MID TERM PROGRESS REPORT

For the Project titled

TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES IN TELECOMMUNICATION
(Submitted towards the partial fulfillment of requirement
Of
Bachelor of Technology in Electronics & Communication Engineering)

Submitted to:

Submitted by:

March 2016

INTRODUCTION
Regional telecom training centre
(An ISO Certified Institute)
PUNJAB TELECOM CIRCLE

RTTC Rajpura was established on 01.12.75 in a rented building belonging to

Kasturba Sewa Mandir Trust in Rajpura. It has been shifted at New RTTC
Complex, Neelpur Village, Rajpura town w.e.f. 26.7.2004. It is situated on Patiala
bye pass road near Liberty Chowk. Rajpura is situated on the main line from Delhi
to Amritsar at a distance of 230 Kilometers from Amritsar as well as Delhi and 30
Kilometers from Ambala. The RTTC Complex includes Academic &
Administrative block, staff quarters, Inspection Quarters, Student Centre and Three
Hostels. The total Trainee capacity of these Hostels is 220. The entire campus is
spread over 20 acres of land. The built up area of RTTC Complex is 9700
Sq.Mtrs.
Batch Capacity :- The training centre started with a batch capacity of 2 SBC
in December 1975 which was increased to 6 SBC in Feb 1984 by diversion
of 4 SBC from RTTC Ghaziabad. With the recent merger of RTTC & CTTC
,the SBC has now been enhanced to 9.The Training Centre is organizing regular
JTO, JAO & TTA induction batches & In-service courses/workshops on all
relevant topics of modern times.

Infrastructure: - There are 10 Lecture Halls , 1 Conference Hall and 1 Seminar

Hall for lecture sessions and all equipped with white boards, overhead/DLP
projectors and white screens. Fully equipped OFC/Tx lab, SDH lab , RPR lab ,3
Computer labs, Broadband/ Multiplay lab, CDOT SBM lab, MLLN lab exits.
Supporting Facilities :

A well maintained library.

Internet facilities in hostel / IQ.
One Bus and one small vehicle.
Canteen.
Excellent student centre & other sports facilities.

Staff: - At present the RTTC family comprises of 64 members.

SCOPE OF RTTC RAJPURA
IMPARTING TRAINING IN THE AREA OF TELECOM SERVICES &
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY, EXCLUDING CLAUSES 7.3 AND 7.6
OF IS/ISO 9001:2008.
QUALITY POLICY
RTTC Rajpura fraternity consisting of officers and staff avows to provide quality
training to all its customers and to ensure optimum utilization of its training
resources. For this every faculty and individual of RTTC will adhere to ISO
9001:2008 standards and will demonstrate its compliance in all spheres of
activities with a commitment to continual improvement.
QUALITY OBJECTIVES
To work hard to deliver all our courses as Quality courses i.e. defined as having
acquired 85% rating as per evaluation by the customer. To endeavor to provide
excellent course content, quality presentations, handouts and congenial classroom
environment.

INTRODUCTION TO THE
ASSIGNED JOB

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBRE CABLE

FIBRE OPTICS :
Optical Fibre is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or
Video) is transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form
of light, following the transmission sequence give below :
(1)

Information is encoded into electrical signals.

(2)

Electrical signals are converted into light signals.

(3)

Light travels down the fibre.

(4)

A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals.

(5)

Electrical signals are decoded into information.

ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS :

Fibre Optics has the following advantages :
(I) Optical Fibres are non conductive (Dielectrics)
(II)

Electromagnetic Immunity :

(III) Large Bandwidth (> 5.0 GHz for 1 km length)

(IV)
(v)
(vi)

Low Loss (5 dB/km to < 0.25 dB/km typical)

Small, Light weight cables.
Available in Long lengths (> 12 kms)

(vii) Security
(viii)

Security - Being a dielectric

(ix) Universal medium

APPLICATION OF FIBRE OPTICS IN COMMUNICATIONS :
Common carrier nationwide networks.
Telephone Inter-office Trunk lines.

Customer premise communication networks.

Undersea cables.
High EMI areas (Power lines, Rails, Roads).
Factory communication/ Automation.
Control systems.
Expensive environments.
High lightening areas.

TRANSMISSION SEQUENCE :
(1)

Information is Encoded into Electrical Signals.

(2)

Electrical Signals are Coverted into light Signals.

(3)

Light Travels Down the Fiber.

(4)

A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

(5)

Electrical Signals are Decoded into Information.

Inexpensive light sources available.

Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds

because low loss fibres are used at high data rates.

Figure 1.1: Block Diagram of Transmission Of Info. In OFC

System

PRINCIPLE OF FIBRE OPTICS

Total Internal Reflection - The Reflection that Occurs when a Ligh
Ray Travelling in One Material Hits a Different Material and
Reflects Back into the Original Material without any Loss of Light.
Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic
energy in vacuum such as space. Light travels at slower velocities
in other materials such as glass. Light travelling from one material
to another changes speed, which results in light changing its
direction of travel. This deflection of light is called Refraction.
The amount that a ray of light passing from a lower refractive
index to a higher one is bent towards the normal. But light going
from a higher index to a lower one refracting away from the
normal,

PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH FIBRE.

The optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the
cladding. The inner core is the light carrying part. The surrounding
cladding provides the difference refractive index that allows total
internal reflection of light through the core. The index of the
cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical
values for example are a core refractive index of 1.47 and a
cladding index of 1.46. Fibre manufacturers control this difference

to obtain desired optical fibre characteristics.

Figure1.2 : light travelling through a fibre

Light injected into the fibre and striking core to cladding interface
at grater than the critical angle, reflects back into core, since the
angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected light will
again be reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the
length of the fibre.
Light striking the interface at less than the critical angle passes
into the cladding, where it is lost over distance. The cladding is
usually inefficient as a light carrier, and light in the cladding
becomes attenuated fairly. Propagation of light through fibre is
governed by the indices of the core and cladding by Snell's law.
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation
through a optical fibre. This analysis consider only meridional
rays- those that pass through the fibre axis each time, they are
reflected. Other rays called Skew rays travel down the fibre
without passing through the axis. The path of a skew ray is
typically helical wrapping around and around the central axis.
Fortunately skew rays are ignored in most fibre optics analysis.
The specific characteristics of light propagation through a fibre
depends on many factors, including

The size of the fibre.

The composition of the fibre.
The light injected into the fibre.
FIBRE TYPES
The refractive Index profile describes the relation between the
indices of the core and cladding. Two main relationship exists :
(I)

Step Index

(II)

Graded Index

The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout.
The profile shows a sharp step at the junction of the core and
cladding. In contrast, the graded index has a non-uniform core.
The Index is highest at the center and gradually decreases until it
matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in
indices between the core and the cladding.

By this classification there are three types of fibres :

(I)

Multimode Step Index fibre (Step Index fibre)

(II)

Multimode graded Index fibre (Graded Index fibre)

(III) Single- Mode Step Index fibre (Single Mode Fibre

LOSES OCCURE IN FIBRE
ATTENUATION
Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set
distance, a fibre with lower attenuation will allow more power to
reach a receiver than fibre with higher attenuation. Attenuation
may be categorized as intrinsic or extrinsic.

INTRINSIC ATTENUATION
It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre. Intrinsic attenuation
may occur as
Absorption - Natural Impurities in the glass absorb light energy.
Scattering - Light rays travelling in the core reflect from small
imperfections into a new pathway that may be lost through the
cladding.
EXTRINSIC ATTENUATION
It is loss due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation may occur
as
Macrobending - The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling
down the fibre cannot make the turn & is lost in the cladding.
Microbending - Microbending or small bends in the fibre caused by
crushing contraction etc. These bends may not be visible with the
naked eye.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). A dB represents the
comparison between the transmitted and received power in a
system.

FIBRE SPLICING
Operation of Fusion Splicers
Splicer Operation
It is awkward at first to hold, strip, cleave and place the fiber in the clamps.
Practice makes perfect. Here are five general steps to complete a fusion splice:
Strip, Clean, & Cleave
a. Strip
Strip fiber to appropriate length per your splicer's instruction manual

b. Cleaning
Clean the fiber with Fiber-Clean towelettes or a lint-free wipe and isopropyl
alcohol so that the fiber squeaks

c. Cleaving
Place fiber (after stripping and cleaning it) in cleaver using the fiber guide to
position.

It align the fiber in the cleave area to cleave at the proper length Depress the
cleaver arm gently . Remove and safely discard the fiber scrap

2. Load Splicer
Position tip of fiber near electrodes . Do not bump tips into anything . Ease
placement by bowing fibers in groove

3. Splice Fibers
READ The Manual.Place first cleaved fiber in v-groove with fiber tip near the
electrodes
Close the fiber clamps Repeat on opposite side for second fiber.Select program on
fusion splicer . Initiate fuse cycle (can be manual or automatic)

4.Remove and Protect Splice

Remove completed splice from splice area .Use Heat-Shrink oven (or mechanical
protection) to protect the splice Place splice tray in adjustable tray holder and insert
protected splice into splice

INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

A long distance or local telephone conversation between two persons could

be provided by using a pair of open wire lines or underground cable as early as
early as mid of 19th century. However, due to fast industrial development and
an increased telephone awareness, demand for trunk and local traffic went on
increasing at a rapid rate. To cater to the increased demand of traffic between
two stations or between two subscribers at the same station we resorted to the use
of an increased number of pairs on either the open wire alignment, or in
underground cable. This could solve the problem for some time only as there is a
limit to the number of open wire pairs that can be installed on one alignment due
to headway consideration and maintenance problems.
Similarly increasing the number of open wire pairs that can be installed on
one alignment due to headway consideration and maintenance problems.
Similarly increasing the number of pairs to the underground cable is
uneconomical and leads to maintenance problems.
It, therefore, became imperative to think of new technical innovations which
could exploit the available bandwidth of transmission media such as open wire lines
or underground cables to provide more number of circuits on one pair. The
technique used to provide a number of circuits using a single transmission link is
called Multiplexing.
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
There are basically two types of multiplexing techniques
i.

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

ii

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Frequency Division Multiplexing Techniques (FDM)

The FDM techniques is the process of translating individual speech
circuits (300-3400 Hz) into pre-assigned frequency slots within the bandwidth of
the transmission medium. The frequency translation is done by amplitude
modulation of the audio frequency with an appropriate carrier frequency. At the
output of the modulator a filter network is connected to select either a lower or an
upper side band. Since the intelligence is carried in either side band, single side
band suppressed carrier mode of AM is used. This results in substantial saving of
bandwidth mid also permits the use of low power amplifiers.

Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)

Time division multiplexing involves nothing more than sharing
a transmission medium by a number of circuits in time domain by establishing a
sequence of time slots during which individual channels (circuits) can be
transmitted. Thus the entire bandwidth is periodically available to each channel.
Normally all time slots1 are equal in length. Each channel is assigned a time slot
with a specific common repetition period called a frame interval.

PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM):

PCM stands for pulse code modulation. The speech signal (information) which is
to be send from one person to other in telecommunication is firstly converted in the
form of PCMs and then these are send through line cable or other medium. Man
has a speech frequency of 64 kbps (analog form). There are 32 channels in PCM-1
system. Thus, 32 signals when multiplexed give one PCM which has frequency of
2 mbps. On the type of capacity, there are five types of PDH systems.

Channels

PCM

Bit Rate

30
120
480
1920
7680

1
4
16
64
256

2 mbps
8 mbps
34 mbps
140 mbps
565 mbps

BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR PCM SYSTEM

To develop a PCM signal from several analogue signals, the following processing
steps are required

Filtering

Sampling

Quantisation

Encoding

Line Coding

FILTERING
Filters are used to limit the speech signal to the frequency band 300-3400 Hz.

SAMPLING
It is the most basic requirement for TDM. Suppose we have an
analogue signal. The amplitude of the sample is depend upon the amplitude of the
input signal at the instant of sampling. The duration of these sampled pulses is
equal to the duration for which the switch S is closed. Minimum number of samples
are to be sent for any band limited signal to get a good approximation of the
original analogue signal and the same is defined by the sampling Theorem. i.e.
Fs>2fH
QUANTISATION
The process of measuring the numerical values of the samples and giving them a
table value in a suitable scale is called "Quantising". Of course, the scales and the
number of points should be so chosen that the signal could be effectively
reconstructed after demodulation.
Quantising, in other words, can be defined as a process of breaking down a
continuous amplitude range into a finite number of amplitude values or steps.

ENCODING
Conversion of quantized analogue levels to binary signal is called encoding. To
represent 256 steps, 8 level code is required. The eight bit code is also called an
eight bit "word".
The first bit gives the sign of the voltage to be coded. Next 3 bits gives the segment
number. There are 8 segments for the positive voltages and 8 for negative
voltages. Last 4 bits give the position in the segment. Each segment contains
16 positions.
LINE CODING
Line codec chips converts the encoded signal into HDB code which is compatible
for transmit over channel.

OVERVIEW OF SDH
With the introduction of PCM techonology in the 1960s, communications
networks were gradually converted to digital technology over the next few years.
To cope with the demand for ever higher bit rates, a multiplex hierarchy called the
plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) evolved. The bit rates start with the basic
multiplex rate of 2 Mbit/s with further stages of 8, 34 and 140 Mbit/s. In North
America and Japan, the primary rate is 1.5 Mbit/s. Hierarchy stages of 6 and 44
Mbit/s developed from this. Because of these very different developments,
gateways between one network and another were very difficult and expensive to
realize. PCM allows multiple use of a single line by means of digital time-domain
multiplexing. The analog telephone signal is sampled at a bandwidth of 3.1 kHz,
quantized and encoded and then transmitted at a bit rate of 64kbit/s. The growing
demand for more bandwidth meant that more stages of multiplexing were needed
throughout the world. Slight differences in timing signals mean that justification or
stuffing is necessary when forming the multiplexed signals. Inserting or dropping
an individual 64 kbit/s channel to or from a higher digital hierarchy requires a
considerable amount of complex multiplexer equipment.

Figure2.1. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchies (PDH)

Traditionally, digital transmission systems and hierarchies have been based on

multiplexing signals which are plesiochronous (running at almost the same speed).
Also, various parts of the world use different hierarchies which lead to problems of
international interworking; for example, between those countries using 1.544
Mbit/s systems (U.S.A. and Japan) and those using the 2.048 Mbit/s systems. To
recover a 64 kbit/s channel from a 140 Mbit/s PDH signal, its necessary to
demultiplex the signal all the way down to the 2 Mbit/s level before the location of
the 64 kbit/s channel can be identified. PDH requires steps (140-34, 34-8, 8-2
demultiplex; 2-8, 8-34, 34-140 multiplex) to drop out or add an individual speech
or data channel (see Figure 1).
THE MAIN PROBLEMS OF PDH SYSTEMS ARE:

Homogeneity of equipment
Problem of Channel segregation
The problem cross connection of channels
Inability to identify individual channels in a higher-order bit stream.
Insufficient capacity for network management;
Most PDH network management is proprietary.
Theres no standardized definition of PDH bit rates greater than 140

Mbit/s.
There are different hierarchies in use around the world. Specialized
interface equipment is required to interwork the two hierarchies.
In 1988 SDH standard introduced with three major goals:
Avoid the problems of PDH
Achieve higher bit rates (Gbit/s)
Better means for Operation, Administration, and Maintenance (OA&M)
SDH is an ITU-T standard for a high capacity telecom network. SDH is a
synchronous digital transport system, aim to provide a simple, economical and
flexible telecom infrastructure. The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

is synchronous multiplexing - data from multiple tributary sources is byte

interleaved.
SDH ADVANTAGES TO NETWORK PROVIDERS
High transmission rates: Transmission rates of up to 40 Gbit/s can be achieved in
modern SDH systems. SDH is therefore the most suitable technology for
backbones, which can be considered as being the super highways in today's
telecommunications networks.
Simplified add & drop function: Compared with the older PDH system, it is much
easier to extract and insert low-bit rate channels from or into the high-speed bit
streams in SDH. It is no longer necessary to demultiplex and then remultiplex the
plesiochronous structure.
High availability and capacity matching: With SDH, network providers can react
quickly and easily to the requirements of their customers. For example, leased lines
can be switched in a matter of minutes. The network provider can use standardized
network elements that can be controlled and monitored from a central location by
means of a telecommunications network management (TMN) system.
Reliability: Modern SDH networks include various automatic back-up and repair
mechanisms to cope with system faults. Failure of a link or a network element does
not lead to failure of the entire network which could be a financial disaster for the
network provider. These back-up circuits are also monitored by a management
system
Future-proof platform for new services: Right now, SDH is the ideal platform for
services ranging from POTS, ISDN and mobile radio through to data
communications (LAN, WAN, etc.), and it is able to handle the very latest services,
such as video on demand and digital video broadcasting via ATM that are gradually
becoming established.
Interconnection: SDH makes it much easier to set up gateways between different
network providers and to SONET systems. The SDH interfaces are globally
standardized, making it possible to combine network elements from different
manufacturers into a network. The result is a reduction in equipment costs as
compared with PDH.

SDH RATES
SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52Mbit/s
The basic unit of SDH is STM-1:
STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s
STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s
STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s
STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is
synchronous
SDH HIERARCHY:
SDH defines a multiplexing hierarchy that allows all existing PDH rates to be
transported synchronously.
The following diagram shows these multiplexing paths:.

FIGURE

2.2 SDH H IERARCHY

Multiplex unit: A basic SDH multiplex unit includes multiple containers (C-n),
virtual containers (VC-n), tributary units (TU-n), tributary unit groups (TUG-n),
administrative units (AUn) and administrative unit groups (AUG-n), where n is the
hierarchical sequence number of unit level.
Container: Information structure unit that carries service signals at different rates.
G.709 defines the criteria for five standard containers: C-11, C-12, C-2, C-3 and C4.
Virtual container (VC): Information structure unit supporting channel layer
connection of SDH. It terminates an SDH channel. VC is divided into lower-order
and higher-order VCs. VC-4 and VC-3 in AU-3 are higher-order virtual containers.
Tributary unit (TU) and tributary unit group (TUG): TU is the information structure
that provides adaptation between higher-order and lower-order channel layers.
TUG is a set of one or more TUs whose location is fixed in higher-order VC
payload.
Administrative unit (AU) and administrative unit group (AUG): AU is the
information structure that provides adaptation between higher-order channel layer
and multiplex section layer. AUG is a set of one or more AUs whose locations are
fixed in the payload of STM-N.

THE STM-1 FRAME FORMAT

The standardized SDH transmission frames, called Synchronous Transport
Modules of Nth hierarchical level (STM-N).
A frame with a bit rate of 155.52 Mbit/s is defined in ITU-T Recommendation
G.707. This frame is called the synchronous transport module (STM). Since the
frame is the first level of the synchronous digital hierarchy, it is known as STM-1.
Figure 2 shows the format of this frame. It is made up from a byte matrix of 9
rows and 270 columns. Transmission is row by row, starting with the byte in the

upper left corner and ending with the byte in the lower right corner. The frame
repetition rate is 125 ms., each byte in the payload represents a 64 kbit/s channel.
The STM-1 frame is capable of transporting any PDH tributary signal.
The first 9 bytes in each of the 9 rows are called the overhead. G.707 makes a
distinction between the regenerator section overhead (RSOH) and the multiplex
section overhead (MSOH). The reason for this is to be able to couple the functions
of certain overhead bytes to the network architecture. The table below describes
the individual functions of the bytes.

Figure 2.3 STM-1 frame format

SECTION OVERHEADS:
RSOH (regenerator section overhead): The Regenerator Section OverHead uses the
first three rows & nine columns in the STM-1 frame

Figure 2.4 Section overheads

A1, A2 The Frame Alignment Word is used to recognize the beginning of an STMN frame
J0: Path Trace. It is used to give a path through an SDH Network a "Name". This
message (Name) enables the receiver to check the continuity of its connection with
the desired transmitter
B1: Bit Error Monitoring. The B1 Byte contains the result of the parity check of
the previous STM frame, before scrambling of the actual STM frame. This check is
carried out with a Bit Interleaved Parity check.
E1 Engineering Orderwire (EOW). It can be used to transmit speech signals
beyond a Regenerator Section for operating and maintenance purposes
F1 User Channel. It is used to transmit data and speech for service and
maintenance
D1 to D3 Data Communication Channel at 192 kbit/s (DCCR). This channel is
used to transmit management information via the STM-1 frames
MSOH (multiplex section overhead)

Figure 2.5Multiplex section overhead

The Multiplex Section OverHead uses the 5th through 9th rows, and first 9
columns in the STM-1 frame.
B2 : Bit Error Monitoring. The B2 Bytes contains the result of the parity check of
the previous STM frame, except the RSOH, before scrambling of the actual STM
frame. This check is carried out with a Bit Interleaved Parity check (BIP24)
K1, K2 Automatic Protection Switching (APS). In case of a failure, the STM frames
can be routed new with the help of the K1, K2 Bytes through the SDH Network.
Assigned to the multiplexing section protection (MSP) protocol
K2 (Bit6,7,8) MS_RDI: Multiplex Section Remote Defect Indication (former
MS_FERF: Multiplex Section Far End Receive Failure)
D4 to D12 Data Communication Channel at 576 kbit/s (DCCM). (See also
D1-D3 in RSOH above)
S1 (Bit 5 - 8) Synchronization quality level:
0000 Quality unknown
0010 G.811 10-11/day frequency drift
0100 G.812T transit 10-9 /day frequency drift
1000 G.812L local 2*10-8/day frequency drift
1011 G.813 5*10-7/day frequency drift
1111 Not to be used for synchronization
E2 Engineering Orderwire (EOW). Same function as E1 in RSOH
M1 Multiplex Section Remote Error Indicator, number of interleaved bits which
have been detected to be erroneous in the received B2 bytes.
Z1, Z2 Spare bytes

INSTALLATION AND COMISSIONING OF STM-1 (SIEMEN)

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

DDF

Electrical
Signal

Optical
Signal

E/O FDF
Transmitter
Converter

Electrical
Signal

DDF
O/E
Receiver
Converter

FDF

Application area of Measuring Instruments

In Optical Fiber Communication system
Figure 3.1Block Diagram Of Transmission System

DDF(Digital Distribution Frame): DDF (at transmitter side) receive PCMs

from exchange or station which are to be transmitted to another station or
exchange. DDF have different modules which connects PCM to STM-1 System.
PCM connected to DDF from station through copper cable and from DDF to
STM-1 through PCM cable.
Transmitter: It is basically STM-1 system which helps to transmit PCMs through
optical fibre cable.STM-1 plays an important role in transmission system. STM-1
also helps in cross connect the PCMs. This block contains MUX card and OLT
cards.
E/O Converter: It is simply OLT card which converts electrical signal to optical
signal
FDF(Fibre Distribution frame): This frame (at transmitter end) distribute fibre to
different station. FDF connect to system through patch card.
FDF(Fibre Distribution frame): This frame (at receiver end) collect fibre fom
different station. FDF connect to system through pigtails cable.
O/E Converter: This block converts optical signal to electrical signal.
Receiver: This block will collect all PCMs received at OLT card. It will connect all
the PCM to MUX card. Here they are connected to different station through DDF.
STM-1
The STM-1 is an optical STM-1/STM-4 add-drop multiplexer used to build
STM-1/STM-4 point-to-point links, STM-1 or STM-4 rings, or STM-1 line
protection, so performing the conveyance of 2 Mbit/s, 34 or 45 Mbit/s PDHlinks,
of 155 Mbit/s STM-1 SDH links, of 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet links. STM-1 is
product of AC-1 family.. STM-1 can be configured either as an add/drop
multiplexer or a terminal multiplexer depending upon the number of aggregate
interfaces. These interfaces can be either optical or electrical resulting in five
different types of NEs It support 2Mbps data for transmit and receive on 1-PCM.
STM-1 can transmit data upto 155.52Mbps.
In the AC1 family ADM (Adddrop multiplexer) and TM (Terminal
Multiplexer) along with the necessary cross connect functions are implemented in

a single module. The same unit also incorporates sufficient dropping capacity,
which is upgradable, to make a cost effective solution for small capacity networks.
The system has protection facility and utilizes the inherent management capacities
of SDH with a Craft Terminal (nothing but a PC) or through a full fledged
Network Management System. The physical and technical features of AC1 range
of equipments are briefly outlined here.

KEY FEATURES OF STM-1

Compact, modular design with single board ADM 3 boards form a complete
TM1 or ADM1.

Extensive support of SDH management features.

Performance monitoring.
Synchronization management.
Fast protection switching
Subnetwork connection protection (SNC1)
Full VC12 connectivity
Full ATM integration
NM2100 management.
Protection Function in the ADM
Cross Connection Function

THE STM-1 CAN BE USED AS:

STM-1 terminal multiplexer with maximum capacity of 63 VC12 and capability of
1+1 protection.
STM-1 repeater, capability of regenerating 2 VC4. LAN over VC12 or VC3
interconnection point (via 4E/FE and GFP150 cards).The GFP150 and 4E/FE data
traffics are compatible with those of the GFP150 extra card of the SURPASS hiT16.

THIS EQUIPMENT CAN BE MANAGED:

By a local terminal with VT100 emulation required on commissioning for
communication parameters configuration (COMM access).
By an HTTP server for local or remote interactive operation using a Web browser.
Remotely, by means of a SNMP protocol via an IONOS NMS management
network system. SNMP protocol using also allows the global supervision of the
network.

STM-1 EQUIPMENT (SIEMEN)

Figure3.2Shelf view of STM-1 (Siemen)

MOTHERBOARD CARD

Figure3.3: Motherboard Card

Management and administrative ports:

COMM Interface: This isRS232 Port which is used to connecting system to

computer standard . This prt has Bit rate 19200 bauds (8 data bits, no parity and 1
stop bit).

ETH Interface: This interface is commonly called as Ethernet interface. It is used

for network management purpose (NMS). In practical session we have used this
interface for STM1configuration. This port can be operated at 10Mbps in either
full duplex or half duplex mode. We use shielded type RJ-45 connector to connect
this port with PC. 2Mbit/s or 2MHz synchronization port

Synchronization port interface: In sync port we have provision of two external

synchronization inputs, these are T3_1 and T3_2 along with two clock outputs at
2MHz at pins named as T4_1 and T4_2. All these input and output clock are
compliant with ITU-T G.703 Recommendations.

G.703 212Mbit/s traffic port:These ports on motherboard give us a provision for

termination and originating of 21 PCM on the mother board form the DDF (digital
distribution frame). Various features of these ports are given below:

Remote indication, remote control and station alarm port (LOOPS): This port is
basically used for the various alarm indication purpose. This facilitates us with four
remote indication inputs and two dry loops outputs for station alarm or remote
control purpose.
2M Port: These are PCM ports carrying 2 Mbit/s data . These ports has 21 PCM
carrying capacity.
These data port function block is composed of the
following functions:
HPA : High order Path Adaptation (Tributary Unit order 12 management)
LPT : Lower order Path Termination (Virtual Container order 12 management)
PPI : PDH Physical Interface of G.703 port

Power supply access ports: "PWRA" and/or "PWRB" ports, used when the
equipment is powered from oneor two 48 Vsources, the power source(s) should be
limited to 100 VA.
"PWR" port used when the equipment is powered from a
main voltage (230 V AC), via an optional power block (100-240V//48V - 1.5A).

IC1.1-2G CARD

Figure3.4-: IC1.1-2G Card

IC1.1-2G Card is OLT card . Two optical fibre cables are connected to this card.
One cable for transmit the sigal and another one is used for receiving the signal

EOW/AUX Configuration
The EOW/AUX interface provides a 64 kbit/s data channel ; this channel may be
carried by a Byte of the SDH frame.
Select in the STM1-SOH configuration table :
E1 or E2 or F1

STM-DUAL

Figure3.5: STM-DUAL

Each STM-DUAL provides connection for:

One STM-1 SFP optical interface
One STM-1 electrical interface
One 64Kbps access EOX/AUX order wire or auxiliary channel

4E/FE

Figure 3.6:4E/FE CARD

Each 4E/FE provides connection for:

Traffic Ethernet interface either in 10Mbit//s or 100Mbit/s in full or half duplex
mode.

E3DS3

Figure 3.7:ES3DS3 CARD

Each E3DS3 provides connection for:

75 34/45Mbps interface complaint with ITU-T G.703 and ETS 300 166 allowing
34/45 Mbps PDH streams.
21E120, 21E75 CARDS

Figure 3.8: 21E120 CARD

Each 21E120 provides connection for:

Trans and receive for 21 PCM on card each of 2Mbit.

COMMISSIONING OF STM-1(SIEMEN)

IP Addresses : To operate the STM -1 Equipment with NMS, we must set the IP
address of NMS. First three bytes of IP address of NMS must be same as that of
STM-1 Equipment.
To change the IP address of NMS following point:
My Network Places---Properties---Local Area Network---Properties
IP Address ---Properties
Now change the IP addresses of NMS and STM-1 Equipment As shown..

Figure3.9: setting of IP addresses

IP address 135.10.110.7 is address of NMS and 135.10.110.11 IP address of
STM-1 Equipment.One thing must be noted that first three bytes of IP address
must be same. Subnet mask remain same i.e 255.255.255.0
Now NMS can operate STM-1 Equipment.
Go to internet explorer.
Enter address of STM-1 Equipment (135.10.110.11)
Now we can operate the STM-1 equipment through NMS.

EQUIPMENT

Figure3.10: Equipment Menu

DATE AND TIME
Name:This menu item displays the "Equipment Name" dialog box.
Date and Time :When clicked, this menu item displays the "Date and Time" dialog
box. Apply button supplies the Equipment Date and Time with the PC Date and
Time.

INVENTORIES
Hardware Submenu Item
This menu displays the hardware inventory data, according to concerned
modules.Software Submenu Item

This menu displays the software inventory data, according to concerned modules.

SECURITY
Supervisor : All rights
Operator : May set configuration and maintenance operations
Observer : Not authorized to make any modifications (Read only access)
Passwords modification needs Supervisor access rights.

MANAGEMENT
This menu item displays the "Management" dialog box, which is the trap
destination table and the manager table. In network management, the manager
sends to an equipment some requests as SET and GET ; the equipment sends
responses to the requests ; it can also send TRAPS on its own if an event occurred
in the equipment. A TRAP is a Protocol Data Unit (PDU) sent by the equipment to
the manager. Up to ten managers can operate simultaneously in the same network.
At a given moment, only one manager can control the equipment.
One equipment may address up to ten different managers. Each trap sent by this
equipment, is routed to all managers identified in its trap destination table.

SYNCHRONISATION
The role of synchronisation plan is to determine the distribution of
synchronisation in a network and to select the level of clocks and facilities to be
used to time the network. This involves the selection and location of master clocks
for a network, the distribution of primary and secondary timing through out the
network and an analysis of the network to ensure that acceptable performance
levels are achieved. Improper synchronisation planning or the lack of planning can
cause severe performance problems resulting in excessive slips, long periods of
network downtime, elusive maintenance problems or high transmission error rates.
Hence, a proper synchronisation plan which optimises the performance, is a must

for the entire digital network. The status of synchronisation in the DOT network is
as follows

For synchroisation of the SDH network, it has been decided to use the
clock source available through the TAXs at the major stations. The synchronisation
plan is based upon provision of Synchronisation Supply Units (SSUs) which will
be deployed as an essential component of the synchronisation network which will
support synchronised operation of the SDH network. The architecture employed in
the SDH requires that the timing of all the network clocks be traceable to Primary
Reference Clock (PRC) specified in accordance with ITU Rec.G.811. The classical
method of synchronising network element clocks is the hierarchical method
(masterslave synchronisation) which is already adopted in the DOT network for
the TAXs. This masterslave synchronisation uses a hierarchy of clocks in which
each level of the hierarchy is synchronised with reference to a higher level, the
highest level being the PRC.

The hierarchical level of clocks are defined by ITU as follows :

PRC : Also called the primary reference clock or stratum-1 clock.
Usually an autonomous cesium clock or a rubidium clock locked to
GPS. Accuracy: 10^-11
SSUT: Transit clock or stratum2 clock. Accuracy: 10^-10
SSUL : Also, called local exchange clock or stratum3 clock. .
Accuracy: 10^-9
SES: It is a special clock which is not a stratum clock whose
specifications are specific to the requirements of an SDH equipment. .
Accuracy: 10^-8
DNU : Do not used

 Quality Effective (Read Only) is the effective quality of the source

rhythm.
The effective quality is always DNU when the interface fails to give a
valid rhythm. .Quality disable" mode is reached when all
synchronization sources have the same "quality effective".

T0 Priority (R/W) is the priority of the incoming rhythm for the T0

selector. The priority applies when two rhythms have same quality. In
this case, the rhythm of higher priority is chosen.
The priority values are ordered as follows :
P1 > P2 > P3 > P4 > P5 > P6 > P7

"dis" : the synchronization source is not used

Figure 3.11: Synchronization Source

LOS severity (R/W) : is the provisional severity given to synchronization failures

when "LOS" alarm occurs on this source.
Mode (R/W) : when set to Automatic, the algorithm select the best source. When
set to Freerun :the T0 does not change.

CONFIGURATION APPLICATION AND PERFORMANCE

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements
(links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or
logical. Physical topology means the physical design of a network including the

devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is
actually transferred in a network as opposed to its physical design.
STM-1 can work with any topology given below:
Point to point topology.
Star topology.
Bus topology.
Ring topology.
But point to point and ring topology is commonly used in STM networks. Few of
above topologies are explained below.
POINT TO POINT TOPOLOGY

Figure4.1: Point to point topology

Point to point topology is used between the two systems in which both are
connected to each other. It is used at the edge of network.
RING TOPOLOGY
Ring topology is used at the core of the communication network. In present days
we are using this topology in our core networks. Figure 4.2 shows ring of three
systems.

Figure4.2: Ring topology

AUTOMATIC PROTECTION SWITCHING (APS)

Modern society is virtually completely dependent on communications
technology. Trying to imagine a modern office without any connection to telephone
or data networks is like trying to work out how a laundry can operate without
water. Network failures, whether due to human error or faulty technology, can be
very expensive for users and network providers alike. As a result, the subject of socalled fall-back mechanisms is currently one of the most talked about in the SDH
world. A wide range of standardized mechanisms is incorporated into synchronous
networks in order to compensate for failures in network elements.
Two basic types of protection architecture are distinguished in APS. One
is the linear protection mechanism used for point-to-point connections. The other
basic form is the so-called ring protection mechanism which can take on many
different forms. Both mechanisms use spare circuits or components to provide the
back-up path. Switching is controlled by the overhead bytes K1 and K2.

LINEAR PROTECTION
The simplest form of back-up is the so-called 1 + 1 APS. Here, each
working line is protected by one protection line. If a defect occurs, the protection
agent in the network elements at both ends switches the circuit over to the
protection line. The switchover is triggered by a defect such as LOS. Switching at
the far end is initiated by the return of an acknowledgment in the backward
channel. 1+1 architecture includes 100% redundancy, as there is a spare line for
each working line. Economic considerations have led to the preferential use of 1:N
architecture, particularly for long-distance paths. In this case, several working lines
are protected by a single back-up line. If switching is necessary, the two ends of the
affected path are switched over to the back-up line. The 1+1 and 1:N protection
mechanisms are standardized in ITU-T Recommendation G.783. The reserve
circuits can be used for lower-priority traffic, which is simply interrupted if the
circuit is needed to replace a failed working line.

Figure 4.3: Linear protection

RING PROTECTION
A ring is the simplest and most cost-effective way of linking a number of
network elements. Various protection mechanisms are available for this type of
network architecture, only some of which have been standardized in ITU-T

Recommendation G.841. A basic distinction must be made between ring structures

with unidirectional and bi-directional connections.

UNIDIRECTIONAL RINGS
Figure shows the basic principle of APS for unidirectional rings. Traffic is
transmitted simultaneously over both the working line and the protection line. If
there is an interruption, the receiver switches to the protection line and
immediately takes up the connection.

Figure 4.4 :Two fiber unidirectional path switched ring

BI-DIRECTIONAL RINGS
In this network structure, connections between network elements are bi-directional.
This is indicated in figure 8 by the absence of arrows when compared with figure
8. The overall capacity of the network can be split up for several paths each with
one bi-directional working line, while for unidirectional rings, an entire virtual ring
is required for each path.

Figure 4.5: Two fiber bi-directional line-switched ring (BLSR)

CROSS-CONNECTION
Cross Connection is important function of STM-1 Equipment. By using this
function we can connect PCMs of one station toPCMs of another station. For
example 1st PCM of Patiala station can be connect to 7th PCM of Rajpura station.

To perform these function we must following.

Shelf View---Cross-Connection---Select Output Port---Configure---Select

Input Port---Apply
Now connection are established.
We can also give the protection path, if working path has been failed.

Goto Configure---Protection---Protection Input Port---Apply

Another important function in cross connection is Multiple connections. By using

this function we can connect more than 1 PCM to another stations PCM. For
established multiple connections we must following.

Cross-Connection--- Multiple Connection---Select OLT Card---Select N-PCM

Output Port---Select Starting Input Port---Apply

Now multiple connections are established. We can also give them protective
pathby using protection function of cross connection.

Each cross-connection is defined by its parameters:

Output port : Connection Destination End (Slot name and port number of selected
card)
Mode : Unidirectional or Bi-directional
Input port : Connection Origin End (Slot name and port number)
VC-n type : Either VC4, VC3 or VC12
Protection : Protection Connection Origin End (Slot name and port number), if
SNC protection is used.
Status : Working or protection according to channel which is carrying traffic.

Figure 4.6cross connection

On selected connection(s), following commands are available.

Configure:Allows to create or modify selected connection, namely configuration
parameters,SNC protection and operation mode
Delete:Allows to delete selected connection(s)
Before deleting connection, a confirmation request is displayed.
Deleting a bi-directional connection will delete all elementary connections
composing it ; it is not possible to delete only one elementary connection
Rename: Allows to modify connection(s) names (cf M1400)

See command Configure for more details

Multiple Connections:Allows to create several connection in one time
List: List all the existing connections in a separate window, thus enables to back-up
this list to a file.

Figure 4.6a cross connection

Digital Transmission Analyser

The DIGITAL TRANSMISSION ANALYSER 140 Mbps (MAC - 390) is a combined Digital
Transmitter and Receiver, designed for use with digital transmission system operating at 2 Mb/s, 8
Mb/s, 34 Mb/s and 140 Mb/s. It incorporates almost all the features for measurements on a 30Channel PCM MUX equipment and upto IV order MUX equipment.

1.1 FEATURES

Framed and unframed operation

Perform Error Performance Analysis as per ITU-T Rec. G.821.

A host of repetitive and Pseudo-random test patterns to suit the requirements of error
measurements at 2Mb /s, 8Mb /s, 34Mb /s and 140Mb /s.

Jitter generation and measurements ( per ITU-T - 0.171 )

User - selectable interface - HDB3, AMI, NRZ and CMI.

1.2 DIGITAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

In Digital Transmission system, the quality of communication is mainly assessed by two factors.
1. BER (Bit Error Ratio)
2. Jitter
These two factors can be taken as Quality Factors as they are used for judging the quality of
Digital Transmission.
1.2.1 BIT ERRORS
In the digital transmission, the bits transmitted at the transmitting end (1 or 0 ) are not always
detected as 1 or 0 at the receiving end. When the transmitted bit 1 or 0 is not identified as 1 or 0
at the receiver, the bit is counted as an error bit.
For assessing the real error performance, the bit error ratio (BER) is to be calculated instead of
actual error bits.

Bit Error Rate (BER)

The BER is the measure of error bits with respect to the total number of bits transmitted in a
given time. The total number of bits transmitted can be known from the bit rate of the digital
signal. The bit rate is the number of bits transmitted in onesecond and is specified for each
transmission system. Hence, the total number of bits transmitted in a given time can be counted.
In the measurement of BER, generally the measuring instrument measures the number of bits
transmitted in a given time.

The time setting can be from a few seconds to a few hours, depending on the feasibility. The
standards are set by ITU (International Telecommunication Union). The time set for the
measurement of BER, is called gating time. Larger the gating time better is the assessment of
BER. But for the measurement of BER, the Digital Equipment has to be taken off-line.
No of faulty bits
BER =
Total no of bits
Digital communication can just run with one error bit in one thousand bits received. For more
than one error bit, in one thousand bits received, communication gets affected. For good quality
communication, the requirement is, not more than one error bit in one million bits.
1.2.2 Jitter
Abrupt and unwanted variations of one or more signal characteristics, such as the interval
between successive pulses, the amplitude of successive cycles, or the frequency or phase of
successive cycles. Jitter must be specified in qualitative terms (e.g., amplitude, phase, pulse
width or pulse position) and in quantitative terms (e.g., average, RMS, or peak-to-peak). The
low-frequency cut-off for jitter is usually specified at 1 Hz. Contrast with drift, wander.
Short term variations of the significant instances of a digital signal from their reference position
in time.( Short term frequency equal to or greater than 10 Hz.). Long term variations of
significant instances of a digital signal from their ideal positions in time, are called wander.
(Long-term variationsfrequency less than 10 Hz).
Jitter, like BER, is transmission impairment. It is not very significant in the case of voice signal
transmission but it has a great impact in the transmission of data signals, especially with highspeed digital transmission. The present bit rates are as high as 565 Mb/s and (140 x 16) Mb/s.
Today Jitter is considered as a performance parameter of any digital transmission system.
For example, Jitter due to unwanted phase change is called Phase Jitter. The amount of change of
phase, converted into time, is generally expressed in milli-seconds or nano-seconds.
BER and Jitter are the unwanted by products of any transmission system and they get associated
with the transmission path and affect the quality of transmission. Bit Errors beyond a limit, affect
the communication and Jitter in the digital transmission system, is a source of generation of
errors.
Digital Transmission Analyzer (DTA) is used for the measurement of both BER and Jitter.

1.3 QUALITY PARAMETERS

To pin point the exact number of seconds or minutes, in which the bit errors take place and up to
what extent, the quality parameters are defined.
The quality parameters are:
1. Error Seconds (ES)
2. Severely Error Seconds (SES)
3. Non Severely Error Seconds (NSES)
4. Degraded Minutes (DM).
5.Available and Unavailable Second (US)

6.Error Free Second(EFS)

1.3.1 Error Seconds (ES)
Number of one-second intervals with one or more errors.
S (Errored)
%ES=
100
S( Available )
1.3.2 SES: - It is a second in which error is worse than 10
during
3
which error exceeds 10
%SES=

-3

or any second

S (Errored)
100
S( Available )

1.3.3 Non-Severely Error Seconds (NSES)

Number of one-second intervals with an error rate, better than or equal to 1.OE-3.
1.3.4 Degraded Minutes (DM)
Number of one-second intervals with a bit error rates worse than 1.OE-6.
DM60
%DM =
100
Sec ( Available)
1.3.5 Available and non-available time
A period of available time begins with a period of ten consecutive seconds each of which has a
BER better than 1.0E-3. These 10 seconds are considered to be available time.
A period of unavailable time begins when the bit error rate in each second is worse than 1.0E-3
for a period of 10 consecutive seconds. These 10 consecutive seconds are considered to be
unavailable time.
%AS=

TS AS
TS

%US=

S(unavailable )
100
S ( available )

1.3.6 Error Free Second

%EFS=100%ES=

ASES
AS

1.4 Alarms
Simulate alarm condition at distance station and observe on craft

terminal as well as on system module, like AIS, LOF, LOS, payload mismatch,
degraded
signal, path unequipped, major and minor. Some alarms may be critical or
major or
minor.e.g. degraded signal- major. Path unequipped- critical , loss of
reference source- major
, payload mismatch - critical, AIS-minor, LOF and LOS- critical, Loss of pointer

critical, Rack Top alarms A,B, R.( Warning , major, minor )

1.4.1 LINE ALARM- Fault in receiver side.
1.4.2 Alarm Indication Signal (AIS)-Fault in Transmitter Side.

RESULT AND CONCLUSION

Although Hi-tech techniques like SDH making the world smaller these days, but
these are not going to fulfill the requirements of future generation. These
techniques are lack of speed, intelligence and efficiency which wouldnt tolerable
in the future. Future generation would require more data rates and error less
transmission which wouldnt fulfill by present technologies. Future every
technology will be going to be IP based with introduction of IPv6 which offer us
with huge number of IP addresses so these present technologies has to either
modified or completely eliminated to make it compatible with IP based system
demand. In case of wireless technologies 2G i.e. GSM support only 9.6Kbps which
we very small which does not support essential VAS related to data services. In

switching, circuit switching is not going to support high switch rates and high
traffic rates in future.
FUTURE TRENDS
In future huge data rates will require in transmission media, of course media as
optical fiber will not change but technology like SDH has to modify. A modified
version of the SDH as DWDM,RPR, MLLN technology which consist of the
optical multiplexing offer us huge data rates of the order of giga bits. In case of
wireless technologies by changing modulation techniques can enhance the data
rates and security. Upcoming technologies like 3G supports data rates in mega bits
which are pretty much better. In switching the entire circuit switching network are
to be modified to packet switched networks and will be IP based. In nutshell future
technologies will be more efficient, precise and faster as compression to present
technologies.
REFERENCES:
www.bsnl.co.in
en.wikipedia.org
www.google.com/images
STM-1 Equipment PDFs
BSNL Class Notes and PPTs