementation but author has cited here in
totality, considering the reasons of accidents and suitable remedies
in general. These cover even measure existing IRC codes. These
may be further analyzed and detailed for covering better safety on
road accidents.

INTRODUCTION

Role of road net work system in the Country is known

to every body. Development of road system counts
towards the development of the country. Now a lot of
efforts have been taken for improving the road network
system in the country. The speed of the vehicle can be
maintained on road at 100 km/hr. There are sizeable
increase of vehicles on transportation system in the
country after independents.
It is noticed either road in bad condition or in good
condition, accidents occur frequently. In our country
traffic is mixed type. Different types of vehicles
such as cycles, rickshaws, auto rickshaws, motor
bikes, cars, tractors, trucks, buses, long tailors, even
*

pedestrians etc are allowed to pass on the road.

That means road network system of India should be
adopted, considering all these factors of mixed traffics.
Generally road accidents are occurred due to various
reasons. When any accident occurs, people think, it
is by chance or desire of God but there is particular
cause for each and every accident. If cause of each
accident is known then the remedies for these can be
adopted to avoid accidents.
It is observed although the speed of vehicle is more
than 140 km/hr in most of the developed countries, the
accidents are less. Whereas, although speed of vehicles
is less in India, the number of accidents are more. Due
to accident, there is a lot of damage of personal and
national property, which also leads to human loss. The
places where repeated accidents occur, are known as
BLACK SPOT areas. If the types of accidents are
known and remedial measures are taken suitably as
antidote to treatment then, the lot of accidents can be
avoided.
Primary Causes of Accidents on Road

Due to bad driving.

Due to drowsiness of driver.

Due to mechanical trouble of vehicle.

Due to carelessness by the traffic.

Due to sudden entry of cattle, goats and

other animals.

Due to lack of civic sense of the traffic.

Due to alcoholic & drug affect by drivers

and pedestrians.

Due to defectiveness of
deficiencies in road systems.

road

or

Former E-in-C- cum Secretary, Works, Govt. of Odisha

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
2

2.1

REASONS
OF
ACCIDENTS
REMEDIES IN DETAIL

AND

Due to Bad Driving

Many accidents are occurred due to driving of

vehicles by the inexperienced drivers. Therefore, it is
very much necessary to issue driving licenses, after
proper driving tests. In no case driving licenses should
be issued without proper driving test. In this respect
both transport authorities and the drivers should
maintain awareness because their slight slackness in
this respect, will create a loss of life & property. In
some countries in Europe the driving is one regular
study like technical course.
2.2

Due to Drowsiness of Driver

Many a time due to long driving, mostly after taking

food, the driver feels fatigue, relaxed and drowsiness,
which becomes the cause of accidents. When the driver
feels drowsiness, he should take tea, brittle and should
take rest for some time, before driving further.
On consultation with the police authorities, it has
been noticed that in some particular time & area, the
repeated accidents are occurred i.e. black spot areas,
although there is no visibility of technical defects on
road system. These are due to driving after taking food,
feeling drowsiness after particular time. Locating
such type of spots, the resting places, which should
be provided on the side of road for taking rest by the
drivers.
2.3

Due to Mechanical Trouble of Vehicle

Generally the vehicles are not checked up or repaired

periodically in our country for which usually accidents
are occurred due to mechanical problems. Therefore,
acts should be formed for periodical check up for all
vehicles. Periodical maintenance certificate should
be obtained & produced whenever required by the
R.T.O & police authority. It should be ensured that
there should not be any slackness or irregularity while
issuing such certificates.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

2.4

Due to Careless Driving by the Driver

Many time the drivers drive the vehicles carelessly and

become over confident, for which a lot of accidents
are occurred. In our country, Everybody wants to go
first. Therefore, when one finds a little gap between
two vehicles, a driver tries to push in between, for
which most of the accidents are occurred. These types
of accidents can be avoided only by strict awareness
of the drivers. During driving of vehicles, the drivers
should not use mobile phones, If It is very much
required to use phone, it is advisable to stop the vehicle
on side for using the mobile phone. In no case the
driver should be unmindful, superfluous and careless
during driving. In developed countries, generally the
one driver gives indication to the other driver to go
first. Therefore, although the vehicles in countries like
France, German, America and many other countries
move very fast, the accidents are very less in compare
to our country.
2.5

Due to Sudden Entry of Cattle, Goats and

Other Animals

At times when vehicles are moving fast, lot of

accidents are occurred due to sudden entry of goats,
dogs, cows, cats, bulls with fighting, child, cyclists,
even other vehicles & running of the person without
locating the traffic from the both sides. In developed
countries generally grills, safety barriers, and guard
rails etc are provided to check against such type of
accidents. In those countries bulls, cows, goats and
dogs etc do not move on the road like our country.
These animals are dealt separately. Sudden entry to
the road is never advisable. For this awareness among
the people is very much required.
2.6

Due to Lack of Civic Sense of the Traffic

Generally many accidents occur due to lack of civic

sense. So civic of road traffic should be introduced
from the primary education of the child, to increase
awareness for use of road. The principles of movement
of traffic in India are to keep to the left side of the road.
Any fast moving vehicle while overtaking, should
move on the right of the front vehicle, provided the
7

TECHNICAL PAPERS
front vehicle has given indication to pass. When two
vehicles are coming from different directions, the 3rd
vehicle should not try to enter in between the gap.
Many a time if a truck is moving from one side and
bus is coming from other side, scooter or cyclist tries
to pass in between the gap for which accident happens
on the road. This is only because of the impatience
of the driver to go first. Many cycle riders carelessly
during riding, face accidents. To go fast some motor
cycle riders move on the road zigzag way from one
side to other side of the road locating gap in between
the vehicles, create situation of accident. Many a
times some friends move together on the road and they
obstruct the road traffic for which many accidents also
occur. They should move on the footpath at the left
side edge as per the traffic rule. Therefore, the drivers
should follow the traffic rule & indications which are
given on the road side sign board. The sign boards on
the roadside indicate the drivers to move as per the
situation of road.
The drivers of different vehicles, moving on the
road in same direction, should follow some safe
distances in between their vehicles and the vehicles
in front, in order to avoid collision, if front vehicle
applies brake in unavoidable circumstance. This gap
is known as braking distance. This braking distance
depends on different types of vehicles with different
speeds moving of the road. This type of breaking
distance can be indicated on the side of road by the
traffic authorities to grow awareness on the people.
These types of activities will reduce the possibility of
accident.
In Paris and border of Italy there was an accident
of burning of a petrol bunker on 24th March 1999
inside a tunnel (11.6km) in Mont Blanc. Due to this
there were 39 death and 10 cars with 23 lorries were
damaged. Subsequently it was codified to maintain
the safe distance of 100m in between the front and
rear vehicle in side the tunnel.
When both the gates are closed in any railway level
crossing, it is usual practice to cover both side lanes
on both sides of gates by the traffic. These are due to
lack of common sense of drivers. For this unnecessary
8

jam is created after opening of the gates. In developed

countries, the drivers follow the traffic rule strictly.
In India suppose by chance any vehicle becomes out
of order and stuck on the road, usually both lanes
are covered with both way traffic, for which jam is
created. These are all due to lack of common sense
and awareness. In this case the traffic on left side lane
should be used and other side should be left vacant for
in coming of other side vehicles to avoid jam.
2.7 Effect of Alcoholic and Drugs on Drivers and
Also Pedestrians
On principle, none should drive the vehicle after taking
alcohol or drug. One must realize any accident occurs
due to ones such activities, it is harmful to individual
as well as to all. Similarly a drunkard while moving on
the road may loose his sense and meet accident, so the
pedestrians must not move on the road as drunkard or
using drug. Police must be very much active to check
on the matter and take immediate action over it. Driver
should always remember that the life of passengers
and the vehicles depends on his type of driving.
2.8

Due to Deficiency or Defectiveness of

Construction of Road System

Major accident are occurred due to defect of road or

deficiency of road construction system. Generally
about the 60% accidents are occurred due to deficiency
in road system. These type accidents happen due
to technical ignorance or by the negligence of the
concerned engineers during execution of road work. If
any accident occurs, general opinion of the common
people are that these happen by chance or it is desire
of God.
The road network system is different, location wise.
The road system of Odisha is not same as Darjeeling,
Shimla, even Rajasthan. Such difference on road
system depends on longitude, latitude, forest area,
hilly area, desert, coastal area, water logging area,
cyclone and flood affected area etc. Actually the road
policy of Indian Roads Congress is adopted all though
the country. The constructional method of road system
should be adopted as per the situation and environment
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
all over the country. Some precautionary measures on
road accidents have been adopted in real practice in
the State of Odisha. The same have been cited here in
detail item wise.
PARTICULAR METHODS FOR AVOIDING
ACCDIENT ON ROAD
2.8.1 Where in any town or market area, road and
the road side land are mostly in same level for which
random entry of cross traffic like cyclist, motor cyclist,
running of different persons on road cross wise create
accident on the road. It is suitable to provide grill or
Pedestrians Guard Rail (PGR) to restrict the random
entry of the traffic. Another method for separating
the road from the road side land, provision of V-type
drains are recommended. These will restrict the sudden
entry of cross traffic to the road. This will minimize
the accident on road. A typical section vide Fig.1 -As
road safety measure:-

Fig. 1

The drain should continue from the formation edge

of the road. Guard posts should be fixed to identify
the edge of road. Due to such type of drain, accident
also minimize in town, market and village areas. It
restricts the random entry of traffic from the adjacent
land or locality to road directly. At restricted places
passage should be provided for entry of local traffic.
The Hume pipe culverts may be provided in suitable
locations with sufficient width so that the traffic
coming from the outer to inner side of road can see the
traffic from the both ways on the main road. This was
adopted in places like Kansbahal, Jalan petrol pump,
Rajgangpur, Jharsuguda, Vedabyas etc and found
success in Sambalpur - Rourkela road.
There are three types of advantages for adopting such
V- type of drain.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

2.8.1.1 This type of drain acts as prevention of

accidents
2.8.1.2 During rainy days due to rise of water table
inside the ground, generally there is ingress of water
from neighboring land to inside of the road and there
will be vertical action of water pressure under bottom
of road. Provision of Such type of drain acts as cutoff
between road and side land. This has been adopted
practically in Sambalpur Rourkela road (SH-10) and
found successful.
2.8.1.3 This drain also carry the storm water from the
road and also from road side land. Therefore, road is
better maintained.
2.8.2 Mostly in curve and junction of road, the clear
sight distance is to be maintained. Therefore, any
structure or plantation of tree should not be there
inside of the curve because these obstruct the sight
distance, that means there will not be clear vision
either during running and over turning. The building
and plants may be in outer side of the curve.
2.8.3 Humps of the road create inconvenient for the
flow of traffic. At times the humps are of abnormal size
for which many accidents occur. Humps are provided
for checking the speed of vehicle. These are mostly
near any road crossing and school area. Generally in
many locations, the humps are provided on road due
to repeated accidents, already occurred. If one tries
to find causes of accident, it would be noticed that
there must be one cross road connecting the main
road. The reasons of accident may due various causes,
such as Cross road meet the main road in steep grade,
there must be lot of structures, betel shops and trees at
turning places, which obstruct the sight distance. The
traffic coming from the cross road, meet accident on
the main road for which generally humps are provided
on the main road to avoid such accident. A typical
road junction as per Fig. 2 is suggested as remedial
measure. There should be curve entry from connecting
road to main road. There should not be any obstacles
on the curve side to have proper sight distance. Instead
of providing humps on main road, rumblers should be
provided at a distance of 10m as per the standard and

TECHNICAL PAPERS
that should be on the cross road. The rumblers should
be extended from edge to edge on connecting road.
No cross traffic should enter the main road with high
speed. Rather these traffic should be cautious while
entering to main road.

rather suitable grade can be adopted after maintaining

the leveled approaches for a length of minimum 15m.
Generally it is noticed that the joint of culvert and
starting of approach of road is settled, for which
lots of accidents and inconvenience on movement of
traffic are occurred. This is due to under compaction
of approach near abutment. The earth work from the
first layer and in subsequent layers should be bent
vertically towards abutment so that the compaction by
roller can be made properly on the edge of abutment.
The typical section as per Fig.3, indicates the method
of compaction layer wise.

Fig. 2

Therefore the level of connecting road should be

maintained as per the level of edge of main road,
providing proper camber on the leveled part of such
road for a length of 15 meters and after which road
should negotiate with exiting road in grade. To provide
such type of junction on the road, all the engineering
departments of government of Odisha have been
intimated as an ideal guide to restrict the accident.
Author had given lot of proposals on improvement on
road to CGM, NHAI during 2005, it is very much well
coming that the very typical method have already been
adopted in small road crossing in the road system.
2.8.4 Changing the direction of road in closer interval
should be avoided to minimize the accident.
2.8.5 Due to carelessness in providing transition
between the curve and straight edge of the road near
Sundargad in SH-10, there were a lot of accidents.
Therefore, transition should be as per the proper
design and proper super elevation should be provided
in transition portion. Lacking of proper slope in transit
portion has caused lot of accident as experienced.
2.8.6 Direct grade should not be ended on the junction
of the road and also approaches of bridges and culverts,
10

Fig. 3

2.8.7 During improvement of Rourkela and

sambalpur road, lots of road furniture such as sign
board, delineators, e.t.c were put on the side of road.
These items were very precious, as per international
standard. It was observed that after some days the road
furniture were stolen and broken by the miscreants.
These furniture were visible at night. But after stolen
of materials, the cheap type of furniture were used for
which the position of furniture were not visible during
night. Therefore number of accidents increased. These
should be insured against theft and damage.
2.8.8 Super elevation should be provided as per the
design of curve. The slope of Super elevation should be
from inner to outer edge of the curve. Super elevation
on curve part of road, was inner edge of curve to
outer edge of carriage way and outer shoulder was in
camber in Sambalpur- Rourkela road. Therefore, there
were lot of accidents, while crossing of third vehicle
on the upper shoulder by chance. This was rectified on
the remedial measure in road accident in the state of
Odisha. Of course providing slope from inner to outer
edge in curve part of road has been codified in IRC

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
standard. Such type of slope should be maintained
in transition part also. Providing the slope in super
elevation depends on type of curve with its radius
of curvature. Due to non provision of proper super
elevation in any curve there is possibility of accident.
Guard posts should be provided in curve and transition
part of the road which will indicate the existence of
curve.
2.8.9 It is desirable to have road side plantation,
therefore it is always advisable to retain one side trees
of the road at the time of widening the road.
2.8.10 If the number of curves are more in closer
interval, the possibility of road accidents increase.
More number of curves increase the length of road.
For which the time period covering the more length of
road increases and also the maintenance expenditure
becomes more. It is seen generally roads are improved
on existing road which are having number of curves to
avoid land acquisition. On the other hand, comparing
the cost, improvement of existing road with more
number of curves to new straight road with land
acquisitions may be more. Therefore, only unavoidable
curves should be allowed during improvement of
road.
2.8.11 It was experienced that the delineators used
in Sambalpur- Rourkela-SH-10 were no doubt very
much welcoming but these were stolen and damaged
due to activities of miscreants later on. The fruitful
purpose of proving delineator was unsuccessful and
more number of accidents occurred. Subsequently
these were replaced by guard posts with reflecting
paint. Therefore, guard posts may be used in place of
delineators as per the situation.

2.8.14 Odisha is one flood and cyclone affected area.

During 1999 due to super cyclone and flood, most of
the roads were submerged in water and roads were
damaged. Therefore, height of road should always be
higher than the H.F.L. The bridges and culverts should
have sufficient vantage to accumulate flood discharge.
This will minimize flood on road. It is experienced
during cyclone of 1999 that the falling of trees on the
road created problem for transportation of essential
communities. Even falling of big plants damage the
electric and phone lines. Therefore, plantation of
small verities of trees of maximum height 5m should
be planted at 3m away from edge of road formation,
so that the falling of trees by cyclone will not obstruct
the traffic nor create any hindrance for transportation
of essential commodities. The electric and phone lines
should be always away plantation line.
2.8.15 It is not desirable to plant the fruit bearing trees
near side of the road. Because the people generally
will be interested to use different means to get fruits
for which there will be disturbance of the movement
of traffic. Small verities of trees like Akashiya,
Krusnachuda, Baula, Karanja, small verities of Neem
and such other similar type of plants of height within
5m should be planted at a distance of 3m from road.
Same variety of plants should not be planted for a
longer stretch. Because this may create monotony to
driver while moving on the road for a longer stretch.
This monotony at time creates accident. Therefore, it
is advisable to plant trees of same variety for a stretch
of three kilometers maximum, by which the monotony
on driving will be minimized.

2.8.12 When the road is passing through congested

area, grill on both side of road may be provided to
restrict random entry of cross traffic. If more width
of land is available, the main road can be elevated
above 1m height and service road on both sides can
be provided to allow local traffic as grade separator.
This will reduce jam and will be economical.

2.8.16 Due to lack of proper maintenance of road, in

many places, the shoulders on both sides of carriage
way, are washed out which create pot holes and
undulation on shoulder and creates level difference
on road. This becomes cause of accident. Therefore,
care should be taken to level the shoulders with proper
camber by using earth or morrum and compacting by
roller properly.

2.8.13 Sudden rise and fall of road vertically creates

accident. Step should be taken to avoid it.

2.8.17 The width of road should be maintained same

through out to avoid accident.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

11

TECHNICAL PAPERS
2.8.18 It is seen that there are trees, electric line,
phone line etc. on the road within road formation edge
for which lots of accidents are occurred. Therefore,
such type of any structure should not on road.
2.8.19 In two lane road, having heavy movement of
traffic and if there is availability of sufficient width
of road, then the road should be made four lane
with provision of median as per the design standard.
Since there will be flow of traffic from both of sides
separately, accident can be avoided.
2.8.20 Road side light arrangement should be made
for proper vision at night. Now a days the lighting
arrangement by solar energy system can be used for
illumination at night.
2.8.21 The existing narrow bridges and culverts
should be widened and extra lanes may be provided
to accommodate the present traffic. While proceeding
from wide road to narrow bridges and culverts guard
posts at intervals should be fixed to indicate the narrow
approach toward the bridge. Reflecting paints should
be marked on the guard post, So that this will be
visible at night. Road also be painted with reflecting
marking. These indicate the border of carriage ways.

the road surface is found. It seems as if road is in very

good condition. Due to smoothness of road there is
less friction effect on vehicle on the road. So at the
time of requirement of brake the vehicle slips and at
time meets with accident. When there is slight rain, the
moisture contain on the road acts as viscous, therefore
the vehicle looses friction effect and tends to meet
accident. Author had experienced of one such type of
accident in NH-6 near Chhatabar, Odisha in similar
principle. Precautionary measures should be taken to
avoid use of excess of bitumen during construction of
road.
2.8.26 Accidents in hilly areas is usual matter, since
most of the hilly roads are narrow and not as per the
design standard. Therefore, the hilly roads should
be properly design to avoid such accident. The well
trained drivers should be allowed to move in such
hilly area.
2.8.27 Besides engineering measures, there is a need
for traffic regulation and proper education of the road
users. The driving silence system should be more
rigorous. Facility should be provided for imparted
proper training to the drivers. Registration to only
road worthy vehicles should only be renewed.

2.8.22 Generally it observed due to parking of different

vehicles, such as trucks, buses, cars, tractors and motor
cycle on the road, traffic congestion is created, which
is also cause of accident. Therefore, suitable parking
places should be provided at interval to avoid such
problems.

2.8.28 Traffic regulation should be strictly introduced

in educating the lower age group to develop civics
sense in general.

2.8.23 In our country there are mixed traffic such as

cyclist, rickshaw, motor bike, tempo, tractor, truck,
bus etc. Therefore, road marking with different
indications should be made to segregate the different
traffics. Pedestrians should walk on foot path only.

An analysis of accident data indicates that not only

drivers fault but also public carelessness is mainly
responsible for the majority of the accidents and
fatalities. Studies undertaken abroad have revealed
that reduction in accidents to the extent of 20 percent
is possible by taking recourse of proper engineering
measures through planning, design, construction and
maintenance of roads. An accident prone spot i.e.
black spot areas may be identified and separate fund
may be created out of the motor vehicle taxes for
improvement of the accident prone spots.

2.8.24 Lot of accidents are occurred due to advisement

hoarding in different places of road. This diverts the
attention of drivers. Therefore, the hoarding may only
be provided where these will not divert the attention
of drivers.
2.8.25 It is observed in many places the black toping
part of road is found very smooth. It is due to excessive
contents of bitumen in bituminous layer. During hot
season due to melting of bitumen huge bleeding on

12

CONCLUSIONs

Proper and detailed data on accidents are not available

in our country. It is being collected by police from
their view point. The transport department collects
accident statistics involving their transport corporation
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
vehicles. Therefore, a separate Road safety cell,
consisting of Engineer, Police, Transport, Local
representative, Concerned NGOs, should be created.
The name of the cell may be named as NATIONAL
INTEGRATED ROAD SAFETY CELL (NIRSC).
They should be responsibility for collecting and
analyzing data of all accidents and making specific
recommendations for averting accidents. To reduce
frequency of accidents, the data regarding type of
accidents (i.e. motorized or non-motorized), specific
months and days of accidents, maximum types of
vehicles involved, reason of accident, fatality rate,
difference in occurrence of road accidents before and
after creation of Traffic Aid Post if any, etc. may be
collected from accident prone location. Since, the
geometric design of the highway has a direct effect on
accident rate both in terms of number and severity, the

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

design of various road elements like vertical profile,

horizontal alignment, cross sectional features should
take in to account the road safety measures.
Author had experienced in working in Daitary to
Paradeep port (Express way project) in Odisha
from 1965 to 1975 and in charge of Sambalpur to
Rourkela road, ADB project from 1996 to 1999.
The above possible data have been arrived out of
long experience and many are found successful on
execution. All possible efforts have been made to
cover the possibility of accidents. Further detailing
in many points are required to overcome some type
of accidents. Little care during execution can avoid
many accidents. In India the road policy is adopted as
per guide line of IRC. There are still lots of data yet
to be included in IRC standard, which have not been
reported by experienced engineers.

13

DAMAGING EFFECTS OF SUPER SINGLE TYRES : AN

INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE
Abhishek Mittal* & Dr. Sunil Bose**

ABSTRACT
Super single tyres are becoming popular in various countries
abroad because of the several advantages offered by such tyres
over dual wheel tyres. However, on the other hand, they have
become a matter of great concern for highway engineers because
of more damaging effect on the pavements by such super single
tyres. Super single tyres induce higher contact stresses on the
pavements and thus reduce the life of the pavements. There have
been many studies worldwide to assess the damaging effects
caused by use of such tyres on the pavements. Many Accelerated
Pavement Testing (APT) programs are using super single tyres in
their research studies. This paper discusses about effects of super
single tyres compared to dual wheel tyres based on the studies
conducted worldwide.

the subgrade layer. Therefore, it becomes necessary

to evaluate the destructive effect of trucks utilizing
this type of tyre with that induced by the conventional
dual wheel configuration. Many studies have been
conducted across the world in this regard. This paper
captures all this information and discusses the effects
of super single tyre compared with the effects caused
by the conventional dual wheel tyres.

INTRODUCTION

The use of wide base or super single tyres in

lieu of the conventional dual wheel configuration has
become increasing commonplace in USA, Canada,
South Africa and Europe. The reasons provided by
the tyre manufacturers for the increased popularity of
these tyres include lower rolling resistance, reduced
dead weight, reduction in fuel consumption, small total
contact area, improved riding qualities, off-the-road
mobility, and a high-load front axle capacity. Supersingle tyres induce higher contact stresses, which
might be two times the inflation pressure, resulting
in more adverse effects on the pavement structure.
This high contact stress can cause high stresses in
the deep pavement layer, which is likely to damage

Scientist, Flexible Pavement Division

**

Scientist & Head (Retd.), Flexible Pavement Division

14

Fig. 1 Examples of Dual Tyre Assembly and

Wide Base Single Tyre

Requirements for gross vehicle

weights and axle weights

As per the notification of Ministry of Road Transport

and Highways, Government of India, the maximum
gross vehicle weight and maximum safe axle weight for
various vehicle categories and axle load combinations
are given in Table 1.

Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi

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TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Specification of Maximum Gross Vehicle Weight and Maximum Safe Axle Weight[1]
Transport Vehicles Category

Maximum Gross Vehicle

Weight

Maximum Safe Axle Weight

I. Rigid Vehicles
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

Two Axle
Two tyres on front axle
Two tyres on rear axle

12.0

Two Axle
Two tyres on front axle, and
Four tyres on rear axle

16.2

Three Axle
Two tyres on front axle, and
Eight tyres on rear tandem axle

25.0

Four Axle
Four tyres on front axle, and
Eight tyres on rear tandem axle

31.0

6 tonnes on front axle

6 tonnes on rear axle

6 tonnes on front axle

10.2 tonnes on rear axle

6 tonnes on front axle

19 tonnes on rear tandem axle

12 tonnes on two front axle

19 tonnes on rear tandem axle

II. Semi-Articulated Vehicles

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

Two Axle Tractor

Single Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on single axle

26.4

Two Axle Tractor

Tandem Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
8 tyres on tandem axle

35.2

Two Axle Tractor

Three Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
12 tyres on 3 axles

40.2

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

6 tonnes on front axle

10.2 tonnes on rear axle
10.2 tonnes on single trailer axle

6 tonnes on front axle

10.2 tonnes on rear axle
19 tonnes on tandem axle

6 tonnes on front axle

10.2 tonnes on rear axle
24 tonnes on 3 axles

15

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Transport Vehicles Category
(iv)

(v)

Maximum Gross Vehicle

Weight

Three Axle Tractor

Single Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
8 tyres on single axle

35.2

Three Axle Tractor

Tandem Axle Trailer
Tractor :
2 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on tandem axle
Trailer :
8 tyres on tandem axle

44.0

Maximum Safe Axle Weight

6 tonnes on front axle

19 tonnes on rear axle
10.2 tonnes on single axle

6 tonnes on front axle

19 tonnes on rear tandem axle
19 tonnes on tandem axle

III. Truck-Trailer Combinations

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

16

Two Axle Truck

Two Axle Trailer
Truck :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle

36.6

6 tonnes on front axle

10.2 tonnes on rear axle
10.2 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle

Three Axle Truck

Two Axle Trailer
Truck :
2 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on rear tandem axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle

45.4
(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)

Three Axle Truck

Three Axle Trailer
Truck :
2 tyres on front axle
4 tyres on rear axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on rear axle
8 tyres on rear tandem axle

45.4
(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)

6 tonnes on front axle

19 tonnes on rear tandem axle
10.2 tonnes on front axle
10.2 tonnes on rear axle

6 tonnes on front axle

10.2 tonnes on rear axle
10.2 tonnes on front axle
19.0 tonnes on rear tandem axle

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS

(iv)

Transport Vehicles Category

Maximum Gross Vehicle

Weight

Three Axle Truck

Three Axle Trailer
Truck :
2 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on rear tandem axle
Trailer :
4 tyres on front axle
8 tyres on rear tandem axle

54.2
(restricted to 44.0 tonnes)

Tyre Size Designation

Four types of tyre size designation methods have been

provided in IS:15636-2005[2]. The naming scheme
is standardized and uniform among manufacturers.
As a result, the classification offers much useful
information.

6 tonnes on front axle

19 tonnes on rear tandem axle
10.2 tonnes on front axle
19.0 tonnes on rear tandem axle

(c)

Nominal rim diameter code : A number to

represent the diameter of the rim on which a
tyre is designed to be mounted.

(d)

Load index : One or two numbers (higher

number is for single application and lower
number for dual) which indicate the load the
tyre can carry in single and dual operation at
the speed corresponding to the associated speed
category and when operated in conformity with
the requirements governing utilization specified
by the manufacturer.

(e)

Speed symbol : Speeds, indicated by a symbol,

at which the tyre can carry the load indicated by
the associated load-capacity index or maximum
rated load.

A tyre may be designated as : 208/80 R 15 LT/C

108/104 J, Where,
208

nominal section width code

80

nominal aspect ratio

Radial (D if Diagonal)

15

nominal rim diameter code

LT/C =

Vehicle Category (Light Truck/

Commercial)

108/104 =

Load Index (Single/Dual)

Speed Symbol

An explanation of the above terms is given below[2] :

(a)

Nominal section width code : A number

representing linear distance between the outsides
of the sidewalls of an inflated pneumatic tyre,
excluding elevations due to labelling (marking),
decoration or protective bands and ribs.

(b)

Nominal aspect ratio : It is hundred times

the number obtained by dividing the number
expressing the section height by the number
expressing the nominal section width, both
dimensions expressed in the same units.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Maximum Safe Axle Weight

The nomenclature of tyre has been presented in

Fig.2. It should be noted that the tread width of a
tyre is less than the section width. This fact is
important, as the impact of the tyre to the pavement is
generally accepted to be determined by the footprint
width and not by the nominal section width. For radial
tyres, the footprint width of a tyre generally equals
the tread width (except for strongly over-inflated or
under-loaded conditions when the footprint width
may be less). Similarly, the outer diameter of the tyre
is not only determined by its rim diameter, but also
by its sidewall height, indicated by its aspect ratio
and width. This too is important, since the outer tyre
diameter is one of the factors influencing the footprint
length, together with the wheel load and inflation
pressure[3].
17

TECHNICAL PAPERS
area (all having equal area size and vertical contact
stress). Therefore, the distance between the tyres of a
dual assembly (and the absence of such distance for a
wide base single) will also influence the stresses in the
pavement, as this distance widens the area over which
the load is distributed.

Fig. 2 Nomenclature of Tyre[2]

Different tyre sizes and dimensions can be found on

different axles of trucks and tractors on the one hand
and trailers and semitrailers on the other hand. The
various tyre sizes have been provided in[2] for Trucks,
Buses and Trailers. Only single and dual configurations
are currently being used in India. Wide base or
Super single tyres have not yet reached the Indian
market. But looking at the world-wise use of such
wide base tyres and the benefits for the trucks from
such tyres, it is expected that wide base tyres would
soon enter the Indian market.
4

Contact area of tyres

Contact area is an important consideration from the

point of view of pavement design. It is necessary to
know the contact area between tyre and pavement,
so that the axle load can be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the contact area. Inputs to mechanistic
models of design require the shape of the loaded area
to be defined, and this is generally assumed to be
circular. More advanced models, capable of accepting
different areas, are now available, but are not yet
commonly used in pavement design methods.
Not only the size of the contact area is important, but
also its shape. There will be differences in stresses in
the pavement between e.g. a wide and short contact
area, a square area, a circular area, or a narrow and long
18

The size of the contact area depends on the contact

pressure (Huang, 1993). In the multi-layered elastic
theory, the tyre contact area is assumed to be circular.
However, the actual contact area of a truck tyre can
be assumed to be composed of a rectangle and two
semi-circles (Fig.3). The contact area of a super-single
tyre is larger in the transverse direction than in the
longitudinal direction, contrary to what is typically
observed for a conventional dual tyre (Kim, 2008).
Fig. 4 shows the imprints of the contact areas of a
Super Single Tyre (SST) and Conventional Dual Tyre
(CDT) (Viljoen, 1982).

Fig. 3 Contact Area for Dual Tyres (a) Actual Area and (b)
Equivalent Area (Huang, 1993)

Fig. 4 Comparison of Measured Contact Imprints

(Viljoen, 1982)
(SST Super Single Tyre, CDT Conventional Dual Tyres)

Many researchers, in the past, have either assumed

that the contact area is circular or used the equivalent
contact area shown in Fig.3(b) when analyzing
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TECHNICAL PAPERS
pavement loading. The contact area is calculated using
the following equation:

Ac =

= 0.5227L2

where Ac is the equivalent contact area, which can

be obtained by dividing the load on tyre by the tyre
pressure. For 425/65R22.5 super single tyre, the
contact area is shown by the dotted lines shown in
Fig.3(b), in which the ratio of width to length is
1:0.85 (Kim, 2008).
5

Contact stress of tyres

When a tyre load is applied to the pavement surface,

three contact stress components are generated:
vertical, transverse (or lateral), and longitudinal.
Vertical contact stress is a direct function of the tyres
loading and inflation pressure, whereas transverse
and longitudinal shear stresses are associated with
bending of the tyre as it is deformed from its normally
toroidal shape at the tyreroad interface (Kim, 2008).
Multilayered elastic theory assumes a uniform contact
stress, equal to the inflation pressure. However,
this is not correct. DeBeer et. al. (1997) indicted
that for thin asphaltic road (<50 mm) used in South
Africa, the traditional use of circular uniform stress
distribution equal to tyre inflation pressure results in
overdesigning the pavement.
An extensive study on tyre contact stresses was done
by DeBeer et al. (1997). They measured the stresses
simultaneously with the Vehicle-Road Surface
Pressure Transducer Array (VRSPTA). The VRSPTA
(SIM MKII) was used in the study to investigate the
three-dimensional tyre/pavement contact stresses of
seven different types of tyres, ranging from bias/cross
ply, to radials, including three types of wide-base tyres.
These tyres were loaded over wide ranges of load and
inflation pressure. It was clearly demonstrated that
most of the time the maximum vertical contact stresses
are indeed higher than the tyre inflation pressure.
Even under the rated load and inflation pressure these
contact stresses can be up to twice the tyre inflation
pressure[7].
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

The following general equation was proposed to the

estimate three components of the contact stresses :
Contact stress = K1 + K2 (inflation pressure)
+ K3 (load)
where K1, K2, and K3 are regression coefficients that
are always positive numbers.
According to Myers et al. (1999), in their comparison
of radial tyres with wide base tyres, the vertical and
transverse contact stresses are higher for wide base
tyres because wide base tyres have a higher load per
tyre ratio than any other type of tyres. The distribution
of the vertical contact stresses was also not uniform.
The maximum value was found to occur at the centre
of the contact area, with a value approximately equal
to 2.3 times the inflation pressure[8].
6

Tyre Inflation Pressure

Variations in tyre inflation pressure affect pavement

damage by changing the size of the contact patch and
the tyre vertical stiffness. Inflation pressure has only
a moderate impact on rigid pavement fatigue because
it is not very sensitive to the decrease in contact
area at high inflation pressures. On the other hand,
flexible pavement fatigue is strongly affected by these
changes. In the single tyre case, damage may increase
by more than 100 % with a 70 kPa (10 psi) increase
in pressure. Rutting also moderately increase with
inflation pressure. Changes in tyre vertical stiffness
with inflation pressures that will reduce contact
pressures can reduce road damage. This translates
into use of tyres with the widest available tread and
largest diameters. The competitive pressure for truck
operators to adopt small, low-aspect tyres in their
fleets carries with it the potential for even more road
damage from trucks in future[9].
It can be appreciated that as tyre inflation pressure
increases the size of the contact area decreases, for
modern radial tyres this is primarily as a result of a
reduction in contact length rather than width. If the
19

TECHNICAL PAPERS
load carried by the tyre remains constant the effect
of increasing inflation pressure is to produce higher
contact stresses due to the reduction in contact area.
As previously mentioned, the effect of these higher
contact stresses is more significant at the surface of
the pavement since they diminish with depth[10]. High
tyre pressures necessitate high-quality materials in
the upper layers of the pavement, but the required
total depth of pavement is not affected appreciably
by tyre pressures. On the other hand, for a constant
tyre pressure, an increase in total load increases the
vertical stress for all depths[11].

425/65R22.5, inflated to 0.896 MPa (130 psi) (cold).

Deflections at various depths within the pavement
structure caused by each loading condition under the
two tyre types were recorded at truck speeds ranging
from approximately 6.4 to 88.5 kmph (4 to 55 mph).
The significant findings of the study are described
below :

Higher deflections were measured under

the wide base single tyres.

The maximum deflection under the wide

base single tyre generally occurs under
the tyre centreline, whereas the maximum
deflection under dual tyres occur under
either of the tyres.

Under similar test conditions, wide base

single tyres are 2.8 times more damaging
than dual tyres on Section 1 (thin pavement
section) and 2.5 times more damaging on
the Section 2 (thick pavement section)
for a speed of 55 mph.

Deflection
Studies
under
conventional dual and super
single tyres

The tensile strains in the asphalt layer for

Section 1 under wide base single tyres
are about 1.5 times higher than those for
dual tyres. This indicates that the wide
base single tyres produce more surface
cracking than the standard dual tyres.

A study[13] has been conducted to monitor transient

relative deflection and permanent deformation in
pavement layers under conventional dual tyres and
wide base tyres using Multi Depth Deflectometers
(MDD). The deflection measurements were made on
two in-service asphaltic concrete pavement sections.
Section 1 has a HMA thickness of 38.1 mm (1.5 inch)
and a crushed limestone base course thickness of
254 mm (10 inch) overlaying a sandy clay subgrade,
whereas Section 2 has a HMA thickness of 177.8 mm
(7 inch), a crushed limestone base course thickness of
355.6 mm (14 inch) and a 152.4 (6 inch) lime stabilized
subbase overlaying a sandy clay subgrade. The dual
tyres used in the study were 11R22.5, inflated to 0.827
MPa (120 psi) (cold) and the wide base singles were

Another study[14] conducted to compare the destructive

effect of wide base tyres and the standard dual wheel
configuration selected transient pavement deflection
and surface tensile strain as the two criteria for
evaluating destructive effect. Pavement deflection
measurements were obtained with Benkelman Beam
and at three locations, with Linear Variable Differential
Transducer (LVDT) gages. It was concluded that
using maximum pavement deflection as a criterion,
the destructive effect of a wide base tyre with singleaxle loading of 53.4 kN (12,000 lbs) equals or exceeds
that of a dual-wheel configuration at an axle loading
of 80 kN (18,000 lbs). This equivalency, however,
is subjected to a certain degree of variation with
pavement temperature.

De Beer et al. (1997) reported that tyre inflation

pressure predominantly controls the vertical contact
stresses on the pavement at the tyre centre, whereas the
tyre load controls those at the tyre edges. Their analysis
indicated that during instantaneous overloading/
underinflated conditions, the maximum Strain Energy
of Distortion (SED) in the asphalt surfacing occurs
close to tyre edges. Under instantaneous uniform
vertical stress conditions, the SED is within the asphalt
surfacing at the tyre centre[12].
7

20

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TECHNICAL PAPERS
8 Studies on damaging effects of
wide base tyres
In 1989, Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
initiated a research program to assess the impact of
wide base single tyres on flexible pavement response
and performance. The study was conducted at FHWA
Accelerated Pavement Testing Facility. The tyres
used in the study were dual 11R22.5 and a single
425/65R22.5. The results of the research[15] show that
425/65R22.5 wide base single tyre was significantly
more damaging to conventional flexible pavements
than traditional 11R22.5 dual tyres. For the same load
and tyre pressure, the wide base single tyre produced
higher vertical compressive strains in all layers of the
pavement, and higher tensile strains at the bottom of
the asphalt concrete layer. These increased strains
translate into greater rutting (upto 2.4 times more)
and greater fatigue damage (upto 4.3 times more)
for pavements trafficked with the wide base single
tyre. For the pavements included in the experiment,
the wide base single tyre produced ruts which were
approximately twice as deep as those from the dual
tyres, and the fatigue life of pavements trafficked
with the single tyre was approximately 25% of that
obtained under the dual tyre loading.
Another study[16] was conducted by California
Department of Transportation for the analytical
evaluation and comparison of the effects of widebase tyres and conventional dual tyres under realistic
loading conditions using a computer program called
CIRCLY that uses multilayered elastic theory. The
loading cases considered consisted of (a) non-uniform
vertical stresses only and (b) non-uniform vertical
stresses accompanied by non-uniform inward shear
stresses. These inward shear stresses develop from
inward lateral tread movement caused by the sidewall deflection within the contact area. Both loading
cases were assumed to be applied over circular contact
stresses. Three axle configurations were studied with
both wide base tyres and dual tyres. The maximum
legal axle loadings analyzed were : 89 kN for single
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

axle, 151 kN for tandem axle having 1.22m spacing

between axles and 151 kN for the tridem axle having
1.22m spacing between the axles. The performance
criteria chosen was tensile strains (for fatigue life
determination) and strain energies of distortion (failure
criteria) within the surface layer. The study indicates
that wide base tyres produce 15 to 40 % higher critical
strain values than dual tyres, and 30 to 115 % higher
critical strain energy of distortion values depending
on the axle configuration. It also indicates that when
inward shear forces are considered in the analysis
these percentages shoot up sharply. This indicates that
ignoring the shear stress effects leads to overestimating
the life of the surface layers under actual conditions
of contact stresses. The study also concludes that a
definitive tyre load limit does not exist that will enable
one to reliably predict the pavement effects from
wide-base tyres compared with dual tyres under any
axle configuration. However, it also suggests that if a
tyre load limit is required for wide-base tyres it should
be substantially less than values that are typical for
dual tyres. Limits between 60 and 80 N/mm (350 and
450 pounds/inch) are suggested.
Another Study[17] conducted at the LINTRACK
accelerated load testing facility indicates that the
rutting was more for standard wide single tyre
385/65R22.5 when compared with the standard dual
tyre 315/80R22.5. Also the rutting behaviour becomes
unstable after 20,000 load repetitions for wide single
tyre 385/65R22.5, where as for the standard dual
tyre 315/80R22.5, the rutting behaviour was stable
even after 20,000 load repetitions. Similar results
have been reported in[18] with the difference that the
rutting behaviour under the standard wide single tyre
385/65R22.5 have been reported as stable.
Another study[19] conducted at the Australian
Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF) on stabilized
sandstone material reported that rutting under 50 kN
wide single tyre was approximately 2.2 times that
under the 80 kN dual-wheel load.
Hugo[20] reported in his paper that wide-based single
tyres resulted in 1.0 to 2.4 times more rutting than dual
21

TECHNICAL PAPERS
tyres with majority of rutting in the aggregate base.
Fatigue cracking with wide base tyres is approximately
4.0 times more than dual tyres.

by a factor upto 1.6 and within wide base tyres wider

tyres are less aggressive.

Kim (2008) reported that under elastic-plastic

conditions, super-single tyres induce larger permanent
strains in the pavement layers than conventional
tyres. Rutting damage factors for super-single tyres
compared with dual tyres range from 3.5 to 3.6 and
fatigue damage factor range from 4.9 to 7.6.

9 Load Equivalency Factors for

Various Widths of Single Tyres

Another study[21] was conducted to study the rutting

resistance of different types of binder based on various
laboratory tests and experiments on the circular track
of Laboratorie Central des Ponts et Chaussees (LCPC),
France. The bitumen types used for the wearing course
in the study were a straight-run, conventional 50/70
grade bitumen, an SBS-polymer-modified bitumen,
the Shell Multigrade bitumen, and a hard asphalt
traditionally used for high-modulus asphalt concrete
(EME). The experiment on LCPCs circular track was
carried out on a pavement consisting of four sectors
constructed with the four different bitumen types.
Both dual and wide single wheels were used in the
study. It was concluded that axles with wide single
wheels are more aggressive than dual wheels. It was
also concluded that the rutting also depends on the
type of asphalt mix, and the more sensitive the asphalt
mix is to rutting, the more pronounced the effect
seems to be.
Another study[22] conducted at the New Zealands
CAPTIF also indicates 92% more rutting by wide base
single tyres compared to the conventional duals.
Huhtala et. al.[23] conducted a comparative study
of behaviour of wide base tyres and dual tyres on
bituminous pavements. The uneven distribution of
load on both the dual tyres was also considered in
the study. The uneven load was simulated by tyre
pressures. It was concluded that wide base tyres are
more aggressive than dual tyres by a factor of 2.3
4.0 in ideal conditions for dual tyres, whereas wide
base tyres are more aggressive by a factor of 1.2 1.9
if they are compared to the most common dual tyres.
Within wide base tyres there were differences found
22

A study was conducted[24] to develop equivalent wheel

load factors for dual tyres on single axles and 25.4 cm
(10 inch), 30.5 cm (12 inch), 35.6 cm (14 inch), 40.6
cm (16 inch) and 45.7 cm (18 inch) wide single tyres
on single axles for both rigid and flexible pavements.
The following relationship was used to develop the
equivalent wheel-load factors :

Fi = N18 / Ni

Where,

Fi = equivalent wheel load factor, 80 kN

(18-kip) dual tyre, single axles

N18 = repetitions to a serviceability index of

2.5 for an 80 kN (18-kip) dual tyre, single
axle load; and

Ni = repetitions to a serviceability index of 2.5

for the axle load being evaluated

The pavement sections analyzed were 76.2 mm, 152.4

mm and 241.3 mm (3, 6 and 9.5 inch) of asphalt
concrete pavement on 203.20 mm (8 inch) of crushed
aggregate base. A resilient modulus of 2758 MPa
(400,000 psi) and a Poissons ratio of 0.3 was assumed
for asphaltic concrete layer. A Poissons ratio value of
0.4 was assumed for the crushed aggregate base and
for the resilient modulus the following relationship
developed based on repeated load triaxial testing was
used.

MR = 28430.6

Where,

MR = resilient modulus, psi, and

= bulk stress, psi (1 + 23 in the triaxial

test)

The fatigue distress model used in the study is

given below for predicting the number of repetitions
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
resulting in fatigue cracking equal to or less than 10
percent of the wheelpath :
Log Nf = 15.947 3.219 log (/10-6) 0.854 log
(E*/103)
Where,

Nf = repetitions to failure

maximum tensile strain at the bottom of

the asphalt bound layer, and

E* = resilient modulus, psi

The load equivalency factors developed for a typical

asphalt concrete pavement are given in Table 2.

Table 2 Traffic Equivalency Factors for Single Axles with Single Tyres,
Asphalt Concrete Pavement, and Structural Number (SN) = 4

Axle
Load
(kN)
44.5
53.4
62.3
71.2
80.1
89.0
97.9
106.8
115.7
124.6
133.4
142.3
151.2
160.1
169.0
177.9

10 inch
0.6309
1.0286
1.5549
2.2243
3.0502
4.0458
5.2237
6.5962
8.1750
9.9718
11.9979
14.2643
16.7818
19.5610
22.6123
25.9458

Equivalent 80 kN Dual Tyre, Single-Axle Loads

Single Tyre Width
12 inch
14 inch
16 inch
0.4790
0.3731
0.2969
0.7809
0.6082
0.4840
1.1805
0.9195
0.7317
1.6887
1.3153
1.0466
2.3157
1.8038
1.4353
3.0715
2.3925
1.9038
3.9658
3.0891
2.4580
5.0077
3.9007
3.1038
6.2064
4.8343
3.8468
7.5705
5.8969
4.6923
9.1087
7.0951
5.6457
10.8293
8.4353
6.7121
12.7406
9.9241
7.8968
14.8505
11.5675
9.2045
17.1670
13.3719
10.6403
19.6978
15.3432
12.2089

An analysis of the above Table indicates that for

the same axle load, as the width of the single tyre
decreases, the equivalency factor increases which
indicates more damage. As the axle load increases, the
equivalency factor also increases. The data from this
study showed that single tyres can be as much as 25
times more damaging than dual tyres as the axle load
increases and the tyre width decreases. However, the
damaging effect is dampened by the increase in the
width of the single tyres.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

18 inch
0.24050
0.39210
0.59277
0.84793
1.16279
1.54232
1.99136
2.51455
3.11643
3.80141
4.57379
5.43778
6.39749
7.45695
8.62014
9.89093

The same results have been produced by another

study[25], which states that the damage due to wide
tyres under 9000 kg would be 12 - 13 times more
damaging than the damage caused by dual tyres under
similar loading.
10

The Beginning of Accelerated

Pavement Testing (APT) program
in India

India has recently embarked on its Accelerated

Pavement Testing (APT) Program with the
23

TECHNICAL PAPERS
procurement of a Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS)
from M/s Dynatest Inc., USA. The HVS Mark IV Plus
was procured by Central Road Research Institute, New
Delhi in 2010 and has been established as a National
Test Facility. The HVS unit was procured with dual
wheels fitted on the Carriage Unit. However, most
of the APT programs worldwide are being run with
super single/wide base tyres because they cause more
damage to the pavements compared to the dual wheels
configuration. Therefore, it is suggested that the Indian
APT program should also include super single tyres
in their research program and compare the damaging
effects of such tyres relative to the conventional dual
tyres for the various types of the pavement sections
used in India.

References
1.

Specification of Maximum Gross Vehicle Weight and the

Maximum Safe Axle Weight, Notification S.O. 728 (E)
dated 18th October, 1996, Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, Government of India

2.

IS:15636-2005, Automotive Vehicles Pneumatic Tyres

for Commercial Vehicles Diagonal and Radial Ply
Specification, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi,
2007

3.

Effects of Wide Single tyres and dual tyres, COST

334, Final Report of the Action, European Commission,
Directorate General Transport, 1999.

4.

Huang, Y.H., Pavement Analysis and Design, PrenticeHall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1993.

5.

Kim, D., Super-single tyre loadings and their impacts on

pavement design, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering,
NRC Canada, pp 119-128, 2008.

6.

Viljoen, A.W., Pavement behaviour under the super single

tyre, Unpublished Technical Report RP/24/82, National
Institute for Transport and Road Research, CSIR, South
Africa, June 1982.

The paper describes a brief review of the studies done

worldwide on the comparison of super single tyres and
dual tyres and their damaging effects on the pavement.
Though super single tyres offer many advantages for
the trucking industry, they are, in fact, more damaging
to the pavements. For this reason, it is suggested that
the APT program at CRRI should be run with the super
single tyres instead of dual tyres. Also, the Equivalency
factors for the damaging effects of super single tyres
should be developed for Indian conditions. With the
growth in the market share of super single tyres in
trucking applications worldwide and the possible
expectation that such tyres would soon Indian market,
it is very much needed that a prediction of accurate
pavement damage quantification associated with super
single tyres be made for Indian conditions through the
use of Accelerated Pavement Testing Facility (APTF)
available at CRRI.

7.

De Beer, M., Fisher, C., and Jooste, F.J. 1997,

Determination of pneumatic tyre/pavement interface
contact stresses under moving loads and some effects
on pavements with thin asphalt surfacing layers,
Proceedings, 8th International Conference on Asphalt
Pavements, University of Washington, Seattle,
Washington, pp. 179227, 1014 August 1997.

8.

Myers, L.A., Roque, R., Ruth, B.E., and Drakos, C.,

Measurement of contact stresses for different truck
tyre types to evaluate their influence on near-surface
cracking and rutting, Transportation Research Record
1655, Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., pp 175184, 1999.

9.

Gillespie, T.D. and Karamihas, S.M., Heavy truck

properties significant to pavement damage, Vehicle-Road
Interaction, ASTM STP 1225, B.T. Kulakowski, Ed.,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
pp 52-63, 1994.

10.

Blackman, D.I., Halliday, A.R., and Merrill, D.B., Effects

of tyre type, inflation pressure and load on contact area
and pavement performance, Unpublished Project Report
PR/IP/66/00, Transport Research Laboratory, June 2000.

11.

Yoder, E.J., and Witczak, M.W., Principles of Pavement

Design, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1975.

Acknowledgements

12.

Hugo, Frederick, and Martin, Amy Lousie Epps,

Significant Findings from Full-Scale Accelerated Testing
A Synthesis of Highway Practice, NCHRP Synthesis
325, National Cooperative Highway Research Program,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., 2004.

11

Conclusions

The authors thankfully acknowledge Director, Central

Road Research Institute, New Delhi for his kind
permission to publish this paper.
24

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
13.

Akram, T., Scullion, T., Smith, R.E., and Fernando, E.,

Estimating damage effects of dual versus wide base tyres
with multidepth deflectometers, Transportation Research
Record, 1355, pp 59-66, 1992.

14.

Zube, Ernest and Forsyth, Raymond, An investigation

of the destructive effect of flotation tyres on flexbile
pavement, Highway Research Record Number 71,
Highway Research Board, Washington D.C., pp 129-150,
1965.

15.

Bonaquist, Ramon, An Assessment of the Increased

Damage Potential of Wide Based Single Tyres,
Proceedings, Volume 3, 7th International Conference on
Asphalt Pavements, 1992.

16.

Perdomo, Dario and Nokes, Bill, Theoretical Analysis

of the Effects of Wide-base tyres on flexible pavements
under CIRCLY, Transportation Research Record 1388,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., pp 108 119, 1993.

17.

Houben, L.J.M., Visser, A.F.H.M., and Dommelen, A.E.

Van, Summary of LINTRACK research into rutting
of Asphalt Concrete Test Pavement 1998/1999, Joint
research program of Delft University if Technology
and Ministry of Transport, Pubic Works and Water
management, September 1999.

18.

Houben, L.J.M., Visser, A.F.H.M., and Dommelen, A.E.

Van, Summary of LINTRACK research into rutting
of Asphalt Concrete Test Pavement 1999/2000, Joint
research program of delft University if Technology
and Ministry of Transport, Pubic Works and Water
management, November 1999.

19.

Yeo, Richard E.Y. et. al., The performance of in-situ

stabilized marginal sandstone pavements, Proceedings,
International Conference on Accelerated Pavement
Testing, Reno, Nevada, October 18 20, 1999.

20.

Hugo, F., Accelerated Pavement Testing Overview

Comfort, Concerns, Constraints and Challenges,
Proceedings, 2nd International Conference on Accelerated
Pavement Testing, Minneapolis, Minnesota, September
26 29, 2004.

21.

Corte, Jean Francois, Brosseaud, Yves, Simoncelli, Jean

Pierre, and Caroff, Gilbert, Investigation of Rutting of
Asphalt Surface Layers : Influence of Binder and Axle
Loading Configuration, Transportation Research Record
1436, Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., pp 28 37, 1994.

22.

Pidwerbesky, Bryan D., Accelerated Dynamic Loading

of Flexible Pavements at the Canterbury Accelerated
Pavement Testing Indoor Facility, Transportation
Research Record 1482, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington D.C., pp 79 86,
1995.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

23.

Huhtala, M., Pihlajamaki, J., and Miettnen, V., The effect

of wide-based tyres on pavements, Proceedings of Third
International Symposium on Heavy Vehicle Weights and
Dimensions, organised by University of Cambridge, pp
211-217, June 28 july 2, 1992.

24.

Hallin, John P., Sharma, Jatinder, and Mahoney, Joe P.,

Development of Rigid and Flexible Pavement Load
Equivalency Factors for Various Widths of Single Tyres,
Transportation Research Record 949, Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Washington
D.C., pp 4-13, 1983.

25.

Ponniah, Joseph, Use of New Technology Single WideBase Tyres : Impact on Pavements, Technical Report,
Ontario Ministry of Transportation, Ontario, Canada,
2003.

25

Laboratory Performance Evaluation of

a Ready-to-use Patch Mix
Abhishek Mittal*, Dr. P.K. Jain** and Amit Kumar***

ABSTRACT
Potholes have always been a problem for highway maintenance
organizations because their repair is costly, time-consuming and
do not last long. Potholes always compromise road safety. For
this reason, the agency must repair potholes as soon as it becomes
aware of them. Patching is the common method used to repair
potholes. It is well known that the major cost of patching lies
in preparing and placing the patch rather than the cost of the
patching materials. Therefore, it is desirable that the process of
patching should be simple and use good quality cold mix materials
to make patches last long. For this reason, the repair of heavily
trafficked roads and highway pavements can be done effectively
and efficiently using the ready-to-use patching mixes. The present
paper describes the laboratory testing done on one such ready-mix.
The laboratory testing indicates that the various properties of the
ready-mix such as stability, bond strength, moisture susceptibility
and retained stability have been found satisfactory and meeting
the requirements as per the available specifications, suggesting
that the material may be used for repair of potholes and utility
cuts.

INTRODUCTION

Roads are the permanent assets built at huge capital

investment for the safe and efficient movement of
goods and passenger traffic. However, the intended
purpose of the roads would not be fulfilled if it is not
maintained properly. Poor road conditions not only
invite public criticism but also cause huge loss to the
nation in terms of excessive usage of fuel and time.
Unfortunately, every time a vehicle has to slow down
or stop and then accelerate again, due to poor road
conditions, lead to wastage of expensive fuel. Add to
this the wear and tear of every vehicle due to such
poor road conditions and the losses suddenly become
mind-boggling. Therefore, the timely and routine
maintenance of roads by the respective agencies

Scientist

**

Chief Scientist and Head

*** Technical Assistant

26

becomes essential. Funding for rehabilitation and

overlay of these pavements is not likely to keep up
with the demand, requiring more agencies to use the
most cost-effective methods when patching distressed
areas. These patches will also be expected to survive
longer and carry more traffic.
To the road user, pot holes are one of the most
visible and annoying forms of bituminous pavement
deterioration. Potholes have always been a problem for
highway maintenance enormous proportions during
cold, wet periods of the year, when pothole repair is
made more difficult because of adverse weather and
the large number of potholes that seem to appear at
one time.
It is well known that the major cost of patching lies in
preparing and placing the patch rather than the cost of
the patching materials. Therefore, it is desirable that
the process of patching should be simple and use good
quality cold mix materials to make patches last long.
The cold mixes are composed of liquid bituminous
binders and aggregates that need not to be heated. The
mixtures are stockpiled until needed and used cold in
any season.
2

IMPORTANCE
OF
PATCHING MIXES

READY-TO-USE

Repair of heavily trafficked roads and highway

pavements is difficult using the conventional materials
and procedures. This not only causes inconvenience to
the road users, also are generally not very satisfactory.
For such locations, ready-to-use patching materials are
essential for the regular maintenance of the pavements

Flexible Pavement Division,

Central Road Research institute, New Delhi

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
and cause minimal disturbance to the traffic. Readyto-use patching materials have various advantages,
such as :

Quality of mix is consistent and uniform

Patches are more stable

Ready-to-use patching mixes need very

little time for application at site

Pavement becomes traffic worthy soon

after application. No curing period is
required

Preparation of surface for repairs is

minimal

Repair is possible even in all adverse

climatic conditions

No wastage of materials and the

manpower needed is minimum

A very common problem of urban areas

is repair of utility cuts in the pavement.
These mixes provide quick and efficient
repair with the least interference with
traffic.

3 LITERATURE REVIEW
As defined by the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA), a pothole is a bowl-shaped depression in
the pavement surface. Potholes require immediate
attention by maintenance crews to minimize further
pavement damage and reduce the opportunity for
vehicle damage and potential accidents. The two
factors that usually cause potholes are water and
traffic. When a combination of the two occurs, the
integrity of the pavement can be compromised.
The creation of a pothole usually follows a general
pattern wherein water finds a way into the base of the
pavement (usually through a crack). Traffic loading
can cause the base or subgrade to soften and finally
to wash away (pumping). As the fines continue to
be pumped out, the pavement surface loses support
and the asphalt will begin to break up. If the pothole
remains unrepaired, the distressed area can increase
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

in size, making repairs more difficult and costly.

Although less common, potholes are also caused by
fatigue and/or low-temperature cracking. As potholes
usually occur on roads with high traffic volume, the
need for a speedy repair is essential.
Potholes are always compromising road safety. For
this reason, the agency must repair such hazardous
potholes as soon as it becomes aware of them. Many
pothole repairs cannot wait for optimum patching
conditions. Two main elements of quality pothole
patching are material selection and repair procedures.
Material costs are a small percentage of the total
cost for pothole repair, which implies that newer,
more expensive materials that can provide greater
repair longevity will be cost-effective (Thomas and
Anderson, 1986).
There are four different pothole repair methods that
have been used by many maintenance agencies. These
methods are : (a) throw and roll (b) edge seal (c)
semi-permanent and (d) spray injection. The throw
and roll cold mix patching technique is a standard
maintenance process preferred during winter pothole
season. (Wilson 1993: Prowell and Franklin 1996).
Patching can be described as the filling of deteriorated
areas on a road to keep traffic moving safely or to
prevent rapid deterioration of an area that could
become unsafe. Patching has been defined as portion
of pavement surface, greater than 0.1m2 area that has
been removed and replaced or additional material
applied to the pavement after original construction.
(Miller and Bellinger 2003)
Patch longevity is a variable that is crucial to
determining the cost/benefit of a certain patching
operation. Most pothole repairs made during the
winter months are short lived. However, by using
more expensive proprietary cold mixes, a cost benefit
can be realized due to increased longevity of pothole
patches. (Better Roads 1999; Anderson et. al. 1988).
The increase in performance more than offsets the
additional cost of proprietary mixes (Outcalt 1993).
Cold mix patching materials are typically classified in
three groups : (a) everyday cold mix (b) user agency
27

TECHNICAL PAPERS
specified, and (c) proprietary (Wilson 1993; HITEC
1995; Wilson and Romnie 1999). Everyday or locally
produced cold mixes may include materials that are
prepared with no specifications or quality control.
User agency specified cold mixes are generally
well designed and tested to assure adherence to the
specifications set by the agency. Proprietary pothole
patch materials typically use a brand name and are
produced by the manufacturer to adhere to proprietary
specifications. Proprietary materials are often referred
to as high-performance cold mix (Better Roads
1996).

Gradation of Washed Aggregates

Marshall Stability and Flow

Rolling Sieve Test

Tests for Moisture Susceptibility

Bond Strength by Shear Test (in the

Laboratory)

Percent Retained Stability

All the above tests were done on 2-3 samples and the
results presented here represent the average values
obtained for the samples.
5.2.1 Estimation of Volatile Matter

ABOUT THE MATERIAL

The material used in the present testing is a ready mix

compound formulated using special grade of asphalt,
special aggregate and chemical plus pressure sensitive
polymers forming a thick black coloured sticky mass
that perfectly sets on roads. The material is to be used
in cold conditions (needs no heating) and no tack is
required as it is self-bonding.

About 1 kilogram of the material was spread

in thickness of 25mm in a tray and exposed to
160C temperature for 4 hours. The loss in weight was
recorded as percent volatile matter present in the mix
to provide workability. The volatile matter present
is estimated as 1.27% of the mix. No hazardous
fumes were seen and observed during the testing and
heating.
5.2.2 Estimation of Binder Content

5 LABORATORY EVALUATION OF THE

MATERIAL
5.1 Material Availability
The material is available packed in disposable bags
of 50 kg capacity. It is reported that the storage life of
the material is about 24 months in sealed condition, if
stored in a cool and dry place. After opening of bags,
the material is usable for 10-15 days. It was observed
during the laboratory investigation work that material
in sealed condition can be used for 10 days after
opening of the seal of the bags as the mix remains in
workable condition. The material does not emit any
hazardous fumes during the opening of the bags.
5.2 Laboratory Testing Program

The binder content of the material was determined

by cold extraction process using trichloroethylene as
solvent. The binder content was found to be 7.93%
binder by weight of the mix.
5.2.3 Gradation of Washed Aggregates
The sieve analysis was conducted on the washed
mineral aggregates as per the procedure prescribed in
IS:2386 (Part-1). The grading of washed aggregates is
given in Table 1.
Table 1 Sieve Analysis Results
Sieve Size,
% Passing
Recommended
mm
(as Obtained in the Composition of Stockpile
Laboratory)
Patching Mixture (11)
13.2

100

100

9.5

100

100

The following studies were conducted in the laboratory

for evaluation of the material.

4.75

87.6

85 100

2.36

24.5

10 40

Estimation of Volatile Matter

0.300

1.4

Estimation of Binder Content

0.075

1.1

02

28

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
The sieve analysis results indicate that the readymix conforms to the grading which has been used
successfully by a state Department of Transportation
(DOT) in US. It has also been reported by Chatterjee
et. al. and Kandhal that a uniform gradation consisting
of 100 percent passing 9.5mm sieve has the following
advantages :

The mix is pliable and workable.

Due to increased surface area that results
from higher voids in mineral aggregate,
more binder can be incorporated into the
mix to improve durability.
The mix remains pliable for a longer
period of time, continues to densify
under traffic and will continue to adapt
to the changing geometry of the pothole.
This characteristic enhances its chances
of survival.

5.2.4 Marshall Stability and Flow

The Marshall stability of bituminous mix is the ability
of the mix to resist deformation under the action of
load. For emulsion based cold mixes, the stability
requirements are given for paving only. For cutback
based cold mixes, the stability requirements are given
for both maintenance and paving. However, since
the ready-mix material is to be used for maintenance
purpose only, so the requirements corresponding to
maintenance for cold mixes are taken for comparison
with the results obtained in the laboratory.
Marshall samples were prepared using the material
at ambient temperature using 75 blows on each side.
The samples were demoulded after 24 hours from the
Marshall moulds. The samples were then tested for
bulk density, stability and flow values (at 25C) and
the results are given in Table 2.

Table 2 Results of Bulk Density, Stability and Flow of Ready-mix Material (at 25C)

Property
Bulk Specific Gravity
Bulk Density, g/cc
Stability, kN
Flow Value, mm
Note :

Specified Limits as per MS-14

(Appendix H) & MoRT&H, 2001
2.2 (for Maintenance)
2 (Minimum)

Test Result
2.403
2.396
4.8
6.5

Density of water has been taken as 0.99704 g/cc at 25C.

5.2.5 Rolling Sieve Test

The rolling sieve test was developed by the Ontario
Ministry of Transportation to evaluate stockpiled
patching materials for durability under the abrasive
action of traffic. The test was carried out as per the
procedure given in SHRP-H-353 (Wilson and Romine
1993).

(c)

Extrude and record the weight of the

compacted sample.

(d)

Place the compacted sample into a

standard sieve with an opening of 25.4
mm (1 inch) and a diameter sieve of 305
mm (12 inch) so that both the sieve and
the sample are standing upright. Place
a lid on the sieve so that the sample is
contained with the lid on one side and the
mesh on the other.

(e)

Roll the sieve back and forth with the

sample inside. The sieve should roll
approximately 305mm (12 inch) in each
direction. The rolling continues for 20
passes, at approximately one second per
pass.

The test procedure adopted for this study consisted of

the following steps :

(a)

Fill the standard Marshall mould and

collar with 1100 g of stockpiled Inssta
Pattch cold mix.

(b)

Using a standard Marshall hammer,

compact the material in the mould with
only three blows of the hammer.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

29

TECHNICAL PAPERS

(f)

(g)

After rolling, place the sieve horizontally

with the mesh down. There should be
enough space to allow loose material to
fall through the mesh. After 10 seconds
in this position, the sieve and lid should
be turned over so that the material left in
the sieve falls onto the lid.

loss of the material for all the three temperatures, viz.,

10C, 25C and 40C is less than the recommended
limit of 35%.

Weigh the material retained on the sieve.

Calculate the percent of material lost as
given below :
Woriginal Wafter
100
Percent lost =
Woriginal
The Ontario report stated that a loss of more than 35
percent was unacceptable. The original laboratory
procedure suggested by Ontario Ministry of
Transportation recommends the test temperature of
10C. However, such extreme cold temperatures are
not experienced in India. So, it was decided to conduct
the test at three different temperatures viz., 10C,
25C and 40C to represent the cold, medium and hot
climatic conditions prevailing in most of the parts of
the country. The test apparatus is shown in Figure 1
and the test results of rolling sieve test are presented
in Table 3. It can be seen from the test results that the

Fig. 1 Rolling Sieve Test

Table 3 Rolling Sieve Test Results

Test Temperature

Initial Weight, g

Final Weight, g

Percent Loss (%)

10C

994.3

926.6

6.81

25C

998.5

949.3

4.93

40C

984.2

956.5

2.81

5.2.6 Tests for Moisture Susceptibility

To evaluate the loss of adhesion due to effect of water,
the following three tests have been carried out.
5.2.6.1 Stripping Test on Loose Mix
This test was conducted as per IS:6241 test method.
About 200 gm of the mix was transferred to a 500
ml beaker and filled with distilled water. The beaker
is covered and kept in the water bath maintained at
40C, taking care that the level of water in the water-

30

bath comes up to at least half the height of the beaker.

After the expiry of 24 hours the beaker is taken out,
cooled at room temperature and the extent of stripping
is estimated visually while specimen is still under
water.
The stripping value was calculated as given below :
Stripping Value (in %) =

Uncovered Area observed visually

Total area of the aggregates

No stripping was observed in the mix after 24 hours.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
5.2.6.2 Boiling Test on Loose Mix
The boiling test (ASTM D 3625) is a quick and easy
visual indication of chemical incompatibility between
the asphalt binder and aggregate. In this test, a sample
of loose asphalt mixture is placed in boiling water for
10 minutes and then removed. The extent of retained
asphalt coating on the aggregate is then evaluated
relative to a non-conditioned sample. No stripping was
observed in the mix after the test. The condition of the
loose mix after the boiling test is shown in Photo 1.

Photo 1 Condition of the Loose Mix After Boiling Test

5.2.6.3 Test for Retained Stability

This test measures the stripping resistance of a
bituminous mixture. The test is conducted as per
MS-14 (Appendix H) specifications. The standard
Marshall specimens were prepared. The specimens
were kept in water bath maintained at 25C for 4 days,
i.e. 96 hours, and thereafter tested for stability value.
The results are reported as the percentage of Marshall
stability determined in normal condition of the test.
The results are presented in Table 4.
Table 4 : Results of Retained Stability Test
S. Marshall Marshall Stability
No. Stability (after soaking in
(at 25C) water for 4 days
at 25C)
1

505

392

Retained
Stability
(%)

Average
Retained
Stability
(%)

Specified
Limits as per
MORT&H,
2001 and MS-14
(Appendix-H)

77.6

77.3

75

485

367

75.7

481

378

78.6

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

It can be seen from the above table that the average

retained stability obtained is more than the specified
limit of 75% as per MS-14 (Appendix H) and
MoRT&H, 2001 specifications.
5.2.7 Bond Test
Adequate bonding between bound layers is necessary
for pavement performance. The degree of bonding at
the pavement interfaces affects the stress distribution
within the materials that constitute a layer. This
stress distribution is predominantly, affected by the
interface bonding condition between upper pavement
layers; the surface course and the underlying base
course. The use of a shear test to check for the bond
strength at the interface has been commonly used and
reported by many authors. (Jain et. al. 1999, Jain et.
al. 2000, Pundhir et. al. 2004, Trevino et. al. 2005 and
Patel 2010).
Naby and Easa (2002) reported the use of shear test
facility to identify the effect of type of mix, relative
temperature and tack coat on the shear bond strength
between two asphalt layers. The average shear bond
strength reported for various samples varied from
0.427 kg/cm2 to 1.450 kg/cm2.
In the present study, the test method given by Jain
et. al. (15) has been adopted for the determination of
bond strength between the ready-mix material and
existing surface. Three Marshall specimens were
casted using 50% conventional bituminous concrete
and remaining with the material in cold condition
with 75 blows on the material side of the sample.
The shear test was conducted by applying load on the
material portion of the specimen, at the joint, with a
25 mm wide loading strip having curved surface
inside. The average shear strength of 3 samples was
found to be 1.7 kg/cm2. This indicates good bond
strength with existing surface for the material. The test
setup for the bond test is shown in Figure 2. Photos
2 to 4 show the samples prepared for bond test, test
setup and sample condition after the test.
31

TECHNICAL PAPERS

Old surface

Surface of readymix material

Photo 2 A View of the Sample Prepared for Bond Test

Fig. 2 A Typical Set Up for Determination of Bond Strength by
Shear Test Between Two Bituminous Layers

Photo 4 A View of Samples After Bond Test

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the laboratory testing carried out, the
following conclusions have been derived :

Photo 3 Test Set-up for Bond Test

32

The methodology for the laboratory

performance evaluation of ready-mix
has been described in the paper. The
methodology would be effective in
selecting the best ready-mix out of the
various available candidate ready-mixes
for use in actual field conditions.

The ready-mix material tested in the

present study is found suitable as readymade mix for repair and maintenance of
bituminous roads specially for filling of

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS

potholes and utility cuts, as the various

properties of the mix such as stability,
bond strength, moisture susceptibility
and retained stability have been found
satisfactory and meeting the requirements
as per the available specifications.
The ready-mix material can be used
for timely repair of potholes and utility
cuts on rods, thereby preventing further
damage to roads and savings in huge
recurring repair costs.
The ready-mix material can be applied
for repair of roads using just 1-2 labours
and in a short time causing minimum
disruption to traffic.

7.

8.
9.
10.

11.

12.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is thankful to Dr. S. Gangopadhyay,
Director, Central Road Research Institute,
New Delhi for his kind permission to publish this
paper. The assistance rendered by Smt. Uma Devi
Ronagli, Project Assistant, Flexible Pavement
Division, CRRI during the laboratory testing work is
thankfully acknowledged.

13.

14.

15.

16.

REFERENCES
1.

ASTM D 4867, Standard Test Method for Effect of

Moisture on Asphalt Concrete paving Mixtures, American
Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Volume 04.03, 2004.

2.

ASTM D 2172, Standard Test Methods for Quantitative

Extraction of Bitumen from Bituminous Paving Mixtures,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.03, 2004.

3.

ASTM D 3625, Standard Practice for Effect of Water

on Bituminous Coated Aggregate Using Boiling Water,
American Society for Testing and Materials, Annual Book
of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.03, 2004.

4.

Asphalt Cold Mix Manual, Manual Series 14 (MS-14),

3rd Edition, Asphalt Institute, USA, 1989.

5.

Anderson, David A., Thomas, H. Randolph, Siddiqui,

Zahurrudin and Krivohlavek, Dennis D., More Effective
Cold Wet-weather Patching Materials for Asphalt
Pavements, Report No. FHWA-RD-88-001, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C., 1988.

6.

Augustin, Horald, Design of Tack Coat, Paper No.

4-1B-309, Procedings, Volume 4, Second World Congress
on Emulsion, France, September 1997.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Berlin, Marcus and Hunt, Elizabeth, Asphalt Concrete

Patching Material Evaluation, Interim Report SR 548,
Oregon Department of Transportation, Oregon, June
2001.
Better Roads magazine, How to Solve the Pothole
Depressions of 1996, pp 17-18, January 1996.
Better Roads magazine, Potholes : Cold-Mix can Solve
Problems, pp. 16, March 1999.
Chatterjee, Samrat, White, Ronald P., Smit, Andre, Prozzi,
Jolanda and Prozzi, Jorge A., Development of Mix Design
and Testing Procedures for Cold Patching Mixtures,
Report No. FHWA/TX-05/0-4872-1, Texas Department of
Transportation, Austin, Texas, January 2006.
Kandhal, P.S., A Simple and Effective Method of
Repairing Potholes in India, Paper No. 544, Journal of
Indian Roads Congress, Volume 69-3, 2008.
HITEC (Highway Innovation Technology Evaluation
Centre), Guidelines for Field Evaluations of Pothole
Repairs, Civil Engineering Research Foundation Report,
1995.
IS:2386 (Part 1), Methods of Test for Aggregates for
Concrete Part 1 Particle Shape and Size, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi, 2002.
IS:6241, Method of Test for Determination of Stripping
Value of Road Aggregates, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, 2003.
IS:2720 (Part 4), Methods of Test for Soils Grain Size
Analysis, Second Revision, Bureau of Indian Standards,
New Delhi, 2006.
Jain, P. K. et. al., Evaluation of Shelmac PR for Instant
Repairs, Report (Unpublished), Central Road Research
Institute, New Delhi, March 1999.
Jain et. al., Use of Hincol Cationic Bitumen Emulsions
in Tack Coat and Prime Coat Applications, Report
(Part I) (Unpublished), Central Road Research Institute,
New Delhi, July 2000.
MoRT&H, 2001, Specifications for Road and Bridges
Works, Fourth Revision, Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 2001.
Maher, Ali, Gucunski, Nenad, Yanko, William and Petsi,
Fotina, Evaluation of Pothole Patching Materials,
Final Report No. FHWA 2001-02, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington D.C., February 2001.
Miller, J. S. and Bellinger, W. Y., Distress Identification
Manual for the Long Term Pavement Performance
Program, Report No. FHWA-RD-03-031, 4th Revised
Edition, Federal Highway Administration, 2003.
Munyagi, Anna Abela, Evaluation of Cold Asphalt
Patching Mixes, M Eng. Thesis, University of
Stellenbosch, 2006.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program
(NCHRP), Bituminous Patching Mixtures, Synthesis
of Highway Practice 64, Transportation Research Board,
National Research Council, Washington D. C., 1979.

33

TECHNICAL PAPERS
23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

34

Naby, R.M. Abd El, and Easa, S.M., Evaluation of the

Bond Characteristics between Asphalt Concrete Layers,
Annual Conference of the Canadian Society for Civil
Engineering, Quebec, Canada, June 2002.
Outcalt, William, Cold Hand Patching Material
Evaluation, Report No. CDOT-DTD-R-93-9, Colorado
Department of Transportation, Colorado, August 1993.
Prowell, Brian D. and Franklin, Alan G., Evaluation
of Cold Mixes for Winter Pothole Repair, TRB 1529,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., 1996.
Pundhir, N.K.S. et. al., Evaluation of Carboncor Cold
Mix for Construction and Maintenance of Roads, Report
(Unpublished), Central Road Research Institute, New
Delhi, August 2004.
Pimentel, Jose Maria Fragachan, Accelerated Testing
Methodology for Evaluating Pavement Patching
Materials, MS Thesis, Worcester Polytechnic Institute,
US, May 2007.
Patel, Nachiketa Bharat, Factors Affecting the Interface
Shear Strength of Pavement Layers, MS Thesis, Louisiana
State University, August 2010.
Thomas, H. Randolph and Anderson, David A., Pothole
Repair : You Cant Afford Not to Do it Right, TRB

1102, Transportation Research Board, National Research

Council, Washington D.C., 1986.
30.

Wilson, Thomas P., Strategic Highway Research Program

Pothole Repair : Materials and Procedures, TRB 1392,
Transportation Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington D.C., August 1993.

31.

Wilson, Thomas P. And Romine, A. Russell, Innovative

Materials Development and Testing Volume 2 : Pothole
Repair, Report No. SHRP-H-353, Strategic Highway
Research Program, National Research Council,
Washington D.C., 1993.

32.

Wilson, Thomas P. And Romine, A. Russell, Materials

and Procedures for Repair of Potholes in Asphalt-Surfaced
Pavements : Manual of Practice, Report No. FHWA-RD99-168, Federal Highway Administration, Washington
D.C., 1999.

33.

Trevino, Manuel, Kim Seong Min, Smit, Andre,

McCullough, B. Frank, and Yildirim, Yetkin, Asphalt
Concrete Overlays on Continuously Reinforced Concrete
Pavements: Decision Criteria, Tack Coat Evaluation and
Asphalt Concrete Mixture Evaluation, Report No. FHWA/
TX-05/0-4398-3, Texas Department of Transportation,
Texas, February 2005.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

IMPROVEMENT IN PROPERTIES OF SUBGRADE SOIL BY

USING POND ASH AND CHEMICAL ADDITIVE
B.M. Patil* and K.A. Patil**

ABSTRACT

1.1

The crust thickness of road depends on strength of subgrade soil

and traffic intensity. The cost of construction of road depends on
the crust thickness and available material. The cost of construction
of road increases, if good quality materials are not available in
nearby areas of road construction site. This problem can be solved
by improving the geotechnical properties of subgrade soil. This
paper deals with the improvement in properties of subgrade soil
like Maximum Dry Density (MDD), Optimum Moisture Content
(OMC) and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value by addition
of additives. The pond ash is a thermal power plant waste and
RBI Grade 81 is a chemical soil stabilizer used to improve the
geotechnical properties of subgrade soil. The geotechnical
properties of subgrade soil are improved significantly due to
addition of pond ash and RBI Grade 81 together. The soaked CBR
value of subgrade soil is 2.56%. The soaked CBR value of mix
i.e. soil: pond ash: RBI Grade 81 in the proportion of 76:20:4 is
12.74% which is increased by 397% in comparison with untreated
soil sample.

R.K. Sharma et al.[1] carried out studies on use of

sand, rice husk ash and waste plastic fiber for
improving compaction and strength characteristics of
clayey soil for use as subgrade material. The influence
of different mix proportions of clays, sand, rice
husk ash, on compaction and CBR values have been
studied. The addition of rice husk ash in the clay and
sand mix increases the OMC and decreases MDD. The
addition of plastic fiber, rice husk ash and sand in the
clay, leads to increase in the CBR value and reduction
in permeability. Kolay, P.K. et al.[2] carried out study
by addition of pond ash in soil for stabilization in the
range of 5% to 20%. Based on their experimental
study, it is found that the MDD of pond ash modified
sample increases, while the optimum moisture content
decreases with increase in the pond ash content. The
Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) test shows
that the compressive strength for peat and pond ash
mixed sample increases. The compressive strength of
peat-pond ash sample almost doubled in comparison
with original peat soil with addition of 20% pond
ash of weight of modified soil. To achieve economy
in construction of road it is expected to use locally
available materials.

INTRODUCTION

India is having very diverse topography due to which

it is very difficult to provide efficient road net work.
Similarly the subgrade soil changes from place to
place within few kilometers. The clayey soil is not
suitable for subgrade course due to its swelling and
shrinkage characteristics. To overcome this problem it
is required to replace clayey soil by suitable granular
material due to which the cost of construction of
road increases considerably. Another solution for this
problem is to stabilize clayey soil by using pond ash
and RBI Grade 81. If pond ash is used in construction
of roads nearby area of the power plant, it helps to
solve the problem of its disposal up to certain extent.

Review of Literature

Aykut Senol et al.[3] based on their experimental

work quantified the effect of fly ash stabilization on
four different types of soft subgrades, encountered
using locally available fly ash in Wisconsin. For
improvement in geotechnical properties of soils, a
combination of lime and fly ash is beneficial for lower
plasticity and higher silt content soils. The fly ash

Research Scholar, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad

E-mail: [email protected]

**

Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Government College of Engineering, Aurangabad

E-mail: [email protected]

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

35

TECHNICAL PAPERS
provides the pozzolanic reactants, silica and alumina,
lacking in such soils. Joel H. Beeghly[4] carried out the
studies by using lime with coal fly ash in stabilization
of soil subgrade and granular aggregate base course.
Three soil samples of moderate plasticity and high silt
content tested for UCS and CBR penetration test. The
results show that a lime fly ash mixture can achieve
greater strength than lime alone.
1.2

Difficulties in Construction of Rural Roads

In case of rural road alignment passing through clayey

soil, it is very difficult to construct and maintain the road
due to excessive swelling and shrinkage of subgrade
soil. The swelling and shrinkage characteristic of
clayey soil depends on variation in moisture content.
The variation in moisture content depends on rainfall,
capillary rise, temperature effect and water used for
irrigation. The clayey soil having soaked CBR value
less than 2% is required to be replaced by good
quality materials. Sometimes the good quality natural
materials are not available nearby road construction
sites, then large quantity of materials are transported
from longer distances, due to which the cost of
construction of road increases considerably.
2 Objectives of the Study
The objectives of study are as given below :

To check suitability of subgrade clayey

soil for construction of road.

To find out MDD, OMC and soaked CBR

value for various proportion of soil, pond
ash and RBI Grade 81.

India. The soil in this area is clayey soil. The various

basic properties of soil are tested in the laboratory and
the results are as given in Table 1.
Table 1 Basic Properties of Soil
Sr. No. Properties of Clayey Soil

Value

Specific gravity

2.36

Liquid limit %

67.00

Plastic limit %

36.46

Plastic index %

30.54

Dry density g/cm

1.45

California bearing ratio (soaked)%

2.56

Optimum moisture content %

28.65

Unconfined compressive strength N/mm

Silt and clay content % (below 0.075)

82.15

10

Sand content % (0.075 to 4.75 mm)

12.89

11

Gravel content % (4.75 to 80.0 mm)

4.96

3.2

0.298

Pond Ash

The pond ash sample is collected from the Thermal

Power Plant located at Parli, in Beed district of
Maharashtra state of India. After burning of coal in
thermal power plant, about 20% to 30% of ash is
collected at bottom in the form of slurry. This slurry
is deposited in the pond. After evaporation of water
from slurry remaining ash in dry form is called as pond
ash. The basic properties of pond ash are as given in
Table 2.
Table 2 Properties of Pond Ash
Sr. No. Physical Parameters

To suggest optimum mix of soil, pond

ash and RBI Grade 81 for stabilization of
subgrade soil.

Values

Color

Light gray

Gravel % (4.75 to 80.0 mm)

Sand % (0.075 to 4.75 mm)

79

Silt and clay % (below 0.075 mm)

21

Specific Gravity

2.37

Plasticity Index

Non plastic

3 Materials

3.3

3.1 Soil

It is odourless powder, composed of a number of

naturally occurring compounds. It is particularly
effective for silty-clayey soil with low geo-mechanical
qualities. The reaction of RBI Grade 81 with soil

The soil sample is collected from Amantpur wadi

road, in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state of

36

Road Building International (RBI Grade 81)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
particles, binds soil particles together into a rigid mass.
It forms a dust free surface and is simple to apply and
harden fast. The physical properties of RBI Grade 81
are given in Table 3.

Table 4 Effect of RBI Grade 81 on MDD and

OMC of Soil
Soil : RBI Grade 81

MDD g/cm3

OMC in %

100:00

1.45

25.80

98:02

1.47

26.16

96:04

1.48

26.67

Table 3 Physical Properties of RBI Grade 81

Sr. No.

Property

RBI Grade 81

Odour

Odourless

pH

12.5

Freezing point

None

Self life

12 Months

Storage

Dry storage

Bulk density

700 kg/m3

(Source: RBI Grade 81 manual)

4 Experimentation Work
The standard Proctor test was carried out as per Bureau
of Indian Standard (IS: 2720- 1980 Part -7) on different
mixes of soil, pond ash and RBI Grade 81 and the
values of MDD and OMC were found out. The CBR
test was carried out as per Bureau of Indian Standard
(IS: 2720 - Part-16 - 1979) on different mixes of soil,
pond ash and RBI Grade 81 for different proportions
and soaked CBR values were found out.
5

Results and Discussions

5.1 Effect of RBI Grade 81 on MDD and OMC

of Soil
The values of MDD and OMC for various proportions
of soil and RBI Grade 81 are as given in table 4. The
Fig.1 shows that the MDD of treated soil with RBI
Grade 81 increases as compared to untreated soil. The
increase in MDD is due to reduction in pore space
between soil particles by addition of RBI Grade
81. The RBI Grade 81 contains fibers due to which
there is reduction in MDD as the percentage of RBI
Grade 81 increases in the mix. The Fig.1 also shows
that the OMC of treated soil increases as compared
to untreated soil, as the more amount of water is
required for chemical reaction between soil and RBI
Grade 81.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Fig. 1 Effect of RBI Grade 81 on MDD and OMC of Soil

5.2 Effect of Pond Ash on MDD and OMC of

Soil
The values of MDD and OMC for various proportions
of soil and pond ash are as given in Table 5. The
Fig. 2 shows that the MDD of treated soil with pond
ash increases as compared to untreated soil. The fine
particles of pond ash react with soil particles and help
to increase MDD of soil. It is observed that as the
percentage of pond ash increases more than 20%, the
MDD of soil reduces. The reduction in MDD is due
to less cohesion between soil and pond ash particles.
The Fig. 2 also shows that, the OMC of treated soil
with pond ash increases as the percentage of pond ash
increases due to absorption of water by pond ash.
Table 5 Effect of Pond Ash on MDD and OMC of Soil
Soil : Pond ash

MDD g/cm3

OMC in %

100:00

1.45

25.80

90:10

1.47

22.76

80:20

1.48

24.84

70:30

1.44

26.31

37

TECHNICAL PAPERS

Fig. 2 Effect of Pond Ash on MDD and OMC of Soil

5.3 Effect of RBI Grade 81 and Pond Ash on

MDD and OMC of Soil
The soil mixed with RBI Grade 81 and pond ash
together in different proportions and the values of
MDD and OMC were found out and are as given
in the Table 6. The Fig. 3 shows the effect of RBI
Grade 81 and pond ash on MDD and OMC of soil.
The MDD of mixes of soil: pond ash: RBI Grade 81
in the proportion of 88:10:02 and 88:20:02 are found
to be 1.49 g/cm3 and 1.46 g/cm3 respectively. The
MDD for mixes of soil: pond ash: RBI Grade 81 in
the proportion of 86:10:04 and 76:20:04 are found to
be fairly same as that of untreated soil. The RBI Grade
81 contains fiber due to which MDD of soil reduces.
The results shows that as the percentage of RBI Grade
81 and pond ash increases in the mix, there is increase
in OMC of soil.
Table 6 Effect of RBI Grade 81 and Pond Ash on
MDD and OMC of Soil
Soil : Pond ash: RBI
Grade 81

MDD g/cm3

OMC in %

100:00:00

1.45

25.80

88:10:02

1.49

21.07

78:20:02

1.46

25.76

86:10:04

1.45

25.10

76:20:04

1.44

26.59

38

Fig. 3 Effect of RBI Grade 81 and Pond Ash on MDD and

OMC of Soil

5.4 Effect of RBI Grade 81 on CBR Value

of Soil
The soaked CBR values for mixes of soil: RBI Grade
81 in various proportions are as given in Table 7. The
Fig. 4 shows the effect of RBI Grade 81 on soaked
CBR value of soil for various proportions of soil: RBI
Grade 81. It is observed that the CBR value of soil
increases as the percentage of RBI Grade 81 increases
in the mix as compared to untreated soil. The RBI
Grade 81 having chemical reaction with soil in the
presence of water, which binds soil particles together
and helps to increase compaction properties of soil.
Table 7 Effect of RBI Grade 81 on CBR Value of Soil
Soil: RBI
Grade 81

Soaked CBR
value in %

Increase in CBR
value in %

100:00

2.56

0.00

98:02

4.89

91.01

96:04

8.79

243.36

94:06

14.76

476.56

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 8 Effect of RBI Grade 81 and Pond Ash on
CBR Value of Soil

Fig. 4 Effect of RBI Grade 81 on CBR Value of Soil

Soil: Pond ash: RBI

Soaked CBR

Increase in CBR

Grade 81

value in %

value in %

100

2.56

0.00

90:10

3.40

32.81

80:20

4.56

78.12

88:10:02

4.87

90.23

78:20:02

6.82

166.41

86:10:04

8.68

239.06

76:20:04

12.74

397.65

84:10:06

12.96

406.25

74:20:06

14.82

478.91

5.5 Effect of RBI Grade 81 and Pond Ash on CBR

Value of Soil
The soaked CBR values for mixes of soil: pond ash:
RBI Grade 81 in different proportions are as given in
Table 8. The Fig.5 shows the effect of RBI Grade 81
and pond ash on soaked CBR value of soil. The results
show that the soaked CBR value of treated soil with
pond ash only is slightly increased than untreated soil.
When the soil is treated with RBI Grade 81 and pond
ash together, the increase in soaked CBR value of soil
is significant. From Table 7, the CBR value of soil:
RBI Grade 81 in proportion 96:04 is 8.79%. Where as
by keeping 4% RBI Grade 81 constant and adding 20%
pond ash in the mix soil: pond ash: RBI Grade 81, the
CBR value is increased to 12.74%. The RBI Grade 81
and pond ash together having chemical reaction with
soil which helps to increase the soaked CBR value of
soil. It is observed that as the percentage of RBI Grade
81 and pond ash increases, there is increase in CBR
value of soil. When the pond ash increases above 20%
in the mix, there is less increase in soaked CBR value.
Therefore the results show that the optimum suitable
mix is soil: pond ash: RBI Grade 81 in the proportion
78:20:02. As the percentage of RBI Grade 81 increases
there is increase in cost of construction of roads.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Fig. 5 Effect of RBI Grade 81 and Pond Ash on CBR

Value of Soil

Design of Pavement Thickness

The construction of road by treating subgrade soil with

pond ash and RBI Grade 81 is suitable in areas nearby
thermal power plant. This is illustrated with design of
road as per IRC:372001[12]. The data considered for
design of single lane pavement is given below:

i.

Initial traffic in the year of completion of

construction =A = 200 CV/day

ii.

Growth rate per annum = r = 5.5% = 0.05

iii.

Design life = n = 10 years

iv.

Vehicle damage factor = F = 2.5

39

TECHNICAL PAPERS

v.

Single lane road = D = 100% = 1

vi

CBR of subgrade = 2.56%

For the subgrade soil treated with pond ash and RBI
Grade 81, the CBR value is increased to 6.82% from
2.56% for proportion 78:20:02. For the above example

data and CBR 6.82%, the pavement thickness obtained

is 430 mm as per Fig.1 of IRC: 37- 2001 (page 8) and
recommended is 430 mm. Therefore, the reduction in
pavement thickness is 230 mm. Similarly the pavement
thicknesses for different CV/day calculated and are as
given in Table 9.

Table 9 Effect of Traffic Intensity on Crust Thickness of Road

CV/day

msa

200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000

2
3
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Thickness
Thickness by
Thickness for
Thickness by
Pavement
for 2.56% IRC-37 for 2.56% 6.82% CBR in IRC-37 for 6.82%
thickness
CBR in mm
CBR in mm
mm
CBR in mm
reduced by mm
660
660
430
425
230
700
750
450
450
300
735
795
510
475
285
760
810
520
480
290
770
820
540
500
280
780
830
560
510
270
790
840
570
520
270
810
850
580
540
270
820
860
600
550
260

Cost analysis for 1 km road length

The cost of construction of road for different

proportions of soil, pond ash and RBI Grade 81 is
as given in table 10. It shows that the cost of road

increases as the percentage of RBI Grade 81 increases.

The cost of pond ash is governed by lead distance.
The valuable natural granular material is saved as the
clayey soil is used for subgrade.

Table 10 Cost Analysis for 1 km Road Length for Different Proportions

Proportion
100:00:00
78:20:02
86:10:04
77:20:03
76:20:04
8

Soaked CBR
value in %
2.56
6.82
8.68
10.48
12.74

Cost of
construction
13, 71, 562
16, 74, 450
25, 72, 537
21, 47, 625
26, 53, 200

Granular material
saved at subgrade
00
78%
86%
77%
76%

Conclusions

78:20:02. If the percentage of RBI Grade 81

increases, the cost of construction also increases
considerably.

Based on the experimental investigations carried out,

different conclusions drawn are as given below:
1.

2.

40

The geotechnical properties of clayey soil

improved significantly due to addition of RBI
Grade 81 and pond ash together.
The optimum mix recommended is soil:
pond ash: RBI Grade81 in the proportion of

Granular material
saved at subbase
00
54%
56%
60%
61%

3.

The use of pond ash for subgrade soil

stabilization of road near thermal power plant
area is more beneficial. It also helps to reduce
pollution of environment up to certain extent.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
4.

The locally available clayey soil can be used

as subgrade material for road construction and
save natural granular material.

REFERENCES
1.

R.K. Sharam,Vishal Kumar, Nandika Sharama, and Ajender

Rathore, Compaction and Subgrade Characteristics of
Clay Mixed with Beas Sand, Rice Husk Ash and Waste
Plastic Fibre Indian Higways August 2012, pp-29-36.

2.

Kolay, P.K. Sii, H.Y. and Taib, S.N.L. Tropical Peat

Soil Stabilization using Class F Pond Ash from Coal
Fired Power Plant, International Journal of Civil and
Environmental Engineering 2011, pp- 79-83.

3.

Aykut Senol, Tuncer B.Edil and Md.Sazzad Bin- Shafique,

Hector A. Acosta, Soft subgrades stabilization by using
various fly ashes, Resources, Conservation and Recycling
46 ( 2006) 365-376.

4.

Joel H. Beeghly Recent Experiences with LimeFly

Ash Stabilization of Pavement Subgrade Soils, Base and
Recycled Asphalt" 2003 International Ash Utilization
Symposium. Centre for Applied Energy Research
University of Kentucky paper #46

5.

RBI Grade 81 Pavement Material Soil Stabilizer Manual.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

6.

D S V Prasad, M. Anjan Kumar, G V R Prasad Raju and V.

Kondayya A Study on Flexible Pavement Performance
with Reinforced Fly ash Subbase International Journal of
Earth Sciences of Engineering ISSN 0974-5904,Volume
04. No.06 SPL, October 2011, pp 94-99.

7.

Tara Sen and Umesh Mishra Usage of Industrial Waste

Products in Village Road Construction International
Journal of Environmental Science and Development, Vol.
1.No.2, June 2010 ISSN 2010, pp-122-126.

8.

Raju Sarkar, S.M.Abbas and J.T.Shahu, Geotechnical

Characterization of Pond Ash Available in National Capital
Region Delhi International Journal of Earth Sciences of
Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Volume 04. No.06 SPL,
October 2011, pp 138-142.

9.

Bharathi Ganesh, H.Sharada Bai and R.Nagendra,

Effective Utilization of Pond ash for Sustainable
Construction need of the Hour International Journal of
Earth Sciences of Engineering ISSN 0974-5904, Volume
04. No.06 SPL, October 2011, pp 151-154.

10.

R.P. Indoria, Use of Locally Available Materials in Road

Construction Indian Highways, May 2009, pp-1-3.

11.

IRC: SP: 72-2007 Guidelines for the Design of Flexible

Pavements for Low Volume Rural Road.

12.

IRC:37-2001 Guidelines for the Design of Flexible

Pavements (Second Revision).

41

Effect of Purity of Lime on Strength and

Durability of Soil-Lime mixes
Uma Arun*, V.K. Kanaujia*, Alok Ranjan** , R.K. Swami*** and Sudhir Mathur****

ABSTRACT
Indian Roads Congress as per IRC:SP:20-2002 and Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways Specifications for Road and Bridge
Works as per Clause 402.2.2 specifies that lime of 70% purity
should be used for soil stabilization to get the desired results.
However, it has been observed that lime of such purity is generally
not available. In case lime of such specification is arranged from
specific mine, the cost of the same works out to be even more
than the ordinary Portland cement. It may make the project cost
prohibitively high.
To evaluate the effect of purity of lime on strength and durability
characteristics of different soils, three types of soils generally
available in the country were chosen. The soils considered for the
study are fine grained soils i.e. Silty soil, Black Cotton Soil and
Clayey soil. The study was conducted with Laboratory grade lime
and commercially available limes from different locations. The
purity of Laboratory grade lime was 87% and of commercial lime
1 & 2 was 50% and 17% respectively. To assess the strength
gain and durability of soil-lime- mixes, the laboratory experiments
were planned to compare the effect of lime of different purities on
stabilized soils in terms of unconfined compressive strength and
durability. It was observed that lime of low purities with certain
percentage and curing periods also satisfy the UCS criteria for use
in sub-base/base layer of pavement. However, when the durability
tests were carried out on three type of soils stabilized with limes
of different purities, it was found that silty soil stabilized with
lime of different purities could withstand the durability cycles
with certain percentage of lime but clayey soils and black cotton
soils stabilized with laboratory grade lime and lime of less purity
could not withstand the durability test. The findings of the study
indicate that the criterion of 70% purity of lime can be relaxed for
silty type of soil for the purpose of lime stabilization.

INTRODUCTION

The quality aggregates sources are depleting very fast

in many regions of the country. At many locations,
hard metal has to be brought from far off location
ranging from 100-300 km making the cost of structure
quite prohibitive. Stabilization of sub grade soil can
*

Senior Technical Officer

**

Senior Scientist

*** Senior Principal Scientist

substantially improve the bearing capacity/CBR of

the sub grade substantially reducing the requirement
of crust thickness. The Stabilization of soil for use in
pavement sub base and bases is also an economical
substitute to costly pavement materials, and from that
point of view, it deserves more attention than it is
receiving at present.
The techniques of soil stabilization are well known
in the country since long. In the late fifties and early
sixties, several kilometer of roads in different parts of
the country were constructed under the pilot scheme
and projects sponsored by Central Ministry of Road
Transport under the overall guidance and supervision of
CRRI. The performance of these roads was satisfactory
in most of the cases. However, the technique of soil
stabilization could not become popular among the
practicing engineers due to several reasons. The
major reasons which could be attributed for the same
are lack of machinery for proper pulverization and
mixing, thereby requiring extensive quality control
measures to ensure uniform mixing. Long period of
curing and non availability of good quality lime as per
the prescribed norms of standards and specifications
are another major reasons for lack of adaptability of
lime soil stabilization in the country.
With the advent of NHDP and PMGSY programme,
there is a big boom in the road construction activities in
the country and therefore large size road construction
machinery is either being imported or being
manufactured in the country itself. On large projects,
road construction machinery is available in sufficient
number to meet the tight and time bound construction
schedules. In this connection, Govt. of India and
Govt. of France organized a Training programme
cum Technical meet on Soil Treatment at National

CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New- Delhi

**** Chief Scientist

42

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Institute for Training of Highway Engineers (NITHE),
Noida from November 7-11, 2005. The issues of lime
stabilization like construction machinery, quality
control, period and methods of curing, quality and
purity of lime and economics of lime stabilized roads
etc. were discussed at length. It was opined that in
clayey soil regions and the areas where good quality
aggregates are not available, the techniques of soil
stabilization should be adopted as they prove to be very
cost effective. It was also discussed that the construction
machinery is now available on big projects and if not
available, it could be imported due to the availability
of sufficient project costs. Construction machinery
should no longer be considered as a constraint. The
only bottleneck in the adoption of soil stabilization
techniques, which emerged during the discussion, was
the non availability of lime of required purity at all
places. It was not very clear that if lime of less purity
is used, how adversely it may affect the strength of
mixes and consequently the performance of the road.
In view of the above, it was proposed to take up a
study on the effect of purity of lime on strength and
durability of soil-lime mixes and compare strength
development of soil-lime mixes with locally available
lime and Laboratory grade lime and to study the
durability of the above mixes.
2 Scope and Objective
To evaluate the effect of purity of lime on strength
characteristics and durability in terms of unconfined
compressive strength and wetting & drying cycles of
the soil-lime mixes, three types of soils were chosen.
The soils considered for the study are fine grained
soils i.e. Silty soil, Black Cotton Soil and fine grained
Clayey soil. The study was conducted with Laboratory
grade lime and two commercially available limes
from different locations. The purity of Laboratory
grade lime was 87% and of commercial lime was
50% and 17% respectively. To assess the strength
gain and durability of soil-lime mixes the laboratory
experiments were planned to compare the effect
of lime of different purities on stabilized soils. The
following studies were carried out in this context.

Geotechnical characterization of three

different types of soil i.e. Silt Soil, Black
Cotton Soil and Clayey Soil

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Effect of lime purities on physical

characteristics of soils.
Study of stabilized mixes prepared with
lime of different purities in terms of
unconfined compressive strength and
Durability etc.
Study of feasibility of using commercial
lime as soil stabilizing agent for road
construction.

3 Materials
The following materials were selected for laboratory
investigations.
3.1 Soils
Three different type of fine soil were collected
considering the variation in their physical and
engineering properties. The different type of soil
selected include, Delhi silt, B.C. Soil and one more
plastic soil.
3.2 Lime
Three lime samples of different grade as indicated
below were selected.
Laboratory Grade Lime: Purity in terms of Calcium
Hydroxide was 87%.
Commercial Grade Lime 1: Purity in terms of
Calcium Hydroxide was 50%.
Commercial Grade Lime 2: Purity in terms of
Calcium Hydroxide was 17%.
(Purity of lime was determined by Rapid Iodine
method.)
4 Geotechnical Characterization
of Soils
To study the geotechnical characteristics of selected
soils, different laboratory experiments were
carried out which include: (a) Grain size analysis
(b) Atterberg limit tests (c) Compaction test and
(d) Unconfined compressive strength test. The
physical and engineering properties of the soil are
given in Table 1.
43

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 1 Physical/Engineering Properties of Soils

Sl. No.

Property

Delhi Silt

B.C. Soil

Clayey Soil

Optimum Moisture Content (%)

9.4

18.9

16.4

Maximum Dry Density, gm/cc

2.06

1.69

1.812

Liquid Limit (%)

24

53

41

Plastic Limit (%)

16

28

27

Plastic Index

25

14

Sieve Analysis
0

Sand (%)

20

14

Silt (%)

70

40

61

Clay (%)

10

55

20

Classification of Soil (IS)

ML

CH

CI

Unconfined Compressive Strength,kN/m2

760.0

450.0

472.0

Gravel (%)

5 Geotechnical Characterisation
of Stabilised Soils
To study the geotechnical characteristics of stabilized
soils, different laboratory experiments were carried
out which include: (a) Atterbergs limits (b) Modified
Proctor compaction test (c) Unconfined compressive
strength test and (d) Durability tests were also carried
out on stabilized soils to evaluate the long term
performance of the mixes.

5.1 Effect of Lime Purity on Atterbergs Limits

The plasticity characteristics were determined as per
IS 2720 (Part -5)-1985. Silty soil, B.C soil and clayey
soil were stabilized with lime (laboratory grade lime,
commercial grade lime 1 and commercial grade
lime 2) in the range of 2-10%. The results are shown
in Table- 2a, 2b & 2c respectively. The effect of purity
of lime on the plasticity characteristics indicate that
the purity of lime plays a marginal role in modifying
the index properties of soils.

Table 2a. Atterbergs Limits of Soils Stabilized with Laboratory Grade Lime
Delhi Silt

LL
%

PI
%

Delhi Silt

24

Silt+2%Lime

30

Silt+4%Lime

LL
%

PI
%

B.C. Soil

53

25

B.C. Soil+2%Lime

52

30

NP

B.C. Soil+4%Lime

Silt+6%Lime

30

NP

Silt+8%Lime

30

Silt+10%Lime

30

44

Black Cotton Soil

Clayey Soil

LL
%

PI
%

Clay

41

14

16

Clay+2%Lime

42

10

50

15

Clay+4%Lime

41

B.C. Soil+6%Lime

50

14

Clay+6%Lime

42

NP

NP

B.C. Soil+8%Lime

45

12

Clay+8%Lime

42

NP

NP

B.C. Soil+10%Lime

45

12

Clay+10%Lime

42

NP

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 2b Atterbergs Limits of Soil Stabilized with Commercial Grade Lime 1
Delhi Silt

LL
%

PI
%

Delhi Silt

24

Silt+2%Lime

28

Silt+4%Lime

Black Cotton Soil

LL
%

PI
%

B.C. Soil

53

25

B.C. Soil+2%Lime

52

30

B.C. Soil+4%Lime

Silt+6%Lime

30

NP

Silt+8%Lime

30

Silt+10%Lime

30

Clayey Soil

LL
%

PI
%

Clay

41

14

18

Clay+2%Lime

43

13

50

18

Clay+4%Lime

44

12

B.C. Soil+6%Lime

50

16

Clay+6%Lime

41

NP

B.C. Soil+8%Lime

48

13

Clay+8%Lime

42

NP

NP

B.C. Soil+10%Lime

47

12

Clay+10%Lime

42

NP

LL
%

PI
%

Table 2c Atterbergs Limits of Soil Stabilized with Commercial Grade Lime 2

Delhi Silt

LL
%

PI
%

Delhi Silt

24

Silt+2%Lime

32

Silt+4%Lime

Black Cotton Soil

LL
%

PI
%

B.C. Soil

53

25

Clay

41

14

B.C. Soil+2%Lime

53

17

Clay+2%Lime

42

12

30

NP

B.C. Soil+4%Lime

50

15

Clay+4%Lime

42

10

Silt+6%Lime

29

NP

B.C. Soil+6%Lime

50

14

Clay+6%Lime

42

Silt+8%Lime

29

NP

B.C. Soil+8%Lime

50

14

Clay+8%Lime

43

Silt+10%Lime

29

NP

B.C. Soil+10%Lime

49

14

Clay+10%Lime

43

5.2 Proctor Compaction Test

Modified Proctor test was carried out as per IS:2720
(Part-8)-1983. Silty soil, B.C. soil and clayey soil
were stabilized with lime (laboratory grade lime,
commercial grade lime 1 and commercial grade
lime 2) in the range of 2-10%. The results of Modified

Clayey Soil

Proctor tests for different stabilized soils are shown

in Table 3a, 3b & 3c respectively. Results indicated
that in case of silt there is a decrease in MDD and
increase in optimum moisture content (OMC). In case
of B.C. soil and clayey soil initially MDD increases
and then decreases.

Table 3a MDD and OMC of Soil Stabilized with Laboratory Grade Lime
Soil

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

Delhi Silt

2.06

9.4

Silt+2%Lime

1.98

Silt+4%Lime

Soil

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

B.C. Soil

1.69

18.9

10.0

B.C. Soil+2%Lime

1.785

1.97

10.9

B.C. Soil+4%Lime

Silt+6%Lime

1.96

11.6

Silt+8%Lime

1.925

Silt+10%Lime

1.89

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

Clay

1.812

16.4

16.8

Clay+2%Lime

1.83

16.2

1.755

16.5

Clay+4%Lime

1.85

13.6

B.C. Soil+6%Lime

1.750

18.8

Clay+6%Lime

1.792

16.6

12.0

B.C. Soil+8%Lime

1.72

18.7

Clay+8%Lime

1.78

14.0

13.1

B.C. Soil+10%Lime

1.73

19.0

Clay+10%Lime

1.77

13.5

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Soil

45

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 3b MDD and OMC of Soil Stabilized with Commercial Grade Lime 1
Soil

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

Delhi Silt

2.06

9.4

Silt+2%Lime

1.99

Silt+4%Lime

Soil

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

B.C. Soil

1.69

18.9

11.0

B.C. Soil+2%Lime

1.726

1.985

11.0

B.C. Soil+4%Lime

Silt+6%Lime

1.955

12.3

Silt+8%Lime

1.956

Silt+10%Lime

1.932

Soil

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

Clay

1.812

16.4

17.6

Clay+2%Lime

1.895

14.2

1.732

17.2

Clay+4%Lime

1.86

14.2

B.C. Soil+6%Lime

1.72

19.2

Clay+6%Lime

1.85

13.2

11.44

B.C. Soil+8%Lime

1.685

19.7

Clay+8%Lime

1.82

14.0

12.2

B.C. Soil+10%Lime

1.688

19.7

Clay+10%Lime

1.792

15.4

Table 3c. MDD and OMC of Soil Stabilized with Commercial Grade Lime 2
Soil

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

Delhi Silt

2.06

9.4

Silt+2%Lime

2.01

Silt+4%Lime

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

B.C. Soil

1.69

18.9

11.73

B.C. Soil+2%Lime

1.81

2.02

10.38

B.C. Soil+4%Lime

Silt+6%Lime

1.99

12.24

Silt+8%Lime

1.99

Silt+10%Lime

1.93

5.3

Soil

MDD
g/cc

OMC
%

Clay

1.81

16.4

12.8

Clay+2%Lime

1.86

15.8

1.82

12.6

Clay+4%Lime

1.862

16.3

B.C. Soil+6%Lime

1.82

13.0

Clay+6%Lime

1.85

16.0

11.48

B.C. Soil+8%Lime

1.74

16.3

Clay+8%Lime

1.81

15.8

12.19

B.C. Soil+10%Lime

1.75

16.0

Clay+10%Lime

1.80

15.2

Unconfined Compressive Strength Test

The unconfined compressive strength test was carried

out on stabilized soil specimens of size 50mm x 100mm
as per IS:4332 (Part -5)-1970. All the three soil viz
Silty soil, B.C soil and Clayey soil were stabilized
with lime in the ranges of 2-10%. and of different
purities.

Soil

and the whole sample was again mixed uniformly in

the wet condition. The wet sample was then compacted
at the corresponding Maximum Dry Density and
Optimum Moisture Content.
5.3.2 Curing and Testing of Samples

5.3.1 Preparation of Samples

The samples were cured in closed desiccators for 7

and 28 days. After the curing period, the samples were
tested for their unconfined compressive strength.

The selected soil was dried and lime was then added to
it. Both were then mixed thoroughly in dry condition.
After uniform dry mixing, the required quantity of
water (calculated based on OMC determined from
compaction tests of stabilized soils) was then added

The results of unconfined compressive strength values

obtained for different unstabilised and stabilized
soils are shown in Table 4a, 4b & 4c. The UCS value
increases with curing period for all lime contents and
for all soils.

46

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4a Unconfined Compressive Strength of Delhi Silt with Lime of Different Purities
Soil - Lime Mix
Plain Local Soil
Silt + Laboratory Graded Lime
Silt+2% Lime
Silt+4% Lime
Silt+6% Lime
Silt+8% Lime
Silt+10% Lime
Soil + Commercial Grade Lime 1
Silt+2% Lime
Silt+4% Lime
Silt+6% Lime
Silt+8% Lime
Silt+10% Lime
Soil + Commercial Grade Lime 2
Silt+2% Lime
Silt+4% Lime
Silt+6% Lime
Silt+8% Lime
Silt+10% Lime

UCS Value
7 days (kN/m2)
760.0

28 days (kN/m2)
760.0

1800.0
2084.0
2050.0
2141.0
2140.0

3090.0
3617.0
3615.0
36 50.0
3670.0

1500.0
2000.0
2000.0
2050.0
2080.0

2500.0
3500.0
3700.0
3620.0
3640.0

1000.0
1440.0
1500.0
1550.0
1560.0

1420.0
2820.0
28 40.0
24 80.0
24 80.0

Table 4b Unconfined Compressive Strength of B.C Soil with Lime of Different Purities
Soil - Lime Mix
Plain B.C Soil
Local Soil + Laboratory grade Lime
B.C. Soil+2% Lime
B.C. Soil+4% Lime
B.C. Soil+6% Lime
B.C. Soil+8% Lime
B.C. Soil+10% Lime
Local Soil + Commercial Grade Lime 1
B.C. Soil+2% Lime
B.C. Soil+4% Lime
B.C. Soil+6% Lime
B.C. Soil+8% Lime
B.C. Soil+10% Lime
Soil + Commercial Grade Lime 2
B.C. Soil+2% Lime
B.C. Soil+4% Lime
B.C. Soil+6% Lime
B.C. Soil+8% Lime
B.C. Soil+10% Lime

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

UCS Value
7 days (kN/m2)
4 50.0

28 days (kN/m2)
--

900.0
1238.0
1750.0
2273.0
23 20.0

1405.0
1838.0
3088.0
3272.0
3383.0

759.0
1190.0
1559.0
2073.0
2120.0

1027.0
2010.0
2375.0
2634.0
2756.0

4 60.0
510.0
5 73.0
7 85.0
8 97.0

5 10.0
6 18.0
8 85.0
1020.0
1500.0

47

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4c Unconfined Compressive Strength of Clayey Soil with Lime of Different Purities
Soil -Lime mix

UCS value
2

Plain Clayey soil

Local Soil + Laboratory graded Lime
clayey Soil+2% Lime
clayey Soil +4% Lime
clayey Soil +6% Lime
clayey Soil +8% Lime
clayey Soil +10% Lime
Soil + Commercial Lime 1
clayey Soil +2% Lime
clayey Soil +4% Lime
clayey Soil +6% Lime
clayey Soil +8% Lime
clayey Soil +10% Lime
Soil + Commercial Lime 2
clayey Soil +2% Lime
clayey Soil +4% Lime
clayey Soil +6% Lime
clayey Soil +8% Lime
clayey Soil +10% Lime

5.4

Durability Test

Durability behavior of lime stabilized samples was

determined by carrying out wetting and drying tests
as per BIS: 4332 (Part - 4)1978. Seven days cured
samples of size 50x100 mm were used for carrying
out tests.
At the end of the curing period the specimens were
submerged in potable water at room temperature for
a period of 5 hours and then removed. The specimens
were then placed in an oven maintained at temperature
70C for 42 hours. After the specified time the samples
were removed. The samples were then given two firm
strokes on all areas with the standard wire-scratch
brush. The brush is held with the long axis of the
specimen or parallel to the ends as required covering
all areas of the specimen. These strokes are applied
to full height and width of the specimen with a firm
stroke corresponding to approximately 1.4 kgf. To
simulate this pressure, about a total of 18 to 20 vertical
brush strokes are applied with two strokes on the sides
of the specimen and four strokes on either ends. The
specimen was then weighed for determination of its
48

7 days (kN/m )
472.0

28 days (kN/m2)
472.0

1192.0
213 8.0
24 57.0
12 12.0
10 45.0

13 42.0
36 42.0
46 08.0
15 36.0
14 37.0

10 80.0
16 06.0
19 31.0
9 81.0
9 66.0

12 08.0
31 65.0
36 08.0
14 26.0
12 17.0

5 83.0
13 13.0
17 06.0
7 82.0
6 14.0

6 98.0
25 49.0
30 41.0
28 80.0
26 74.0

moisture content and dry weight. This completes one

cycle of wetting and drying. The specimens were
again submerged in water and the procedure was
continued for 12 cycles. After 12 cycles of test, all
the specimens were dried to constant weight at 110C
and weighed to determine the oven dry weight of the
specimens. The oven dry weight at the end of the test
is especially required for determination of soil-lime
loss after specified cycles.
Stabilised samples of silty soil with all the three types
of lime content passed the criteria for cement loss as
per ASTM code of practice.
After the durability test, the percentage loss of
different stabilized soil samples were estimated and
then compared with the permissible soil +cement loss
as per ASTM D559 as shown in Table- 5. Observations
from test results have been briefly discussed below:
5.4.1 Stabilized Silt Samples
Stabilized silt samples passes the durability tests with
lime content of 2%-10% lime of all the three purities.
Stabilized samples with lime of all the three purities
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
passed the criteria for cement loss as per ASTM code
of practice and also as per Laboratory Manual on
Material Testing of Highway Materials by Khanna
and Justo.
5.4.2 Stabilized B.C. Soil Samples
Stabilized B.C. Soil Samples could not withstand the

wet and dry cycle (durability) test. All the samples

failed within two to three cycles.
5.4.3 Stabilized Clayey Soil Samples
Stabilized Clayey Soil Samples could not withstand
the wet and dry cycle (durability) test. All the samples
failed within two to three cycles.

Table 5 Results of Durability Test of Lime Stabilised Silty Soil

Soil Lime
Mix

Silt+ Laboratory
Grade Lime
Silt+ Commercial
Grade Lime 1
Silt+ Commercial
Grade Lime 2

Classification
as per
AASHTO

Durability Test
Soil- Lime Loss (%)
of Stabilized Samples
Soil
Soil
Soil
+ 4%
+ 6%
+ 8%
Lime
Lime
Lime
2.3
2.0
0.72

A4

Soil
+ 2%
Lime
2.9

A4

3.77

3.11

2.9

1.7

1.7

A4

5.0

4.3

3.2

2.0

2.0

6
Conclusions
Effect of purity of lime on strength and durability of
three selected soils viz silty soil, B.C soil and clayey
soil were evaluated in the laboratory. Laboratory
Grade Lime with 87% purity in terms of calcium
hydroxide, Commercial Grade Lime 1 with 50%
purity and Commercial Grade Lime 2 with 17 %
purity was used in this study. The conclusions of this
study are as follows:
1.

The 7 days Unconfined compressive strength

requirement in case of stabilized sub-base layer
should be 1716 kN/m2 as per IRC:50-1973
and IRC:SP:20-2002. Indian Roads Congress
and Ministry of Road Transport and Highways
Specifications for Road and Bridge Works as
per Clause 402.2.2 specifies that lime of 70%
purity should be used for soil stabilization to get
the desired results. However, it has been found
from these studies that Silty soil stabilized with
laboratory grade lime( 87% purity) as well
as with commercial grade lime ( 50% purity)
satisfies the UCS and durability criterion for use
in sub-base layer of the pavement. However,
silty soil stabilized with commercial grade lime
(17% purity) satisfies the UCS and durability

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Soil
+ 10%
Lime
0.3

Permissible Soil-Cement
Loss (%)
ASTM D559

Maximum permissible
loss 10%.
Maximum permissible
loss 10%.
Maximum permissible
loss 10%.

criterion after 28 days of curing period for use

in sub-base layer of the pavement.
2.

Both clayey soil and BC soil stabilized with lime

of different purities and various percentages of
lime as indicated in the test results could not
withstand the durability cycles. Thus the study
suggests that lime of low purity can be used for
stabilization of silty soil but in case of clayey
soils, it can be used as modifier but not for
structural strength improvement.

Acknowledgement

Authors are grateful to Dr. S. Gangopadhyay, Director

Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi for his
permission to publish the paper.
References
1.

IRC:50-1973: Recommended Design Criterion for the

use of Cement Modified Soils in Road Construction

2.

Road Construction Ministry of Road Transport and

Highways Specifications for Road and Bridge Works
2001.

3.

IRC:SP:20-2002, Rural Roads Manual.

4.

IRC:SP:89-2010, Guidelines for Soil and Granular

Material Stabilization using Cement, Lime & Fly ash.

49

GOOD ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES :

CASE STUDY & REVIEW OF TREE TRANSPLANTATION
FOR HIGHWAYS PROJECT IN INDIA
Arijit Choudhury*, Dr Raj Kumar Singh** and Col V.K. Ganju***
ABSTRACT
Widening and construction of road projects today is seen as an
integral precursor to the economic development of the country
and disseminating accrued benefits to all sections of the society.
However, all developments do come at a price and such widening
and construction of roads and highways have had a direct impact
on the old and large trees (sometimes more than a century). These
trees are felled to make way for the widening of the existing
alignments and for all new projects. The declaration of linear
plantations as Protected Forests in some states to a certain extent
helped in arresting the negative impacts of felling. However,
the loss of old and big trees did have had a lasting impact on
the environment and ecology of the project area in the areas of
aesthetics, green tunnels, loss of ecology and wild life, rising of
temperature etc.
One way of arresting the negative impacts of such tree felling is
compensatory afforestation as specified by the Forest Departments
but another but not so explored way is to transplant older and
healthier trees in the vicinity with the help of Arboriculture cum
engineering measures. Tree transplantation is recommended to
be carried for endangered & ecologically sensitive trees. Such
transplantation normally is a common practice in developed
countries. However, no creditable & systematic studies have been
carried out in the Indian context in the field of transplantation of
large trees along the highways (average age is 40-50 years) from
one place to another place.
This paper after reviewing articles & case studies on transplantation
with a view to suggest development of good environmental practice
in transplantation of larger trees along the highway projects in
India. The article also reviews and suggests the best available
methodology and comprehensive set of criteria, including life
span, maturity, and structure soundness in the Indian context for
consideration while deciding transplantation of large trees.

INTRODUCTION

In India the planning & construction of roads and

highways are done in a myriad ways which might
vary from State to State. However, the basic remains
more or less similar. Existing roads and highways are
maintained with funds allocated for the same either
through central of state corpus directly or indirectly
*

Environmental Expert

**

Environmental Expert

by the MoRT&H, NHAI and state R&B/PWDs.

Based on the traffic studies and/or other engineering,
social, socio economical, defence and political
reasons it might be decided to augment the highway
to a higher standards. Typically the projects include
a Feasibility study to take into account the financial,
economical and technical feasibility, a PPR and or a
DPR study based on the feasibility. Where roads are
proposed to be developed under BOT basis the study
by the consultants/authorities end at PPR stage. The
PPR/DPR studies include the technical studies
in details including cost and BOQ, Social Impact
Assessment & Resettlement Action Plans and an
Environmental Impact Assessment.
2

ROAD PLANNING AND ENVIRONMENT

For all the positive impacts that a road may play in the
social and economic development, it also has negative
impacts on the various environmental components.
New roads might significantly alter the fine balance
between community, people and development and the
environment. Much mileage can be accrued if negative
impacts are avoided, mitigated and compensated and
positive impacts are enhanced. For this purpose it is
important to identify potential impacts during the early
planning stage. Constructing sustainable roads needs
for a better, empathetic & changed outlook towards
the environmental component for better planning,
preparation and management of road projects.
Long term costs towards bio physical environment
(pollution control, carbon credits, aesthetics etc.),
socio economic benefits to the communities especially
in relation to the cultural, educational, health
components and biodiversity needs to be considered.
Thus all the potential impacts on the physical, natural,
biological and social component of the environment

Feedback Infrastructure Services Pvt. Ltd., Gurgaon

*** President

50

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
are to be identified & studied & mitigated through
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). However,
the measures proposed in the EIA are in most cases are
generic making their implementation by the agencies
a bit difficult.
The Govt. of India has planned to construct around
7000 Km of 4-lane roads including widening and
strengthening of National Highways every year. In a
fair estimate it can be stated that there shall be the
following impacts on:

Aggregate: On an average 0.5m of

aggregate or 4500 cum is required for
4 laning of 1 Km thus for the target of
7000 Km of roads is to be built then
approximately 3.15 Cr cum of aggregate
is required per year

Earth Quantity: On an average 2m of

earth or 18000 cum is required for 4
laning 1 Km leading to approx 12.6 Cr
cum per year

Water Quantity: Approx 1.6 lakh KLD is

required to achieve the target

Tree: It can be safely & conservatively

assumed that 85 trees (above 30 cm girth
size) of various species on an average
are felled for widening of 1 Km for a 4
lane stretch. Thus the total trees cut is
approximately 5.95 per year.

Hence, the quantum of environmental impacts or

the issues are set to multiply every year if a target of
7000 Km of roads is to be realised. The figures above
though may actually vary but provides us with a
distinct set of mind numbing numbers as to what shall
happen if roads are not planned properly considering
all environmental aspects. One of the important yet
least documented impacts of road projects has been
on trees along the highways. Thus from the above it
is found that an approximate 5.95 lakh trees are to be
felled in a year for 7000 Km. Considering that these
trees are normally very old, the ecological loss is quite
heavy. To mitigate the loss of trees, there are three
main options.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

2.1

Compensatory Afforestation

This is mainly done through forest department.

Recent studies conducted have shown that the funds
for the compensatory afforestation (CAMPA) havent
been fully utilised due to ongoing litigations. The
afforestation may not be done in the same locality/
area where felled as funds for the central government
projects may be utilised in states like Rajasthan,
MP etc. even when the felling might be in the North
Eastern or Southern states. Again the actual ecological
and economical benefits shall be available only when
the tree matures i.e., after minimum of 10 years.
Normally a compensation rate of 1:2 i.e., 2 trees to
be planted for 1 tree is taken for calculation, however,
rate might go up to 1:20.
2.2 Avenue Plantation/Landscaping
These plantations are over and above the compensatory
afforestation and might not be implemented stringently
and are not mandatory. This is especially true for PPP
projects. Though the Concession Agreements for the
PPP projects might mention avenue plantation and
landscaping, CA doesnt detail the number, species
and above all the locations where these plantations are
to be done. Normally median plantations of shrubs and
/ or small trees are planted in the name of landscaping
and the entire plantation is subject to availability of
land for plantation in the ROW.
2.3 Tree Transplantation
Tree transplantation is recommended to be carried out
in respect of the trees which are ecologically sensitive,
unique and are of endangered species. This is one of
mitigation which is rarely proposed and implemented.
The scope of transplantation of the existing avenue
plantation that is earmarked for felling is seldom tried
out and studied in details. The process might save a huge
number of trees and significantly reduce the negative
impact of the road project on the environment.
3

IMPORTANCE OF TREE
TRANSPLANTATION IN INDIAN
HIGHWAY SCENARIO
It is a common sight along almost all highways to
find trees (some even more than a few decades old)
on both the sides of the carriageway, which increases
51

TECHNICAL PAPERS
the aesthetics of the area and provides shade and a
host of other benefits. The species that are commonly
found all over the country are either trees associated
with timber like Teak (Tectona grandis), Sal (Shorea
robusta), Sisoo (Dalbergia sissoo); fruit, medicinal or
flowering trees like Mango (Magnifera indica), Neem
(Azardirachta indica), Gulmohar (Delonix Regia),
religious species like Banyan (Ficus bengalhensis),
Peepal (Ficus religiosa), or exotic species like
Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.) & Babool (Acacia sp.)
besides a host of other species varying from region
to region.
A fully grown tree plays many roles from the
environmental, social and economical point of view.
Trees are a cheaper and effective option for reducing
pollution besides providing diversity of species &
shelter to faunal species. They also provide shade,
timber, fruits, medicines and aesthetics and their role
in carbon sequestration, temperature control and other
climatic roles are undeniable. These mature trees are
replaced by a young sapling of the same/different/
exotic species, which shall require more than a few
decades to restore the environmental benefits to the
base level. Even though the species planted might
double the number, they shall not be able to provide
the same functions as these saplings are vulnerable
and might die even before reaching maturity.
In todays scenario most of the highway projects are
mainly widening and strengthening of the existing
alignment. Thus the major impact of the widening
projects is on the existing trees within the ROW
that are felled. Normally the authorities give tree
felling permissions with the condition of payment of
double/multiple numbers of trees to be felled on case
to case basis. In order to arrive at the best possible
widening option an alternative analysis mainly driven
by engineering and cost parameters and to a certain
extent land acquisition, forest diversion, clearance
implications is done. However, the parameter of tree
savings/felling is either completely ignored (due to
paucity of data, time constraints or other reasons) or
rudimentary analysis (based on number) is done. In
the absence of a comprehensive data related to age,
species type and number it is very difficult to calculate
whether a long term sustainable option would be
widening of the road along the existing alignment or
52

a new Greenfield alignment or an eccentric widening

against a concentric widening option or transplant
species.
One way of arresting the impacts of tree felling is
compensatory afforestation as per Forest Departments
but another and not so explored way is to transplant
older and healthier trees in the vicinity with the help
of arboriculture cum engineering measures. This shall
also help in identifying the exact numbers of trees
suitable for transplantation, both species and age
wise but also help the project proponent to earn some
carbon credits, should he desire so.
4 LITERATURE REVIEW
As part of the study, a number of literature available
was reviewed both for projects in India and abroad.
Infrastructure projects in India and abroad with specific
interests in highway projects reviewed. Though tree
transplantation literature for projects were available,
very few were applicable for the transportation sector.
Most of the data available also were not suitable for the
massive scale of tree cuttings done for the widening of
road projects. Almost no structured & documented data
were available for Indian scenarios. Some evidence has
been found in Reality, Forestry (Gurgaon & Gujarat),
Common Wealth games & Municipality projects in
India. In the transportation sector only Mumbai-Pune
Expressway by MSRDC, Pune-Solapur Highway by
NHAI & some municipal road projects in Nanded
have implemented transplantation of trees, though the
details of the transplantation are not in public domain
and were difficult to obtain.
5

CASE STUDY

Since not much field data on transplantation was

elicited, it was decided to study the impacts of tree
felling and transplantation scenarios mainly on the
financial component. For the purpose of the study, two
roads were selected. Both the roads have been studied
under World Bank Funded projects and are:
5.1

Hyderabad - Karimnagar - Ramagundam

(HKR) Section of SH-1 in Andhra Pradesh

The road is approximately 207.400 Km long & is

presently under construction for widening to 4 lane
standards. Approx 18192 tree in HKR have been
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
earmarked for felling. Thus the number of trees to
be cut per Km is 88. If a compensation rate of 1:3 is
taken into consideration then 54576 trees needs to be
planted with an average approx. cost of Rs.1500.00
per tree for a total cost of is Rs.8.19 Cr. or Rs.3.95
lakhs per km. If half the trees be transplanted then
9096 trees can be saved from felling with 27288 being
planted as compensatory afforestation. The total cost
of transplantation is assumed at Rs.10000.00 per
tree in average (Figure varies between Rs.5000.00
to Rs.15000.00 as per data reviewed, though might
be lower in practical scenario). Thus total cost for
transplantation scenario shall be Rs.13.19 crores
or Rs.6.36 lakhs per Km. Thus the difference is
Rs.5 crores or Rs.2.41 lakhs per Km.

5.2

Akbarpur - Yadunathpur - Jardag Section of

NH-2C in Bihar

The road is approximately 60.000 Km long and is

proposed to be widened to 2 lane with paved shoulder
standards. Presently the road is in planning stage.
Approximately 4760 trees are proposed to be felled
and thus felling of 79 trees per Km is proposed. For
a compensation rate of 1:3, 14280 trees needs to
be planted with the total cost being Rs.2.14 Cr. or
Rs.3.57 lakhs per Km. If half the no. of trees be
transplanted then 2380 trees can be saved while 7140
being planted as compensation bringing the total cost
at Rs.3.45 crores or Rs.5.75 lakhs per Km. Thus the
difference is Rs.5 crores or Rs.2.18 lakhs per Km.

Table 1 Cost of Tree Felling Mitigation Scenario in Two Case Studies

Scenarios

HKR (SH1) in Andhra Pradesh

NH2C in Bihar

Trees

Rate

Total (Crore)

Trees

Rate

Total
(Crore)

Only
Compensatory Afforestation
Compensatory @ 1:2
Afforestation
Rate/Km

36384

1500

5.46

9520

1500

1.43

Compensatory Afforestation
@ 1:3

54576

0.03
1500

Rate/Km
Transplantation Transplantation
+
Compensatory Compensatory Afforestation
@ 1:2
Total

8.19

0.02
14280

1500

0.04

2.14
0.04

9096

10000

9.10

2380

10000

2.38

18192

1500

2.73

4760

1500

0.71

11.82

7140

27288

Rate/Km

3.09

0.06

0.05

Transplantation

9096

10000

9.10

2380

10000

2.38

Compensatory Afforestation
@ 1:3

27288

1500

4.09

7140

1500

1.07

Total

36384

11500

13.19

9520

11500

3.45

0.06

0.06

18192

10000

18.19

4760

10000

4.76

0.09

0.08

Rate/Km
Only
Transplantation
Transplantation
Rate/Km

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

53

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 2 Difference in Cost of Two Case Studies in INR Crore
Scenarios

HKR (SH1) in Andhra Pradesh (207.400 Km)

Only
Transplant + Difference
Afforestation Compensation

NH2C in Bihar (60 Km)

Only
Transplant

Difference

Only
Afforestation

Transplant +
Compensation

Difference

Only
Transplant

Difference

(2-1)

(3-1)

(5-4)

(6-4)

Compensatory
Afforestation
@ 1:2

5.46

7.28

1.82

9.10

3.64

1.43

1.90

0.48

2.38

0.95

Compensatory
Afforestation
@ 1:3

8.19

8.64

0.45

9.10

0.91

2.14

2.26

0.12

2.38

0.24

The analysis of the case studies suggests that initial cost

shall be marginally higher for transplantation scenario.
However as evident from Table 1 & 2 if the ratio of
compensatory afforestation increases, the difference
shall decrease. Also half the trees were assumed to
be fit for transplantation, which may vary as per site
conditions. Again the cost of transplantation as per
literature reviewed varied in the absence of a uniform
rate analysis. Moreover ancillary costs for tree felling
and other costs were not taken into account besides
the benefits that might be accrued on a mature tree
vis--vis a juvenile plant or saplings. Thus based on
the financial analysis alone it may be safely assumed
that long term financial benefits of transplantation
shall be more if all benefits are accounted for.

WEIGHTAGE AND RANKING SYSTEM

ADOPTED
Since, absence of field tested data was unavailable
for tree transplantation in Indian Highway scenario;
it became a bit difficult to derive the advantages
of transplantation to a logical conclusion. Hence,
a weightage, ranking & screening system were
designed for comparison of tree transplantation visa-vis tree felling. Numerical values were assigned
for each parameter and then compared for both tree
felling and transplantation scenarios as per details in
the table below. The attributes that were considered
are environmental, ecological, social, economical
and financial & cost parameters. Since there are 5
major attributes all were provided with a numerical
value of 20 each thus making the total score as 100.
These attributes were further subdivided into various
parameters which were also provided with numerical
values.

Table 3 Weightage and Ranking System Adopted

Sl. No.

Attributes & Parameter

Total Weight

Scenario
Tree Felled

Transplantation

Environmental Attribute

1
1.1

Impact on Rainfall

1.2

Impact on Temperature Increase

1.3

Impact on Global Warming

54

Scoring Criteria

-ve change
No change
+ve change
-ve change
No change
+ve change
-ve change
No change
+ve change

2
0
4
2
0
4
2
0
4

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Sl. No.
1.4

1.5

Attributes & Parameter

Scoring Criteria

Impact on Air & Noise Pollution

Impact on Soil Erosion

-ve change

No change

+ve change

-ve change

No change

+ve change

Total Weight

Total Weightage of Environmental Attribute

2.2

2.3

2.4

Impact on Biodiversity changes

Impact on Ecosystem Imbalance

Impact on Habitat Destruction

Impact on Nutrient Cycle

-ve change

No change

+ve change

-ve change

No change

+ve change

-ve change

No change

+ve change

-ve change

No change

+ve change

Total Weightage of Ecological Attribute

3.2

3.3

20

10

20

20

14

10

20

10

Social Attribute

3
3.1

Transplantation

Ecological Attribute

2
2.1

Scenario
Tree Felled

Impact Shade

Impact on Religious sentiments

Impact
on
Landscaping

Aesthetics

&

-ve change

No change

+ve change

10

-ve change

No change

+ve change

-ve change

No change

+ve change

Total Weightage of Social Attribute

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

55

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Sl. No.

Attributes & Parameter

4.2

4.3

10

10

20

10

14

Total Weightage of Financial & Cost Attribute

20

10

15

Total Weightage

100

43

73

Economical Attribute
Changes in Timber Value

Changes in Medicinal & Fruits

values

Changes in Other values

-ve change

No change

+ve change

10

-ve change

No change

+ve change

-ve change

No change

+ve change

Financial & Cost Attribute

5.2
5.3
5.4

Compensatory Afforestation
Cost for Nursery Plantation
Cost for Transportation
Maintenance

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

High

Low

Based on the above table it thus can be strongly

suggested that tree transplantation outweighs tree
felling.
7 METHODOLOGY & BEST PRACTICES
Since the data and literature reviewed didnt highlight
enough to showcase a decision was taken to prepare
a methodology based upon the learning of the
literature reviewed and suggest best practices. Since
a lot of research has been undertaken in the subject
& is available in the public domain, the detailed
methodology along with pictures is not described
here. However, for carrying out transplantations, it is
essential to follow the following steps:
56

Scenario
Transplantation

Total Weightage of Economical Attribute

5.1

Total Weight
Tree Felled

4
4.1

Scoring Criteria

7.1

Tree Survey

Tree survey/enumeration should be carried out

during the planning and early design stages when the
alignment is finalised. The survey should be an indepth inspection of the existing trees that are proposed
to be felled covering details of each individual tree to
be affected. The main purpose of above survey is to
facilitate the tree felling application process at the later
detail design or construction stage. However, current
tree surveys only record basic information and can be
criticised for not accurately reflecting the structural
integrity, value and suitability for transplantation of
trees.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
Table 4 Proposed Tree Survey Format
Tree
Ref.
No.

(1)

Tree Species Girth

(Botanical
(cm)
name)

(2)

(3)

Tree
Height
(m)

Age
(Year)

Health
Condition
(Good/Fair/
Poor

Value
(High/
Medium/
Low

Survival
Scope After
Transplanting
(High/Medium/
Low

Remarks
(Justification
for Proposed
Tree Removal/
Ecological/Other
Significance)

Retain/
Transplant/
Fell

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

For example, age is one of the key parts of information

deciding whether a tree should be preserved and
is currently not included in tree surveys. The
consideration of usual lifespan and life expectancy of
different tree species will contribute to better decisionmaking and resource allocation for preservation and
transplantation of trees. It is suggested that only
trees in good health and structure, and that have long
lifespan should be considered for transplantation.

to arid zones. Thus the species found normally in the

wild also varies from zone to zone making the task
of selection of species difficult. However, based on
data available it can be safely suggested that species
from Ficus family notably Banyan & Peepal, Mango,
Neem and xerophytic species like Palms have a better
survival rate when transplanted. However, this list is
not exclusive and species idealness shall again vary to
suit the climatic zones.

7.2

7.4 Best Season to Transplant

Transplant Success Rate

Transplantation of trees causes stresses & may

cause plants to die or to become unattractive. Plants
which are already in advanced stages of decline are
especially likely to succumb to transplantation stress.
Often a young plant will resume growth sooner than
an older transplanted tree and will provide more longterm benefits in the new planting location. Deciduous
trees have a better transplant rate than evergreens.
Similarly shallow rooted species have better success
rate than deep rooted species, and younger plants
better than older plants. When deciding whether or
not to transplant a tree or shrub, or to start over with a
young plant, consider the species transplant tolerance,
condition of the plant, season to transplant, new
planting site conditions, the equipment needed, and
follow-up care.
7.3 Species Ideal for Transplantation in Indian
Scenario
The geographical and soil conditions in India are very
diverse varying from the extreme cold to hot and hot

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Some species may survive transplanting any time

during the year, but some species are preferably moved
before the onset of monsoon and before the buds on
the tree or shrub begin to swell. Winter planting should
take place soon after falling of leaves, providing time
for new water absorbing roots to develop.
7.5 Site Selection
There are great differences in the environmental
requirements for each tree species. Only transplant a
tree where light, moisture, soil pH, and wind exposure
are appropriate for the particular species. All plants
require space for root and crown development;
therefore, consider mature plant size when planting
trees. Soil characteristics are often limiting factors
for plant survival in a given area. Sometimes the
soil is inappropriate for tree growth and will require
improved drainage or amendments before trees are
planted at the given location. A soil test should be
done in areas where soil quality is questionable.

57

TECHNICAL PAPERS
7.6

Digging

Plant roots should never become dry during the

transplanting process. Water all trees two to three days
before digging if the soil is dry. Prior to digging, low
branches should be tied up to prevent injury during
the digging, transporting and planting operations.
Marking one side of the trunk will allow a tree to be
placed in the same orientation at which it grew in its
original location.
A sharp spade should be used when digging trees to
assure root wounds are clean cut. Although leaving
a soil ball attached to the root system will cause
less root injury, soil is heavy and sometimes it is
more convenient or even necessary to transplant a
tree without a soil ball. Larger plants should only
be dug with soil attached. Bare root transplanting is
prudent only during monsoon and care must be taken
to prevent damage to roots when removing the soil.
The soil ball for trees should be a minimum of 30 cm
for each 3 cm of trunk diameter. Large trees should
have a trench dug deep enough to get below all of the
major roots (usually 40 to 60 cm). The trench should
be dug completely around the tree to be transplanted.
This will provide the angle necessary for the spade to
undercut roots directly under the soil ball. All roots
around the plant must be severed before any lifting
takes place. Present orientation towards sun to be
marked in the trunk prior to digging up.
7.7 Storing and Transporting
Trees that have been dug for transplanting should
be planted as soon as possible. Root balls should
be covered with damp material which will retain
moisture until planting. When a tree is stored, it
should be protected from direct sunlight, winds, and
temperature extremes. If trees cannot be planted for
more than a week, their roots should be covered with
mulch or moist soil and the plants should be placed in
a shaded area. In all cases, root systems should not be
allowed to dry out as it can severely reduce the success
rate of transplantation. Trees must be protected when
transporting to a planting site and covered truck/trailer
are preferred.
58

7.8

Planting

Proper planting pits are important in tree survival.

Pits should be two to three times wider than the root
ball. In dry soils the pits should be pre-watered before
planting in. This prevents initial post-plant water
from migrating away from the root ball. Plant it at the
same depth that the tree or shrub was growing in its
previous location. Damaged roots should be clean-cut
with a sharp blade prior to planting. If any circling or
kinked roots are discovered during the transplanting
procedure, sever them to prevent future girdling of the
plant. Orientation of the tree towards the sun should
be similar to the previous location.

Fig. 1 Tying of Trees & Replanting of the Tree

7.9

Post Planting Care

Watering

The site should be thoroughly watered immediately

after planting & must be regularly monitored to prevent
drying out as improper watering after transplanting is
a major cause of tree loss. If rainfall is inadequate, the
soil around the plants roots should be deeply watered
approximately once every fortnight.

Mulching

Mulches help conserve moisture, moderate soil

temperature and control weeds around trees and shrubs.
They are placed on the soil surface over the tree or
shrub root system. Either organic or inorganic mulches
may be used. Organic mulches may be composed
of bark or wood chips, straw, partially decomposed
leaves or other materials. They should be applied 7 to
INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
10 cm deep. Maintain a 10 to 15 cm mulch-free area
adjacent to the woody stems. Occasionally, when soil
is poorly drained, mulch should not be used.

Fertilizer

For the first few years, woody plants rarely need

nutrients beyond those naturally occurring in the soil.
No fertilizers or manure should be mixed with the fill
soil, as this could cause root damage. If transplants
appear to need fertilizer during the first few years, a
totally soluble complete fertilizer should be applied.

Pruning

Methods for root pruning vary depending on the age of

the tree. The amount of pruning depends on the size of
the root ball and plant canopy, health of the plant, and
the species transplanted. Additional pruning may be
required to balance the leaf area with the reduced size
of the root system, but further pruning of deciduous
trees should be postponed for at least one year after
transplanting. Late season plantings may require
additional pruning since the plants have less time to
become established before winter than those planted
earlier in the season.
7.10 Mechanical Support
Mechanical support may be necessary when the tree is
tall, slow to recover, heavily foliaged, or planted in a
sandy site. Most small trees do not require staking or
other support and will develop strong trunks faster if
allowed to move freely with the wind. For trees that do
require mechanical support, staking may be used. Any
support provided to a tree should be removed as soon
as the tree can stand alone. The sooner the support is
removed, the faster the tree will become stronger.
7.11 Techniques for Transplanting Large Trees
Prior to moving the plant, prepare and dig the pits
for the plant in the new location. Also soak the root
ball of the plant before moving so that the soil will
remain together during the digging process. Carefully

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

dig the soil away from the root ball, and then wrap
the whole ball in untreated hessian cloth. Synthetic
cloth should not be used since it will not rot away and
eventually restrict the growth of the roots. Special
considerations are necessary when moving large trees.
Depending on the size of the tree and the technique
used, the equipment may include hand carts, winches,
tree spades, or cranes. Ensure that the trunk is heavily
padded if a cable must be secured (only if absolutely
necessary) around it to balance the tree during removal
Large trees should not be transplanted with root balls
smaller than 30 inches in diameter for each 3 inch in
trunk. If multiple trees are being transplanted, all of
the trees may be dug and stored before transporting
them to the new site. Before moving a large tree,
keep in mind that smaller trees of a particular species
typically transplant better and catch up in growth to
larger trees of the same species.
8

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF TREE TRANSPLANTATION

A number of advantages and disadvantages for tree

transplantation were felt during the review for the paper.
However in the absence of concrete documentations
and data in Indian scenario it couldnt be concluded
that transplantation is actually disadvantageous to a
highway development project.
The process of transplantation is a nascent & not
amply codified & hence needs more research. In the
absence of approved process, methodologies & field
testing data it may be agreed that the project cost might
increase in the short term due delays in implementation
& surveys. There shall be some confusion while
surveying the age of the trees and might be leading
to erroneous judgment for selecting the species. Since
the description and bills for transplantation are not yet
part of Standard Data Book & Schedule of Rates, it
shall pose difficulties to the estimator in deriving the
cost of transplantation. Also this might lead to non
uniform costing for projects implemented even by the
59

TECHNICAL PAPERS
same project proponent. The actual cost might vary
from place to place depending upon the quantum of
species to be transplanted to species types and also
age. No concrete data could be validated to arrive at a
particular cost figure, however based on the review it
can be predicted that the estimate may vary in between
Rs.5000.00-20000.00 (INR Five thousand to twenty
thousand) per tree.
However, the advantages in adopting the process
outweigh the disadvantages scrutinise as per proposed
tree survey given in Table-4. The benefits accrued
shall have a lasting impact on all the attributes except
economical attributes. The benefits shall be found in
the environment and ecology of the project area in
the areas of aesthetics, green tunnels, ecology and
wild life, climate control etc. Financially, the cost for
transplantation shall be offset against the maintenance
of nursery for plantation and then maintaining tree
saplings after planting besides taking into consideration
the cost of compensatory afforestation.
Also it has the potential of painting the project
proponent and the private players (especially the
concessionaires) as an environmental friendly
authority and the mileage derived out of the same
shall help in building the brand image, besides even
earning carbon credits.
9

RECOMMENDATION & CONCLUSION

60

A robust alternative analysis should be

done to find out the number & species
of trees that shall be affected due to
the development project. Based on the
analysis widening and realignment
options along with tree felling and
transplantation to be proposed
Where transplantation is considered,
comprehensive set of criterion including
lifespan,
maturity,
and
structure
soundness should be evaluated

Arboriculture / horticulturist and

ecologists should be consulted prior to
transplantation

Special traffic arrangement / exception for

transplantation to be taken up including
securing approvals from the authorities
where applicable

Field data based on age, species and

geographical locations need to be
collected for further research in the area
of transplantation in highways. Presently
these data are unavailable and hence
cannot be conclusively linked in this
paper

The amount of money saved should be

considered in the Economical Analysis of
the project and showcased to the approval
authorities

It is also suggested that project proponents

gradually start advising the planners
appointed for the project to consider the
process of transplantations in the project
preparations

IRC may embark on developing a proper

methodology of transplantation based on
discussions with experts and publish the
same in the form of a special publication
for the benefits of all associated with road
construction and planning

Thus it is concluded that tree transplantation are indeed

a sustainable step towards green roads and highways
and can be taken up as part of planning for road and
highway development projects.
10

REFERENCES & BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.

Florida Highway Landscape Guide, Florida Department

of Transportation, 14th April 1985

2.

The Conservancy Association, 16th Dec 2007, press release

http://www.conservancy.org.hk/conser/tree/index.htm)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

TECHNICAL PAPERS
3.

C.Y. Jim Transplanting November 1995 Two Champion

Specimens of Mature Chinese Banyans, Journal of
Arboriculture 21(6)

4.

Hamilton, W.D. 1988. Significance of Root Severance

on Performance of Established Trees. J. Arboric. 14(12):
288-292.

5.

Draft EIA report for DPR for Akbarpur Yadunathpur

Jardag Section of NH2C in the State of Bihar

6.

EIA report for Consultancy Services for Preparation of

PPP Techno-Economic Feasibility Study and Transaction
Advisor for Hyderabad - Karimnagar - Ramagundam
(SH1) in the State of Andhra Pradesh (APRDC)

7.

http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-02-23/
gurgaon/28625889_1_biodiversity-park-pilkhan-andgullar-trees-of-fichus-family

http://india.gov.in/high_level/documents/4th_report/rd/
RD14T.pdf

10

http://news.oneindia.in/2010/09/05/uttarakhandforestdepartment-initiates-treetransplantation.html

11.

http://www.hindu.com/2009/09/09/
stories/2009090958320300.htm

12.

http://www.citizensforgreendoon.com/transplant.cfm

13.

http://www.msrdc.org/Projects/Mumbai_Pune_Expr.aspx

14.

http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/
daily/19980523/14350434.html

15.

h t t p : / / e n v i s . m a h a r a s h t r a . g o v. i n / e n v i s _
data/?q=enrmcnws_nov10

16.

http://www.sakaaltimes.com/sakaaltimesbeta/20101005/5
385347171155238519.htm

8.

http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/citys-treetransplantation-operation-successful/320482/

17.

http://www.itnsource.com/jp/shotlist/RTV/2010/09/05/
RTV2243410/?v=1&a=0

9.

http://www.hindustantimes.com/BMC-to-spend-Rs-15-crore-to-transplant-100-grown-trees/Article1-480935.
aspx

18.

http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_nashikrallies-behind-greens-call-251-trees-get-a-new-lease-oflife_1480120

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

61

ERRATA TO :
IRC:112-2011 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR CONCRETE ROAD BRIDGES
As approved by Bridges Specifications and Standards (BSS) Committee of IRC in its third meeting held on
29.05.2013 at New Delhi.
These Errata were prepared and recommended by Concrete (Plain, Reinforced and Pre-Stressed) Structures
Committee (B-4) of IRC and placed before the BSS Committee. The BSS Committee in its third meeting held
on 29.05.2013 approved these Errata.
These Errata are also available on IRC Website for wider circulation and benefit of the Highway professionals.
Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

As written in the code :

To be read as :

1.

3.1.3 (Page 8)

Reference Period/Return Period

Reference Period

2.

3.1.3 (Page 8)

Quasi Permanent Value of Variable Action (2Qk)

Quasi Permanent Value of Variable Action (2Qk)

Value determined so that the ..using factor 2 1

Value of a variable action as a fraction of characteristic load,

which is present for substantial part of the reference period.
n

3.

3.2.2 (Page 13)

New Addition after z Lever arm of Internal forces

Exponent forstrain in concrete stress block

4.

5.8.4 (Page 26)

The permissible limits of known harmful elements in The permissible limits of known harmful elements in
acceptable and durable materials are specified in Section acceptable and durable materials are specified in Section 14
18

5.

6.3.5 2nd line

from top
(Page 34)

6.

Table 6.5,
Sr. No. 3
(Page 38)

(pk, fpk)

(uk, fpk)

Conc.
Grade

M65

M70

M75

M80

M85

M90

Conc.
Grade

M65

M70

M75

M80

M85

M90

fctm
(Mpa)

4.1

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.7

4.8

fctm
(Mpa)

4.4

4.5

4.7

4.8

4.9

5.0

7.

Table 6.5,
Sr. No. 11,
(Page 38)

8.

6.4.2.2 (1)
Definition of
term S,
(Page 39)

S = Co-efficient whose value is taken as 0.25 for normal S = Co-efficient whose value is taken as 0.25 for ordinary
Portland and rapid hardening cement. Refer ...
Portland cement. Refer ...

9.

6.4.2.2 (2)
6th line
(Page 39)

...long term in-structure compressive strength is taken as ...long term compressive strength in structure is taken as
0.67 times 28 days cube strength
0.67 times 28 days cube strength

10.

6.4.2.3 (1)
2nd Para
(Page 40)

The co-relation between mean tensile ...

11.

Eq. 6.9
(Page 42)

= (t, to) =

cc ( t )
ci ( to )

The relation between mean tensile ...

= (t, to) =

cc ( t )
ci ( to )

12.

6.4.2.5 (2)
(Page 43),
1st Para

The shrinkage & creep strains are to be estimated as given The shrinkage & creep strains are to be estimated as given in
in Clauses 6.4.3.6 and 6.4.3.7
Clauses 6.4.2.6 and 6.4.2.7

13.

6.4.2.5 (4) (i)

(Page 43),
3rd line

(slope of line connecting the origin to stress/strain diagram (slope of line connecting the origin to stress/strain diagram
to 0.4 fcm)
to 0.33 fcm)

62

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Errata To IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'

Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

14.

Table 6.8, Title

(Page 46)

15.

Eq. 6.12
(Page 46)

16.

As written in the code :

To be read as :

Unrestrained Drying Shrinkage Values (ca 106)

Unrestrained Drying Shrinkage Values (cd 106)

ca(t) = as(t).cw

ca(t) = as(t).cw

6.4.4.2.7, 3rd line ...In addition to the factors listed in Clause 6.4.3.6(1)
(Page 46)

...In addition to the factors listed in Clause 6.4.2.6(1)

17.

6.4.2.7 (2)
(Page 47)

New addition after last line "...increased by 10 percent in "...increased by 10 percent in absence of accurate data. In
absence of accurate data."
case the compressive stress exceeds 0.36fck, at loading, nonlinear creep shall be considered."

18.

Eq. 6.21,
(Page 49)

c = f cd 1 1 c
c 2
where

n


c f cd 1 1 c
c 2
where

= Exponent as given in Table 6.5

n = Exponent as given in Table 6.5

19.

7.1.7 (4),
5th line
(Page 53)

In the absence of other data, v may be taken as 0.6,

including an allowance for sustained loading.

In the absence of other data, v may be taken as 0.6,

including an allowance for sustained loading.

20.

7.3 (2)
(Page 54)

Where required (e.g. in seismic analysis), plastic method In seismic analysis, plastic method of analysis may be used
of analysis (e.g. plastic hinges for linear members or
provided it... local plastically.
yield line for slabs/walls) may be used provided it ... local
plastically.

21.

7.7.1 (5),
6th line
(Page 59)

"...The time dependent laws of shrinkage and creep

given..."

The time dependent properties of shrinkage and creep

given.

22.

Eq. 7.3
Reduction
Coefficient,
(Page 59)

= (l-e)/

= (1-e(-)/

23.

7.9.6
1st Para
(Page 66)

24.

7.9.6 Below
2nd para
(Page 66)

The requirement of minimum concrete strength (fc.str) The requirement of minimum concrete strength behind the
behind the anchorage of post tensioned system, at the time anchorage of post tensioned system, at the time of stressing,
of stressing, shall be specified by the designer ...
for full jacking force, designated as fc.str shall be specified by
the designer
- For 100% tendon force, minimum strength is fc.str

- For 100% jacking force, minimum concrete strength is fc.str

- For 30% tendon force, minimum concrete strength is - For 30% jacking force, minimum concrete strength is
0.5 fc.str
0.5 fc.str
- Between 30% and 100% of tendon force, minimum - Between 30% and 100% of jacking force, minimum concrete
Concrete strength shall be arrived at by linear interpolation strength shall be arrived at by linear interpolation between
between 0.5 fc.str & fc.str
0.5 fc.str & fc.str
Where Vc = 0.13.l.deff.(fck)0.5 (In SI units)

25.

7.10.2, Fig. 7.2

(Page 67)

Where Vc = 0.13.l.deff.fck (in SI units)

26.

7.10.3, Line 4
Radial Reinft.
(Page 68)

These tensions should be resisted by reinforcement These tensions should be resisted by reinforcement forming
forming full loops or 180 hooks (Fig. 15.2(d) with 180 full loops or 180 hooks (Fig. 15.2(e) with 180 bend) placed
bend) placed in the ...
in the

27.

8.2.1, (1) (k),

3rd line
(Page 71)

nutral

28.

8.2.1, (2)
(Page 71)

neutral

For values of deformation charactreristics of concrete such For values of deformation charactreristics of concrete such
as, c2, cu2 refer Table 6.7
as, c2, cu2 refer Table 6.5

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

63

Errata To IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'

Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

29.

Clause 8.2.2
Fig. 8.2
(Page 72)

30.

8.2.2 Zone 2,
last line
(Page 73)

31.

8.3.2 (4)
Eq. 8.3
(Page 75)

32.

Fig. 10.1(a)
Page 81

As written in the code :

To be read as :

Fig. 8.2 Domains of Strain Distributions

Fig. 8.2 Domains of Strain Distributions

The tensile strain at steel is at the upper design limit of ud.

The tensile strain at steel exceeds ud.

M Edx M Edy

+
M Rdx M Rdy
a

M Edx M Edy

+
M Rdx M Rdy

B - Web shear creack zone

B - Web shear crack zone

C - Flexural shear creack zone

C - Flexural shear crack zone

33.

Clause 10.2.2.1, 'sup' & ''inf'

3RD para
(Page 81)

34.

Clause 10.2.2.1, The horizontal component of this internal compressive The horizontal component of this internal compressive
forces shall be provided by tensile steel in addition to the forces shall be provided by tensile steel in addition to the
3rd para, Last
line (Page 82) steel needed for bending & shear time other curves effect steel needed for bending.

35.

Clause 10.2.2.1
Fig. 10.1 (b)
(Page 82)

36.

64

max & min

Fig. 10.1(b) Direct support

Fig. 10.1(b) Direct Support

Fig. 10.1 (c) Indirect Support

Fig. 10.1 (c) Indirect Support

Clause 10.2.2.1
Fig. 10.1 (c)
(Page 82)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Errata To IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'

Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

37.

10.3.1
NOtation for
fctk (Page 87)

Characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete at a strain, Characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete (5 percent
5 percent fractile of tensile strength
fractile)

38.

10.3.1
Notation for
1 (Page 87)

1 = As/bw.d 0.02

39.

10.3.1
Notation for
cp(Page 87)

"The value of Scp need not be calculated at a distance less "The value of cp need not be calculated at a distance less
than 0.5d cotq..."
than 0.5d cot ..."

40.

10.3.2 (5)
(Page 89)

The term 'v' in line 1,2,4,7

'av' in line 1,2,4,7

41.

10.3.2 (5)
eq. 10.6
(Page 90)

v = 0.6 x [1-fck/310] fck in Mps

v = 0.6 x [1-fck/310], where fck is in Mpa

42.

10.3.3.2
Value of Z",
(Page 91)

Z lever arm can be taken as 0.9 for RCC section and to Z lever arm can be taken as 0.9d for RCC section and to be
be calculated for PSC section.
calculated for PSC section.

43.

10.3.3.3 (5)
(Page 92)

Where the web contains grouted ducts with a diameter Where the web contains grouted ducts with a diameter
<bw/8 the shear resistance ...
<bw/8 the shear resistance ...

44.

10.3.3.3 (7)
(Page 93)

The term 'v' in line 2,3

'av'

45.

10.3.3.3 (8)
(Page 93)

0.75v

0.75av

46.

10.3.5
Fig. 10.9
(Page 97)

'Ast', '' and 'St'.

'Asf', 'f' and 'Sf' respectively

47.

10.3.5 (2)
(Page 98)

VEd fcdsinfcosf

VEd <fcdsinfcosf

48.

10.4.3 (5),
3rd Line,
(Page 103)

Fig. 10.14(b)

Fig. 10.13(b)

49.

10.4.6 (3), (a)

(Page 105)

50.

Clause 10.5.1
(3)-Last Para
(Page 106)

51

11.3.2.2 (3)
4th line after
Eq. 11.6
(Page 116)

52.

Clause 11.3.4:
Biaxial
Bending
(Page 118)

53.

12.23.1
Last Line
(Page 121)

As written in the code :

To be read as :

1 =

Asl
0.02
bw.d

Where uo

Where uo :

- for an inner column = length of column,

Periphery in mm.

- for an inner column = length of column,

periphery in mm.

- for edge column = (mm)

- for edge column = C2+3d C2+2C1(mm)

- for corner column =

- for corner column = 3d C1+C2(mm)

It will not normally be unnecessary to consider torsion at It will not be necessary to consider torsion at ultimate limit
ultimate limit state [Fig. 10.14(b)]
state [Fig. 10.14(b)]
l/r is the curvature, see clause 11.3.2.3

l/r is the curvature, see clause 11.3.2.3

Clause 11.3.4

Clause 11.3.3

...need to be controlled by measures given under Clause ...need to be controlled by measures given under Section 14
14

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Errata To IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'

Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

As written in the code :

To be read as :

54.

12.3.3 (2)
Line below
Eq. 12.3
(Page 124)

Sc is the mean stress of the concrete acting on the part of c is the mean stress of the concrete acting on the part of the
the section under consideration:
section under consideration:

55.

12.3.4 (2)
Definition of
"hc,efff",
(Page 126)

Ac,eff is the effective area of concrete in tension surrounding Ac,eff is the effective area of concrete in tension surrounding
the reinforcement, of depth hc,eff where hc,eff, is the lesser of the reinforcement, of depth hc,eff where hc,eff, is the lesser of
2.5(h-d); (h-x/3); or h/2 (refer Fig. 12.2).
2.5(h-d); (h-x)/3; or h/2 (refer Fig. 12.2).

56.

12.3.4 (3)
Eq. 12.8
(Page 127)

3.4c + 0.425k1k2
.eff

3.4c +

0.425k1k2
.eff

57.

Line below
Eq. 12.12
(Page 128)

Where h is the effective depth and x is depth of neutral axis Where 'h' is the effective depth and 'x' is depth of neutral axis
from the compression face
from the compression face

58.

12.3.6 (5)
Last 3 lines
(Page 130)

For post tensioned concrete, where crack control is Delete this sentence
provided mainly by untensioned reinforcement, the tables
may be used with the stress in this reinforcement calculated
the effect of prestressing force included.

59.

Table 12.3
(Page 130)

Maximum bar size [mm]

Maximum bar spacing [mm]

60.

12.4.2 (2)
(Page 132)

cs is the free shrinkage strain (refer clause 6.4.3.6)

cs

61.

13.5.1.1 (2)
Heading
(Page 137)

Rectangular End Block

Rectangular End Block (2 Ao x 2 Yo)

62.

13.5.1.1 (2)
2nd last line
(Page 137)

Alternatively the higher of the two directions can be Alternatively the higher of the two reinforcements can be
provided in both directions
provided in both directions

63.

Clause
15.2.3.1
Fig. 15.1
(Page 149)

Fig., 15.1 Description of Bond Condition

64.

Fig., 15.1 Description of Bond Condition

Footnote (iii)
For values of m = 1.2. The above values can be increased For values of c = 1.2, the above values can be increased by
below Table 15.3
1.5
1.5
by a factor
= 1.25
a factor
= 1.25
(Page 150)
1.2
1.2

65.

15.2.3.3:
Footnote No.
(2) below
Table 15.4
(Page 151)

66.

15.2.4.2
Fig. 15.2 Footnote
(Page 152)

66

is the free shrinkage strain (refer clause 6.4.2(6))

"For f > 32mm, these lengths should be increased by..."

"For > 32mm, these lengths should be increased by..."

Note: For lb,net values ref. 15.2.4.3

Note: For lb,net values refer clause 15.2.4.3

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Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

67.

Eq. 15.2
Value of 'a'
(Page 153)

68.

Clause
15.2.5.1
Fig. 15.5
Page (156)

As written in the code :

a

0.7 for bent bars in tension, if the concrete cover a 0.7 for bent bars and loop bars in tension, if the concrete
perpendicular to ..."
cover perpendicular to ..."

Fig. 15.5 Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement at

Lapped-Splices
69.

To be read as :

Fig. 15.5 Detailing of Transverse Reinforcement at LappedSplices

Clause
15.2.7.2
Fig. 15.7
Page (161)
Fig. 15.7 Anchorage of Bundles of Bars
Fig. 15.7 Anchorage of Bundles of Bars

70.

15.3.2.2(2) (c)
(Page 167)

The design-value-of the-transmission length should be The design value of the transmission length should be taken
taken as-the less favourable-of the two values, depending depending on the design situation, given in Eq. 15.9 or
15.10.
on the design situation.
lpt1 = 0.8lpt

Eq. 15.9

lpt1 = 0.8lpt

Eq. 15.9

lpt1 = 1.2lpt

Eq. 15.10

lpt2 = 1.2lpt

Eq. 15.10

Note: Normally the lower value is used for verification of Note: The lower value is used for verification of local stresses
local stresses at release, the higher value for ultimate limit at release, the higher value for ultimate limit states (shear,
states (shear, anchorage etc.).
anchorage etc.).
71.

15.3.2.2 (3) (a)

(Page 168)

72.

Eq. 15.13
(Page 168)

73.

15.3.2.2 (3) (d)

4th & 5th line
below Eq.
15.13
(Page 168)

74.

16.2.3 (5)
Page 173

The tendon forces should be calculated for a cracked The tendon forces should be calculated for a cracked section,
section, including the effect of shear according to Clause including the effect of shear according to Section 10.3.3.3(6)
10.3.3.2 (5)

lbpd = lpt2 + 2(pd-pm,)/fbpd

pd
pm.

lbpd = lpt2 + 2(pd-pm,)/fbpd

is the tendon stress corresponding to the force pd

described in (a)
is the prestress after all losses.

pm.

is the tendon stress corresponding to the force

described in (a)
is the prestress after all losses.

At location of laps, the transverse reinforcement shall At location of laps, the transverse reinforcement shall satisfy
satisfy requirements of Clause 15.2.5.1.3.
requirements of Clause 15.2.5.1(3)

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Errata To IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'

Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

75.

Clause
16.5.1.2
Fig. 16.1
(Page 175)

76.

16.5.1.3 (6)
Last Line
(Page 176)

77.

Clause
15.5.1.5
Fig. 16.4
(Page 178)

As written in the code :

To be read as :

Fig. 16.1 Internal & External Parts of a T-Beam

Fig. 16.1 Internal and external Parts of a T-Beam

(Distance X in Fig. 16.1)

(distance X1, X2 in Fig. 16.1)

Fig. 16.4 Anchorage at Intermediate Suports

Fig. 16.4 Anchorage at Intermediate Suports
78.

Eq. 16.4
(Page 179)

79.

Clause
16.6.1.1
Fig. 16.5
(Page 182)

w =

ASW
s.bw sin

Fig. 16.5 Provision of Reinforcing Bars

w =

ASW
s.bw sin

Fig. 16.5 Provision of Reinforcing Bars

80.

Line below
16.6.2 (4)
(Page 185)

The maximum longitudinal spacing of successive series of (5) The maximum longitudinal spacing of successive series
links is given by:
of links is given by:

81.

16.12,
Last Line
(Page 189)

Refer Clause 7.11.2 for requirements of curved tendons.

68

Refer Clause 7.10.1 for requirements of curved tendons.

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Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

82.

Clause 16.13
Fig. 16.11
(Page 190)

83.

As written in the code :

To be read as :

Fig. 16.11 Extent of the Inter-Section Zone (in Plan) for

the Connection of Secondary Beams

Fig. 16.11 Extent of the Inter-Section Zone (in Plan) for the
Connection of Secondary Beams

Fig. 17.2 Typical Confinement Detail in Concrete Piers

with Rectangular Section using Overlapping Rectangular
Stirrups and Cross-Ties

Fig. 17.2 Typical Confinement Detail in Concrete Piers with

Rectangular Section using Overlapping Rectangular Stirrups
and Cross-Ties

Bends of 90 are not permitted if k is less than 0.3

Bends of 90 are not permitted if k is greater than 0.3.

Clause
17.2.1.4
Fig. 17.2
(Page 196)

84.

17.2.2 (2) (a),

5th line
(Page 197)

85.

17.2.4 (3),
second line,
(Page 198)

.the ratio hk does not exceed 0.2, there is no need for .the ratio k does not exceed 0.2, there is no need for
verification.
verification.

86.

18.7.4 (7)
(Page 216)

within the range of 0 percent and 0.1 percent of the within the range of -0.5 percent and 5.0 percent of the
original volume. It should not be more than +0.2 percent original volume.
at 28 days.

87.

Clause A1-4 (2) These are the persistent situations

(a), 3rd line
(Page 234)

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Delete this sentence

69

Errata To IRC:112-2011 'Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges'

Sl. No.

Clause No. &

Page No.

As written in the code :

88.

Eq. A2-5
(Page 236)

f
Ecm = 22 cm
12.5

89.

Eq. A2-10
(Page 236)

90 0.8 f ck
= 1.4+23.4

100

90.

ANNEXURE
A-2
CLAUSE A2.5,
Eq. A2-17
(Page 238)

for fcm 45 Mpa

91.

ANNEXURE
A-2
CLAUSE A2.5,
definition of
(to)
(Page 238)

is a factor to allow for the effect of concrete age at loading is a factor to allow for the effect of concrete age at loading on
on the notional creep coefficient (Refer Note No.1)
the notional creep coefficient.

92.

ANNEXURE
A-2
CLAUSE A2.5,
Eq. A2-22
(Page 238)

for fcm 35

for fcm 45 Mpa

93.

ANNEX A-2
CLAUSE A2.5,
Eq. A2-23
(Page 239)

for fcm 35

for fcm> 45 Mpa

94.

ANNEX A-2
Clause A2.8
Fig. A2-2
(Page 242)

0.3

To be read as :

f
Ecm = 22 cm
12.5
4

0.3

, Ecm in GPa

90 0.8 f ck
n = 1.4+23.4

100

for fcm> 45 Mpa

Fig. A2-2 Stress-Strain Relationship for Confined

Concrete

Fig. A2-2 Stress-Strain Relationship for Confined Concrete

OBITUARY
The Indian Roads Congress express their profound sorrow on the sad demise of Shri Ramesh Chandra
Jindal, resident of 4/54, Vishal Khand, Gomti Nagar, Lucknow. He was an active member of the
Indian Roads Congress.
May his soul rest in peace.

70

INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

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71

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INDIAN HIGHWAYS, August 2013

Haryana State Roads and Bridges Development Corporation Ltd.

(A State Government Undertaking)
TENDER NOTICE
INVITATION FOR BIDS FOR ENGAGEMENT OF
SUPERVISION CONSULTANT
For the work of
Sealed offline (manually) bids are hereby invited for engaging Supervision Consultant for construction of
following or kunder National Capital Region Loan Scheme on behalf of Governor of Haryana from reputed
consultants:Approximate
Date & time of
Cost of
Period of
Value of Work
document Completion
(Rs. in Crore) Sale of bid Submission Opening of (in Rs.) (in Months)
of bid
bids

Sr.
No.

Name of work

1.

2.

3.

Supervision Consultant for

the work of Improvement by
Widening and Strengthening
of Gurgaon-Chandu- Badli
Road, section from Badli
to Gurgaon Km 18.200 to
39.00in Gurgaon & Jhajjar
District.

Rs.93.83

4.

5.

Upto
upto
07.08.2013 12.08.2013
17:00hours 11:00Hours

6.

7.

8.

12.08.2013
at 15:00
hours

10000/-

12 months

Pre-bid meeting will be held on 23.07.2013 at 11:00 hours in the office of Superintending Engineering, Gurgaon
Circle, PWD B&R, Civil Line, Gurgaon.
Bidding documents may be purchased from the office of Superintending Engineer, PWD B&R Br., Gurgaon
Circle, Civil Line Gurgaon, Phone/Telefax: 0124-2321494, E-mail ID [email protected] or from
DGM-I, HSRDC, Near PWD Rest House Building, Civil Line, Gurgaon upto 07.08.2013 upto 17:00 hours on
all working days for a non-refundable fee of Rs.10,000/- by Demand Draft of any Scheduled bank payable at
Gurgaon in favour of Deputy General Manager-I, Haryana State Roads & Bridges Development Corporation,
Gurgaon. Interested bidders may obtain further information at the same address.
The tender documents are available on website at www:hsrdc.in, www:haryanapwd-bandr.org. &
www:haryanapmgsy.etenders.in. The tender documents can be downloaded from the internet. If downloaded,
the cost of tender documents will be paid along with the bid submission.
For further detail and tendering schedule please visit the above website.

Superintending Engineer,

PWD B&R Br. Gurgaon Circle,
Gurgaon

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