Module 1: The Propagation of Heat and the Evolution of Temperature

Distributions in Solids
Kittel & Kroemer Chapter 15

Topics
Derivation of the differential equation for the temperature distribution in a solid from
the heat conduction equation (Fourier's equation) and the continuity condition
(conservation of energy). Thermal diffusivity.
Special case of no internal heat sources => diffusion equation.
Attenuated wave-like solution in 1D for sinusoidal boundary conditions; skin depth.
Examples e.g. daily and annual temperature variations in the ground.
The development of a temperature pulse: 1D, 2D and 3D solutions
Summary
Fourier's equation for heat conduction, in 3D:
(15-4)
J = heat flux density (W.m ), K = thermal conductivity, T = temperature gradient
J KgradT

KT

-2

For no internal heat sources, conservation of energy requires

div J . J c

(15-5)

c = specific heat capacity; = density

(the product c is sometimes written as C , the heat capacity per unit volume)

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If heat is being generated internally at a rate u W.m-3, (15-5) becomes

div J . J c

T
t

(15-5a)

Combination of (15-4) and (15-5a) yields the differential equation

2

1 T

D t
where D = K / c = thermal diffusivity (m2.s-1)
K

(15-6a)

In the absence of internal heat sources (u = 0), (15-6a) takes the form of the diffusion
equation :
2

1 T

(15-6)

D t

1D solution of (15-6) for a sinusoidal temperature variation, of frequency , at the

boundary (z = 0):
(15-13)
o exp z exp i ( z t )
= difference from ambient temperature,
= skin depth = (2D/).
In one skin depth, amplitude is attenuated by a factor of 1/e.
Effective "wavelength" = 2
1D solution for temperature pulse (delta function at x = 0, t = 0):

C1
t

exp x

4 Dt

where C 1

Q
c A D

(15-14)

=> width of pulse increases as t.

Exercises
1. Explain in words the physical meaning of equations (15-4) and (15-5a).
2. Derive (15-6a), the general form of the differential equation for temperature distribution
in a solid, from (15-4) and (15-5a).
3. Simplify equation (15-6a) for the following special cases
(i)
steady state
(ii)
no heat sources or sinks
(iii)
steady state and no heat sources or sinks
(iv)
1 dimension
4. (a) Write down the 1D steady state form of equation (15-6a).
(b) Show that each of the following expressions is a solution
(i)
T=a
(ii)
T = a + bx
(iii)
T = a + bx + cx2
In each case suggest a real situation in which such a solution might apply.
5. Show that (15-13) is a solution of (15-6).

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6. Show that (15-14) is a 1D solution of (15-6).

7. Development of a pulse in two or three dimensions. (adapted from K&K ch 15 pr 2)
(a) A pulse of heat energy, Q Joules, is applied instantaneously to an infinite plate of
material of thickness d m and thermal diffusivity D m2.s-1. Show that, if the pulse is
applied at x = y = 0, at time t = 0, then a valid solution to equation (15-6) is given by the
expression
C2
exp
t

2 (t )

r2

4 Dt

(15-64)

where r2 = x2 + y2, and C2 is a constant

Show that C 2

Q
4 Dc d

(b) Repeat (a) for the 3D situation in which a pulse of heat, Q, is released from the origin in
an infinite uniform block of material of thermal diffusivity D. Show that a solution is provided by
the expression
C
3 (t ) 3 3
2
t

with

C3

[ x 2 exp( x 2 ) dx
0

exp

r2

4 Dt

(15-65)

Q
( 4 D )

Problems
1. A brick wall 25cm thick is painted black and covered with a layer of translucent insulating
material. The black surface experiences daily temperature variations of amplitude 20o, peaking at
2 p.m.
(i) At what time does the inside of the wall reach a maximum temperature?
(ii) What is the amplitude of the temperature variation of the inside of the wall?
(iii) What assumptions have you made in solving this problem?
( Thermal Conductivity of brick = 0.72 W.m-1.K-1; Heat capacity per unit volume of brick = 1.6 x
106 J.m-3.K-1.)
2. The annual temperature variation at some location on Earths surface has a peak-peak
amplitude of 30K. Assuming a thermal diffusivity of 1 x 10-6 m2.s-1 for crustal rocks, and no
internal heat sources,
(i) how deep must an instrument be buried so that its temperature does not vary by more
than 0.1K due to the annual temperature variation?
(ii) what is the lag in days between the maximum temperature at the surface and the
maximum temperature at this depth?
(PHYS305/2003 Exam: part Q.)

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3. Exam2001 Q1.
(a) Fourier's law for the conduction of heat may be written
J K T

(1)

where J is the heat flux density, and K the thermal conductivity of the material.
(i) By applying conservation of energy to a volume of material dV = dx.dy.dz ,
show that, if there are no heat sources within the material
T
t

D T

(2)

where D = K/, and is the heat capacity of the material per unit volume.
(ii) Show that

T T 0 exp( z ) cos( t ( z ) ) is a 1 dimensional solution of

equation (2) and that , the skin depth, is given by (2D/).

(b) Count von Kiwihausen is building a wine cellar. Assuming that the annual temperature
variation is sinusoidal with minimum and maximum values of -15oC and 35oC:
(i) Calculate the minimum depth for the cellar, so that the amplitude of the
temperature variation is less than 2oC. Take D = 1 x 10-7 m2.s-1 for the soil and
sub-soil throughout the temperature range.
(ii) If the minimum surface temperature occurs on January 1st, when will the
temperature in the cellar reach a minimum?
4. In order to measure the thermal diffusivity of soil two temperature sensors are buried in the
ground at depths of 50 and 100mm. In the daily records of temperature it is found that the upper
sensor shows a maximum temperature at 3.05 p.m. and the lower one at 4.09 p.m.. Find the
diffusivity of the soil. Assume that the daily fluctuations of temperature are sinusoidal.
5. The table below gives temperature profile data from a bore-hole at Mt Stromlo, Canberra,
Australia, taken on three different days during a 12 month period.
Temperature data from Mt. Stromlo bore-hole, Canberra
24/05/82
10/11/82
30/05/83
Depth (ft) (metres) T (deg C) T (deg C)
T (deg C)
5.0
1.52
17.18
15.70
17.12
7.5
2.29
15.43
17.46
10.0
3.05
17.45
15.41
17.57
12.5
3.81
15.44
17.60
15.0
4.57
17.45
15.56
17.64
17.5
5.34
15.66
17.49
20.0
6.10
17.07
15.78
17.34
22.5
6.86
16.00
17.20
25.0
7.62
16.75
16.08
17.04
27.5
8.38
16.18
16.90
30.0
9.15
16.52
16.25
16.77
35.0
10.67
16.39
16.36
16.60
40.0
12.20
16.32
16.43
16.50
45.0
13.72
16.30
16.46
16.44
50.0
15.24
16.31
16.47
16.40
55.0
16.77
16.34
16.46
16.42
60.0
18.29
16.37
16.45
16.43
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65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0
85.0
90.0
95.0
100.0

19.82
21.34
22.87
24.39
25.91
27.44
28.96
30.49

16.40
16.42
16.45
16.48
16.53
16.60

16.45
16.46
16.48
16.49
16.50
16.52
16.56
16.58

16.47
16.48
16.50
16.52
16.55
16.57
16.60
16.62

(i) Plot all three temperature profiles on the same graph. Describe and account for the
general features
(a) for depths between 0 and 75 feet,
(b) for depths in excess of 75 feet.
(ii) Ignoring the trend at depth, use the data from 0-75 feet to obtain a value for the
thermal diffusivity of the ground.
Extra: Can you use these data to estimate the day of the year when the average surface
temperature reached its maximum and minimum values, and the amplitude of the temperature
variations at the surface?
(Data provided by Dr F.E.M. Lilley, R.S.E.S., Australian National University)

6. Explain how you would modify the basic 1-dimensional diffusion equation for heat
propagation
(i) in the case of a uniform half-space e.g. the Earth, within which heat is released at a
rate of Q W.m-3
(ii) in the case of a long rod, which is radiating heat from its surface at a rate R W per
metre length per degree temperature difference with its surroundings
(PHYS305/2003 Exam: part Q.)
7. (K&K Ch 15 Pr. 3.) Consider a hypothetical climate in which both daily and annual variations
of the temperature are purely sinusoidal, with amplitudes of 10oC. The mean annual temperature
is 10oC. If the thermal diffusivity of the soil is 1 x 10-7 m2s-1, what is the minimum depth at which
water pipes should be buried to prevent freezing in this climate?
8. (Exam 2006, Q1) A long rod has a circular cross section of radius r, and is made of metal with
thermal conductivity K, density , and specific heat capacity c. Temperature variations are
applied to one end (x = 0). The rod loses heat to the surroundings by radiation, at a rate
(per unit surface area, per unit temperature difference) of W.m-2.K-1.
(a) Giving full explanation, use Fouriers Law of heat conduction, together with
conservation of energy to show that , the temperature difference with the
surroundings, obeys the equation

2

1
D t

u 0

(1)

where D is the thermal diffusivity of the metal = K/c, and u = 2/Kr.

[8 marks]
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(b)

If the temperature variation applied at x = 0 is sinusoidal, with frequency ,

(i) Show that 0 exp( x ) exp i ( t x ) is a solution to equation (1)
(ii) Obtain expressions for and , and

(iii) show that D

and u 2 2
2
[6 marks]

(c)

An experiment is carried out in which = 2.10-3 rad.s-1 (f = 1mHz), and the

temperature is monitored at two points along the rod, A and B, which are 10 cm
apart.
Sinusoidal temperature variations are recorded at both points: at A the amplitude of
the variations is 5K, while at B the amplitude is 2.5K. The phase of the signal at B
lags behind that at A by 90s.
Obtain estimates for , and the thermal diffusivity, D, of the metal.
[6 marks]

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