Outline

15.1 Internal resistance

15.3
15.4 Potential divider
15.5 Potentiometer & Wheatstone bridge

E. ELECTRICITY
AND MAGNETISM
Chapter 15
Direct current circuits

Objectives
(a)

(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)

(f)

(g)

explain the effects of internal resistance on the

terminal potential difference of a battery in a circuit
state and apply
explain a potential divider as a source of variable
voltage
explain the uses of shunts and multipliers
explain the working principles of a potentiometer, and
its uses
explain the working principles of a Wheatstone
bridge, and its uses
solve problems involving potentiometer and
Wheatstone bridge

15.1 Internal resistance

of sources

Electric Current

Electromotive Force (emf

A battery that is disconnected from any circuit

has an electric potential difference between its
terminals that is called the electromotive force or
emf:

EMF = the voltage between two ends of a

circuit when no current is flowing in the circuit
An emf (electromotive force) is the work per
unit charge done by the source of emf in
moving the charge around a closed loop

Remember despite its name, the emf is an

electric potential, not a force.

Wne
q
5

Electromotive Force (emf)

Electromotive Force (emf)

Because of the positive and negative charges

on the battery terminals, an electric potential
difference exists between them. The maximum
potential difference is called the electromotive
force* (emf) of the battery.
The electric potential difference is also known
as the voltage, V.
The SI unit for voltage is the volt, after
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) who invented the
electric battery. 1 volt = 1 J/C.

The energy needed to run electrical devices

comes from batteries.
Within a battery, a chemical reaction occurs
that transfers electrons from one terminal
(leaving it positively charged) to another
terminal (leaving it negatively charged).

Electromotive Force (emf)

Electromotive Force (emf)

A source of emf will maintain a potential difference
and supply current to an external circuit .Example:
batteries, solar cells, generators etc.
If the emf of a battery is zero, there is no current
when a wire is connected across its terminals. In this
case there is no potential difference to drive the
charge.
But if the emf in nonzero, a current is present when
the terminals are connected.
The greater the emf, the greater the current in the
circuit.

Electromotive force (emf) is the potential difference

that appear between the terminals of a battery when
no current is present.
A source of emf is a device that converts chemical,
mechanical or other forms of energy into the electric
energy necessary to maintain a continuous flow of
electric charge.
In electric circuit, source of emf is usually represented
by and it is measured in volts.
9

Sources of emf

10

Sources of EMF

The source that maintains the current in a closed

circuit is called a source of emf
Any devices that increase the potential energy of
charges circulating in circuits are sources of emf
Examples include batteries and generators
SI units are Volts
The emf is the work done per unit charge

Electric cells-convert chemical energy to

electrical energy
Consists of 2 different metals (the electrodes)
immersed in a substance called an
electrolyte.
A battery consists of a no. of cells connected
together (a car battery = 6 2V cells in series)

1.

Primary cell

Battery of
cells

11

Sources of emf:

Simple Cell

The electro motive force is the maximum potential

difference between the two electrodes of the cell when
no current is drawn from the cell. Comparison of EMF and P.D:
EMF

Potential Difference

EMF is the maximum potential

difference between the two
electrodes of the cell when no
current is drawn from the cell i.e.
when the circuit is open.

P.D is the difference of potentials

between any two points in a
closed circuit.

It is independent of the resistance

of the circuit.

It is proportional to the resistance

between the given points.

source of emf.

It is measured between any two

points of the circuit.

3
4

It is greater than the potential

difference between any two points
in a circuit.

12

Cu plate and Zn Plate in a beaker of

dilute sulphuric acid
Cu

Zn

The plates react with

the acid Zn plate
becomes neg. charged,
Dilute
Cu +. Thus a potential
sulphuric
difference exists so
acid
electrons can flow
from -ve to +ve plate

However, p.d. is greater than emf

when the cell is being charged.

13

Primary and Secondary cells

14

Example
When you press one of the buttons on a pocket
calculator, the battery provides a current of 300 A
for 10 ms.
How much charge flows during that time?
How many electrons flow in that time?

Primary cell = cell which cannot be

recharged-once the chemicals are used
up it must be discarded (e.g. dry
battery)
Secondary cell = cell which can be
recharged (usually by pushing current
through it in the wrong direction) (e.g.
car battery)

I t

300 A 10ms

3.00 C

total charge in 10ms

Number of electrons
charge on 1 electron
3.0 C
1.90 1013
1.60 10 19 C
15

16

emf and Internal Resistance

More About Internal Resistance

A real battery has some

internal resistance
Therefore, the terminal
voltage is not equal to
the emf

The schematic shows

the internal resistance, r
The terminal voltage is
b-Va
Ir
IR + Ir

17

Internal Resistance and emf, cont

18

Internal Resistance and emf, final

When R >> r, r can be ignored
Generally assumed in problems
Power relationship
I = I2 R + I2 r
When R >> r, most of the power
delivered by the battery is transferred to
the load resistor

current is zero
Also called the open-circuit voltage
R is called the load resistance
The current depends on both the resistance
external to the battery and the internal
resistance

19
R

Internal resistance
+

20

Internal Resistance of a cell:

-

The opposition offered by the electrolyte of the

cell to the flow of electric current through it is
called the internal resistance of the cell.
Factors affecting Internal Resistance of a cell:
Larger the separation between the electrodes
of the cell, more the length of the electrolyte
through which current has to flow and
consequently a higher value of internal
resistance.
Greater the conductivity of the electrolyte,
lesser is the internal resistance of the cell. i.e.
internal resistance depends on the nature of
the electrolyte.

In reality, batteries and generators also add

some resistance to a circuit. This resistance is
called the internal resistance of the battery.
When an external resistance R is connected to
the battery, the resistance is connected in
series with the internal resistance. This internal
resistance causes the voltage between the
terminals to drop below the emf.

21

Internal Resistance of a cell in terms of

E,V and R:

Internal Resistance of a cell:

The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the common area of the electrodes
dipping in the electrolyte.
The internal resistance of a cell depends on the
nature of the electrodes.
E =V+v

I = E / (R + r)
This relation is called circuit
equation.

E r

E =V+v
= V + Ir
Ir = E - V

v
I

Dividing by IR = V,
Ir

v
I

IR

23

V
r =(

I
R

E
V

I
R

= IR + Ir
= I (R + r)

22

- 1) R
V

24

Internal Resistance of a cell in terms of

E,V and R:

Battery is a device that maintain a fixed electrical

potential difference between two points.
However, when a real battery is used to provide
electrical energy, the external voltage across the
terminals is less than the emf.
This reduction in voltage is due to the potential drop
occurring across the internal resistance of the battery
itself.

Determination of Internal Resistance of a cell by

voltmeter method:
+

+
r

V
r

R.B (R)

R.B (R)

Internal Resistance in a Battery

Open circuit (No current

is drawn)

Closed circuit (Current is

drawn)

EMF (E) is measured

Potential Difference (V) is

measured
25

Internal Resistance of a Battery

26

Internal Resistance of a Battery

As more current is drawn from a battery, a greater

voltage drop occurs across its external resistance.
This effect is most easily visualized by considering a
real battery to consists of an ideal emf in series with a
resistance.
The resistance, r is the internal resistance of the
battery.
If the current is connected to an external resistance,
R (load resistance), the circuit can be drawn as
shown in the given figure.

The current through the circuit depends on the

emf and the total resistance.

R r

The potential difference across the terminals of

the battery is called the terminal potential
difference (TPD).
It is the emf reduced by the voltage drop across
the internal resistance.

27

EMF AND TERMINAL VOLTAGE

Internal Resistance of a Battery

TPD has a value of

TPD

Ir

R r

R r

All sources of emf have what is known as INTERNAL

RESISTANCE (r) to the flow of electric current. The internal
resistance of a fresh battery is usually small but increases with
use. Thus the voltage across the terminals of a battery is less
than the emf of the battery.
The TERMINALVOLTAGE (V) is given by the equation
V
= - Ir, where
represents the emf of the source of
potential in volts, I the current leaving the source of emf in
amperes and r the internal resistance in ohms.
The internal resistance of the source of emf is always
considered to be in a series with the external resistance present
in the electric circuit.

According to this equation, when the load resistance

R is small, the terminal voltace is applicably less than
the emf.
When the resistance is larger than the internal
resistance, the terminal voltage is approximately
equals the emf.

terminal voltage

emf

terminal votage

emf

28

29

30

Example
A transistor radio battery has an emf of 12.0 V. A
current of 4.0 A passes through a wire which is
connected directly across the battery terminals. What
is the internal resistance of the battery ? What is the
TPD across a 10 load?

r
TPD

I
R

R r

12.0V
3.0
4.0 A
10
12.0
10 3

9.23V
31

32

Gustav Kirchhoff
1824 1887
Invented spectroscopy
with Robert Bunsen
Formulated rules about
radiation

There are ways in which resistors can be

connected so that the circuits formed cannot be
reduced to a single equivalent resistor
instead

33

34

More About the Junction Rule

Junction Rule
The sum of the currents entering any junction must
equal the sum of the currents leaving that junction
A statement of Conservation of Charge
Loop Rule
The sum of the potential differences across all the
elements around any closed circuit loop must be
zero
A statement of Conservation of Energy

I 1 = I2 + I3
From Conservation of
Charge
Diagram b shows a
mechanical analog

35

36

More About the Loop Rule

Assign symbols and directions to the currents in all
branches of the circuit
If a direction is chosen incorrectly, the resulting
answer will be negative, but the magnitude will be
correct
When applying the loop rule, choose a direction for
transversing the loop
Record voltage drops and rises as they occur

Traveling around the loop from

a to b
In a, the resistor is transversed
in the direction of the current,
the potential across the
resistor is IR
In b, the resistor is transversed
in the direction opposite of the
current, the potential across
the resistor is +IR
37

Loop Rule, final

38

Rules
Use the junction rule as often as needed, so long as,
each time you write an equation, you include in it a
current that has not been used in a previous junction
rule equation
In general, the number of times the junction rule
can be used is one fewer than the number of
junction points in the circuit

In c, the source of emf is

transversed in the direction
of the emf (from to +), the
change in the electric
In d, the source of emf is
transversed in the direction
opposite of the emf (from +
to -), the change in the
electric potential is -

39

40

Problem-Solving Strategy
Rules
The loop rule can be used as often as needed
so long as a new circuit element (resistor or
battery) or a new current appears in each new
equation
You need as many independent equations as
you have unknowns

Draw the circuit diagram and assign labels and

symbols to all known and unknown quantities
Assign directions to the currents.
Apply the junction rule to any junction in the circuit
Apply the loop rule to as many loops as are needed
to solve for the unknowns
Solve the equations simultaneously for the unknown
quantities
Check your answers

41

The sum of the currents entering a junction =

sum of the currents leaving the junction
The emf across the circuit
= sum of the emfs across the individual parts of
the circuit

43

42

conservation of charge:
junction rule, valid at any junction
Junction (Node) Rule: At any junction point, the
sum of all currents entering the junction must
equal the sum of the currents leaving the
junction.
conservation of energy:
loop rule, valid for any loop
Loop Rule: The some of the changes in
potential around any closed path of a circuit
must be zero.

44

Rules

junction

A junction is a point in a circuit where a number

of wires are connected together.

Some circuits cannot be broken down into

series and parallel connections.

Junction rule: The total current directed into a

junction must equal the total current directed
out of the junction.
Loop rule: Around any closed circuit loop, the
sum of potential drops equals the sum of the
potential rises.
45

Loop rule: The sum of the

changes in potential
around a closed loop is
zero.

Junction rule: The sum of currents entering a

junction equals the sum of the currents leaving it.

I1

I1

I1

I3

I1

46

I2

Loop rule: This is

equivalent to
conservation of energy.

I3
I2

I3

I1 I 2

47

48

Analogy Voltage and GPE

Label each current.
Identify unknowns.
Apply junction and loop rules; you will need as
many independent equations as there are
unknowns.
Solve the equations, being careful with signs.
Pump

49

50

Series Circuit

Parallel Circuits
I
I2

I1

Vac Vab Vbc

Apply the
Junction Rule

Apply the Loop Rule

I3

+
Vac

Vac

Vab Vbc

R eq

IR1 IR 2

I R1 R 2

IR eq

I1 I 2

I3

Problem Solving Strategy

V
R2

1
R eq

R1 R 2 .....
51

Rule Set

V
R1

V
R3

1
R1

1
R2

1
R1

1
R2

1
R3

....

1
R3

V
R eq

52

Loop Rule

A resistor transversed in the direction of assumed

current is a negative voltage (potential drop)
A resistors transversed in the opposite direction of
assumed current is a positive voltage (potential rise)
A battery transversed from to + is a positive voltage.
A battery transversed from + to - is a negative voltage.
Both the loop rule and junction rule are normally
required to solve problems.

Traveling around the loop

from a to b
In (a), the resistor is traversed
in the direction of the current,
the potential across the
resistor is IR
In (b), the resistor is traversed
in the direction opposite of the
current, the potential across
the resistor is is + IR

53

Loop Rule

54

Example Problem 1

In (c), the source of emf is

traversed in the direction
of the emf (from to +),
and the change in the
electric potential is +
In (d), the source of emf is
traversed in the direction
opposite of the emf (from
+ to -), and the change in
the electric potential is -

Given:
R1 1690
R3 1000
R4

3000

V = 3 Volts

Find: current in each resistor

55

56

Example Problem 2
Given:

10

15.3 Potential Divider

10V

20V

20

Find: current in the 20

resistor
57

Potential divider circuit

58

Potential divider circuit

If two or more resistors are connected in series the

total potential difference is divided between the
resistors.
The bigger the resistor the bigger the potential across
it (if one resistor is much bigger than the other
effectively all the p.d. is across the big resistor)

Such a system of resistors is known as a

potential divider circuit-used when a smaller
p.d. is required than the supply
The value of Vout
depends on R1
and R2

Vout

R1

R2

59

Potential divider

V
Reff

R eff

and

R1

Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across

R1 is given by
R1
V1
V
V1 IR1
R1 R2

A potential divider produces

an output voltage that is a
fraction of the supply
voltage V. This is done by
connecting two resistors in
series as shown.
Since the current flowing
through each resistor is the
same, thus

60

R1

R2

V1

V2

Similarly,

R2
V
R1 R 2

V2

Resistance R1 and R2 can be replaced by a uniform

homogeneous wire as shown.

R2

V
R1

I
R2

I
l1

R CB

RA B
RA B

and

V1

62

V1

IR A C

l1 l 2

Since the current flowing through the wire is the

same, thus
V
I

V2

V1

Therefore, the potential difference (voltage) across

the wire with length l1 is given by

The total resistance, RAB in the wire is

R AC

61

R AB

l2

Similarly,

RAB

V1

l1
V
l1 l2

V2

l2
V
l1 l2

l1

l2

I
A

l1 l2

V
63

IR

l
64

More Potential Divider : Variable Resistor

Example 21.16 :
For the circuit below,
a. calculate the output voltage.
b. If a voltmeter of resistance 4000 is connected across
the output, determine the reading of the voltmeter.

used as a potential divider (potentiometer)

circuit symbol

8 000
12 V

4 000

V o ut

4 .0 V

V o ut

2 .4 V

Vou t

65

Variable potential divider circuit

66

Potential Divider
Fixed Valued Potential Divider

Two resistors replaced by a variable

resistor. The output voltage increases from
O V when the contact is at A to the max
input voltage when the contact is at B

R1

Effective resistance = R1 + R2

Current through each resistor = R

1

V1

R2

R2

V2

Voltage across R1 , V1 = R1I = R R R 1

1
2

Vout
B

Voltage across R2 , V2 = R2I =

V
R1

R2

R2

67

Potential Divider

68

Potential Divider

Variable Potential Divider (potentiometer)

+12V

+12V

When the slider Y is at point Z

the voltmeter reads the
voltage of the supply

R1

Y
E

Pencil

When the slider Y is at point X

the voltmeter reads the zero
voltage

R2

0V

0V

69

Potential Divider

Potential Divider

Just like in our pencil the voltage

will distribute itself proportional
to the resistance.

+12V
R1

I
V

70

V1

V2 = V1 * R2 / (R1+R2)

R1

E.G if R1 is twice R2 then 1/3 of

the voltage will be across R2.

V2

So V will be 4 volts.

R2

R2

0V

(We can prove this from Ohms

law)
I = V1/(R1+R2)
I = V2/R2

0V

71

72

Control the temperature in an incubator

Usage of Potential Divider

In reality, series circuits are used as potential dividers
to control a device automatically.
Eg.: to turn on an electric heater automatically in an
incubator.
setting up the circuit with a component that is affected
by heat (thermistors) or light (LDRs).
The total resistance of the circuit will depend on
some environmental factor, and the way the input
voltage is shared will also be affected.
As a result, the output voltage will vary depending on
the environment. This can then control the device by
switching it off (of the voltage to it is too low), or on.
73

Consider a potential divider which

uses a fixed resistor in series with a
thermistor.
Remember that the resistance of the
thermistor falls with increasing
temperature.
As the temperature of the incubator
drops, the resistance of the
thermistor will increase. A larger
portion of the input voltage will then
be used across it.
Place an electric heater across the
thermistor.
The heater will come on when the
voltage to it is high enough, i.e when
the temperature has dropped
sufficiently.
Choosing different values for the fixed
resistor will allow the heater to come
on at different temperatures.

Vout to
heater

74

The Measurement of Current and Voltage

A dc galvanometer.
The coil of wire and
pointer rotate when
there is a current in
the wire.

15.3.1 Shunt and

multiplier

75

76

Shunt and multiplier

The Measurement of Current and Voltage

An ammeter must be
inserted into a circuit so
that the current passes
directly through it.

The galvanometer is a sensitive currentreading meter.

High current may burn the wiring system of
the moving-coil inside the galvanometer.
The galvanometer can be protected by using
shunt or multiplier.

77

Shunt and multiplier

78

Multi-range voltmeter

A low resistance resistor connected in parallel

to the galvanometer to divert the current is
called shunt. The actual balance point is
determined when the shunt is removed.
A high resistance resistor connected in series
with the galvanometer to reduce the total
current is called multiplier. The actual balance
point is then determined when the multiplier is
short-circuited
79

Simplified Volt-Ohm
Meter (VOM) voltmeter
schematic diagram. This
voltmeter uses one 50
A, 5000 meter
movement, multiplier
resistors, and one range
switch

80

Multi-range ammeter

Galvanometer Sensitivity
Current sensitivity may be
defined as a ratio of the
deflection of the galvanometer to
the current producing this
deflection
Voltage sensitivity may be
defined as the ratio of the
galvanometer deflection to the
voltage producing this deflection

Multi-range
ammeter typical of
those found in
many VOMs. The
meter is a 50 A
full-scale, 5000
movement

SI

d mm
I A

SV

d mm
V mV

SR

d
I

SQ

d m mm
Q C

SI

81

Galvanometer Sensitivity

82

DC Ammeters Shunt Resistor

Megohm sensitivity may be defined

as the number of megohms required
in series with the (CDRX shunted)
galvanometer to produce one scale
division deflection when 1 V is
applied to the circuit
Ballistic sensitivity and is defined as
the ratio of the maximum deflection,
dm, of a galvanometer to the quantity
Q of electric charge in a single pulse
which produces this deflection.

SI

d mm
I A

SV

d mm
V mV

d
I

SR

SI

Rm

Rs

mm
A

Movement

d m mm
Q C

SQ

Im

Is

Rs

I m Rm
I Im

83

Ayrton Shunt
Schematic diagram
of a simple
multirange ammeter
--------

84

DC Voltmeters

Ra Rb Rc

Rd

Basic dc voltmeter
circuit -V I m Rm V
Rs
Im
Im

S
1A

Universal or Ayrton
shunt --

5A

Rb

Multiplier

Ra

Im

Rs

1
I fsd V

Rm

Rm
-

Multirange
voltmeter ------Voltmeter
sensitivity :

Rc

10A

V1
V2

R1

V4

Im

R2

V3

R3
R4

85

Voltmeter-Ammeter Method
A popular type of
resistance
measurement
Effect of voltmeter
and ammeter
positions in
voltmeter-ammeter
measurements --

A
V

Ix
Vx R x

Load

I
+
V

86

Voltmeter-Ammeter Method

I
+
V

mm
A

Effect of the voltmeter

position in a voltmeterammeter
measurements

2
1

V Vx R x

Ix
Load

Rx

Load

87

88

Galvanometer/Applications

Galvanometer used as Ammeter

Device used in the

construction of ammeters
and voltmeters.

Typical galvanometer have an internal resistance

of the order of 60 W - that could significantly
disturb (reduce) a current measurement.
Built to have full scale for small current ~ 1 mA or
less.
Must therefore be mounted in parallel with a small
resistor or shunt resistor.

Scale

Current loop
or coil

Galvanometer

60

Magnet
R
p

Spring
89
Galvanometer

90

60

Galvanometer used as Voltmeter

Finite internal resistance of a galvanometer must
also addressed if one wishes to use it as voltmeter.
Must mounted a large resistor in series to limit the
current going though the voltmeter to 1 mA.
Must also have a large resistance to avoid disturbing
circuit when measured in parallel.

Rp

to an ammeter that can measure up to 2 A current.

Rp must be selected such that when 2 A passes
through the ammeter, only 0.001 A goes through the
galvanometer.
0.001A 60
1.999 A R

Rs

Galvanometer

60

Rp

0.03002

Rp is rather small!
The equivalent resistance of the circuit is also
small!

Rs

Galvanometer

91

92

Ammeter, Voltmeter and Ohmmeter?

60

DC Ammeter : The shunting resistor Rsh

movement form a current divider
DC Voltmeter : Series resistor R s
form a voltage divider.

Maximum voltage across galvanometer:

Vmax 0.001A 60
0.06V

Ohmmeter

: Measures the current to find the resistance

Rs

Rsh

Suppose one wish to have a voltmeter that can

measure voltage difference up to 100 V:

100V

0.001A Rp 60
Rs

Rp

99940

Large resistance
93

94

DC Ammeter
m

Vm = ImRm

|| shunt resistor, Rsh

d'Arsonval movement
Im

coil by shunting some of it through Rsh

Rsh = resistance of the shunt
d'Arsonval movement
Im

Ish

Rm = internal resistance of the

meter movements (movable coil)

IshRsh = ImRm

Rm

Rsh = I mRm / Ish ( ) ----(a)

Rsh

Rsh

I
Ammeter terminal

Ish

= shunt current

Im
of

= full scale deflection current

the meter movement

I
for

= full-scale deflection current

the ammeter
| | = Parallel symbol

I = Ish + Im

Ish = I

Therefore, Rsh = ImRm/(I

Im
Im)

Purpose I >> n Im , n = multiplying factor

n=I/Im

Rm
Ish

Vsh = IshRsh

Vsh = Vm

I
Ammeter terminal

I = nIm ---(b)
Substitute b to a
Rsh = I mRm/(nIm

Im)

Rsh= Rm/(n-1) -----(c)

95

96

Example 1: DC Ammeter

The Aryton Shunt

A 100uA meter movement with an internal

- 100 mA
ammeter . Find the value of the required shunt
resistance.
Solution:
n = I/Im = 100 mA / 100 A = 1000
Thus,
Rsh = Rm / (n

Rm
R sh
Rc

5A

Rsh
Rc

Rb

VRb

Ra

VRa

Rc

1A

Most sensitive range

Used in multiple range ammeter

Rsh = Ra + Rb + Rc

Eliminates the possibility of the

moving coil to be in the circuit
without any shunt resistance

Rm
n 1

Rsh

----(c)

98

Im

At point B, (Rb+Rc)||(Ra +Rm)

Rm

Ra

10A

97

Im

Rb

At point C,

Rm
Rsh

Rm

Rc

Rb

Rc||(Ra+Rb+Rm)

VRc VRa

Ra

Rb Rm

I - Im

I - Im

(Rb + Rc )(I2 -Im) = Im(Ra +Rm)

I2

I3

I1

Ra = Rsh

(I3-Im)Rc = Im(Ra+Rb+Rm)

I2

Since,

I3Rc = Im(Ra +Rb+Rc+Rm)

(Rb + Rc),

I3

I1

I3Rc = (Rsh +Rm)

yield,
I

I2 (Rb + Rc )

Middle
sensitive
range

Im(Rb+Rc ) = Im [Rsh

(Rb + Rc ) + Rm]

I m ( Rsh Rm )
I2

Rb Rc

Rc

----(d)

I m ( Rsh Rm )
I3

----(e)

99

100

Example 2: The Aryton Shunt

Calculate the value for Ra, Rb and Rc as shown, given the
value of internal resistance, Rm
the moving coil = 100 A. The required range of current are:
I1 = 10 mA, I2 = 100 mA and I3 = 1A.

Substitute eqn (d) into eqn (e), yields

Rb

I m (Rsh Rm )

Ra = Rsh

1
I2

1
I3

Im

Rm

----(f)
Rs h
Rc

Rb

Ra

I - Im

(Rb+Rc)

----(g)

I2

I3

I1

101

Ammeter Insertion Effect

R1

Example 3: Ammeter Insertion Effects

R1

Connect
Ammeter

Ie

X
Im

Ie

E
R1

InsertionError

Ie Im
Ie

Rm

100%

Im

Im
Ie

InsertionError

R1

A current meter that has an internal resistance of 78

is used to measure the current through resistor R1.
Determine the percentage of error of the reading due
to ammeter insertion.
R1

E
Rm

1k
3V

R1
R1 Rm

Ie I m
Ie

102

X
Im

Rm

100%
Y
103

104

DC Voltmeter
DMM become VOLTMETER multiplier Rs in
series with the meter movement.

Rs

Im

PURPOSE

Rm

To extend the
voltage range

Sensitivit y

To limit current through the DMM to

a maximum full-scale deflection
current

1
I fs

Unit derivation:

( /V)

Sensitivit y

Ifs= Im = full scale deflection current

Rs + Rm= (S x Vrange)

1
amp eres

ohms
volt

1
volt
ohms

It is desirable to make
R(voltmeter) >>R ( circuit)

105

Example 4: DC Voltmeter

106

Multi-

Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance

on the 50 V range of a dc voltmeter that used a

The multiplier resistors are

connected in series, and each
junction is connected to one of
the switch terminals. The range
of this voltmeter can be also
calculated from the equation

3V
10V

30V

Im(Rm R)

A commercial
Where the multiplier, R, now can be
version of a
R1 or (R1 + R2) or (R1 + R2 + R3)
multi-range
(Note: the largest voltage range must be
voltmeter
associated with the largest sum of the
multiplier resistance)
107

Example 5: multi-range Voltmeter

108

Voltmeter Loading Effect

Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance for

the multiple range dc voltmeter circuit shown in
Figure (a) and Figure (b), if Ifs = 50 and Rm = 1k

RA
Rs

E
V RB

RT = Rs +Rm

Im

RB

Req = RB //RT

Rm

3V
10V

Ifs= Im

30V

Vrange

Rs= (S x Vrange) - Rm
Figure (a)

Figure (b)

Rs

Rm
S

Total voltmeter resistance, RT

Vrange = ( Rs + Rm) Im

RT = Rs + Rm = S x Vrange

109

110

Example 6: Voltmeter Loading Effect

Calculation:
1) RT = Rs + Rm = S x Vrange
2) Req = RB // RT
3) Without volt-meter VRB

RA

RB
xE
RA RB

(expected value)

4)
5)

Rs

With volt-meter
(measured value)

VRB

Insertion error

VRB

VRB

Req

Req
VRB
VRB

RA

RB

Im

R T = R s +R m

Rm

R eq = R B //R T

A volt meter (0-10V) that has an internal

resistance of 78 is used to measure the voltage
across resistor RB. Determine the percentage of
error of the reading due to voltmeter insertion. Let
E = 4V, RA=RB = 1k , S = 1k /V

xE

x100%
111

112

DC Ohmmeter
Before measuring the Rx, the
zero calibration
Definition zero = shorting the terminal x-y & adjust Rz
to obtain the full-scale deflection on the meter
movement.

Basic Ohmmeter circuit

Fixed portion
Rz

Ifs
0.1Rz

Rm

0.9Rz

I fs

Variable portion

E
Rz

Rm

E
Rm

Rx

w/o Rx

I < Ifs

Rz

with Rx

Rx

113

114

Example 7:DC Ohmmeter

Relationship between full-scale deflection to the
value of Rx is :
I
I fs

Rz
Rz

Rm
Rm Rx

A 1 mA full-scale deflection current meter movement is to be

used in an ohmmeter circuit. The meter movement has an
internal resistance, Rm, of 100 , and a 3 V battery will be used
in the circuit. If the measured resistor has resistance of 1k ,
mark off the meter face for the reading (20%, 40%, 50%, 75%
and 100%) .

This equation is used for marking off the scale on

the meter face of the ohmmeter to indicate the
value of a resistor being measured
115

Solution Ex:7

Multiple-range Ohmmeter
The previous section is not capable of measuring
resistance over wide range of values.
We need to extend our discussion of ohmmeters to
include multiple-range ohmmeters

Ohm
3k

4.5k
12k

116

40%

50%

1k
75%

20%
Full scale
percentage

R1

Rx1

0
0%

Rz - fixed resistance &

zeroing potentiometer

Ifs
Rm

100%

R2

R x 10

R3

R x 100
E

117

118
I

Potentiometer:

+
V

200

cm

+
Principle:
Rh
B 400
V=IR
K
= I l/A
If the constant current flows through the
potentiometer wire of uniform cross sectional
area (A) and uniform composition of material
( ), then
V = Kl or
V l

15.4.1 Potentiometer

119

100

300

120

Potentiometer:
V

Potentiometer

V /l is a constant.
The potential difference
across any length of a
wire of uniform crosssection and uniform
composition is
proportional to its length
when a constant current
flows through it.

The potentiometer has a better accuracy then a

voltmeter.
It is because the readings of the potentiometer are
measured from zero to 100 cm. A large scale gives a
more accurate reading.
Potentiometer can be used to
measure emf of an unknown cell,
measure the internal resistance of a cell,
measure current
measure thermoelectric emf
calibrate a voltmeter,
compare resistances

121

Potentiometer

123

Potentiometer:

If the galvanometer shows defection in one direction

only, it may be due to
The connections of the terminals of the cells are
wrong. The positive terminal of the cell must be
connected to the positive terminal of another cell.
The emf of the unknown cell is more then the emf of
the cell connected across the wire of the
potentiometer, AB.
The connections are not tight and the current does not
flow in certain part of the circuit.

The balance
point is
E
obtained for
the cell when
the potential at A
a point on the Rh
potentiometer
wire is equal
and opposite
to the emf of
the cell.

E1
I

R.B

+
+
E2

l2 J2

200

l1

100

J1
300

B 400
K

E1 = VAJ1 = I l1 /A
E2 = VAJ2 = I l2 /A
E1 / E2 = l1 /l2

124

125

Potentiometer:
Note:
The balance point will not be obtained on the
potentiometer wire if the fall of potential along
the potentiometer wire is less than the emf of the
cell to be measured.

15.4.2 Wheatstone
bridge

The working of the potentiometer is based on

null deflection method. So the resistance of the
wire becomes infinite. Thus potentiometer can
be regarded as an ideal voltmeter.
126

Wheatstone bridge

Wheatstone bridge

How does it work?

If the galvanometer reading
is zero,
VA = VC
VAB = VCB and VAD = V CD
P and R carry the same
current, I1 and X and Q carry
the same current I2.
I1P=I2Q and I1R = I2X
Dividing the equations,
Then

P
R

127

A simple form of Wheatstone bridge is a slide

wire Bridge as shown below
l1
At the balance point, X
R
l2
and thus the unknown resistance, X can be
determined.

Q
X
128

129

Wheatstone bridge

Wheatstone Bridge:

It can be used to measure

resistance.
To measure the unknown
resistance R, the variable
resistance Rv is adjusted
until the galvanometer
registers zero or null
current.
IR

I1 R1 Rv I

R1
Rv
R2

I1

Currents through the arms are

I1 - Ig

Ig

Junction Rule.

C
S

R
I - I1

I - I1 + Ig

Loop ABDA:
-I1.P - Ig.G + (I - I1).R = 0
I

Loop BCDB:
- (I1 - Ig).Q + (I - I1 + Ig).S + Ig.G = 0

R2 I1

When Ig = 0, the bridge is said to balanced.

P
Q

By manipulating the above equations, we get

130

Wheatstone bridge
A device for measuring
the value of an unknown
resistance
R1
The values of the
A
resistances are varied
until no current flows
through the galvanometer
R3

R
S

131

Wheatstone bridge
At this point, the potential at B =potential at D
(since no current flows)
Thus p.d. between A and B = p.d. between A
and D (VAB=VAD)
Similarly VBC = VDC

B
R2
C
D

R4

I1R1 = I2R3
I1R2 = I2R4
132

Wheatstone bridge

133
R.B (R)

Metre Bridge:

Thus

Metre Bridge is
based on the
principle of
Wheatstone Bridge.

R1 / R2 = R3 / R 4
Thus, if three of the resistors are known, you
can calculate the value of the last.

G
A

B
J 100 - l cm

cm

Experimentally a resistor is placed in series with

the galvanometer to protect it from too much
current. This resistor is then removed when the
aprox. balance point is found

When the galvanometer current is made zero by adjusting

the jockey position on the metre-bridge wire for the given
values of known and unknown resistances,
R

RAJ

AJ

RJB

JB

Therefore,

134

X = R (100

l
100 - l

(Since,
Resistance
length)

l) l

135

Metre bridge
This uses the same logic as the wheatstone
bridge, but two of the resistors are replaced by
a length of wire. A sliding contact divides the
wire into two lengths, and so into 2 resistances.
This makes it easier to adjust the resistance

R2

R1
G

L1

Length of wire

L2

The position of the sliding contact varies L1

and L2
136

137

We know from the wheatstone bridge

circuit R1 / R2 = R3 / R4

Uses of wheatstone bridge circuits

Temperature control in this case the
wheatstone bridge starts balanced. If the
temperature of one of the resistors changes
then its resistance will change, the bridge will
no longer be balanced and so current flows
through the galvanometer.

In this case R3 and R4 are wires of

uniform cross section (A) and the same
material ( is the same)
Thus R3 =constant L1
R4 = constant L2
R1 / R2 =L1 / L2

138

Uses of wheatstone bridge circuits

139

Uses of wheatstone bridge circuits

The size and direction of the current indicate

the size and direction of the temperature
change, and so can be used to control a heater
and bring the temp. back to its original value

Fail-safe device if the pilot light in a gas boiler

goes out, you need the gas to shut off
automatically.

140

141

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Uses of wheatstone bridge circuits

A thermistor placed near the flame is used as one
resistor in a wheatstone bridge. If the flame goes out
the resistance increases, unbalances the bridge and
current flows in the galvanometer. This current can
be used to cut off the fuel

Resistors R1, R2, and R3 are

precision, variable resistors.
The value of R x is an unknown
value of resistance that must be
determined.
The galvanometer (an
instrument that measures small
amounts of current) is inserted
across terminals b and d to
indicate the condition of balance.

142

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

143

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
During balance state, I1 follows a-b-c path and
I2 follows a-d-c- path. Thus,

When the bridge is

properly balanced, no
difference in potential
exists across
terminals b and d;
when switch S2 is
closed, the
galvanometer reading
is zero.

E1
I1 R1

144

E3
I 2 R3

145

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Similarly

Results

E2
I1 R2

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Ex

I1 R1

I 2 R3

I 2 Rx

I1 R2

I 2 Rx

146

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES FOR

RESISTANCE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

I 2 R3
I 2 Rx

Law
Potential
Divider

Simplify

R1
R2

Summary: Direct Current Circuits

Internal
resistance

Divide between these two

I1 R1
I1 R2

147

Potentiometer

R3
Rx

Wheatstone
Bridge
148

E = I(R+r)
Junction Rule: I = 0
Loop Rule: (IR) = E
V = R1V0/(R1 + R2)
VAB

R/S = P/Q

149