StimulusResponseTheory
StimulusResponseTheoryisaconceptinpsychologythatreferstothebeliefthat
behaviormanifestsasaresultoftheinterplaybetweenstimulusandresponse.In
particular,thebeliefisthatasubjectispresentedwithastimulus,andthen
respondstothatstimulus,producing"behavior"(theobjectofpsychology'sstudy,
asafield).Inotherwords,behaviorcannotexistwithoutastimulusofsomesort,at
leastfromthisperspective.
Pavlov
WhenonethinksofStimulusResponseTheory,onecan'thelpbutthinkofclassical
conditioning.Ofcourse,classicalconditioningpresentstheconceptofstimulusand
responseverysuccinctly,asitdemonstratesthewaythatastimuluscanevokea
predictableandconsistentresponseinasubjectwithverylittleeffort.Andwhen
onethinksofclassicalconditioning,onecan'thelpbutthinkofIvanPavlovandhis
dogs.
PavlovwasaRussianresearcherworkingneartheturnofthecentury.Inhis
famousexperiments,heconditionedagroupofdogstosalivatewhentheyhearda
dinnerbellring.Thiswasachievedasfollows.Tobeginwith,Pavlovhadan
unconditionedstimulus,thedog'sfood.Whenpresentedwiththisunconditioned
stimulus,thedogswouldsalivate,naturally,asanunconditionedresponse.Pavlov
begantoringabellwheneverhisdogswerefed,andovertimefoundthatthebell
alone,withoutthepresenceoffood,couldreducetheexpectedresponseof
salivation.Overtime,thesalivationhadbecomeaconditionedresponsetothe
conditionedstimulioftheringingbell.
OperantTheory
Operantconditioning,sometimesreferredtoasinstrumentallearning,isamethod
oflearningthatoccursthroughrewardsandpunishmentsforbehavior.It
encouragesthesubjecttoassociatedesirableorundesirableoutcomeswithcertain
behaviors.
Operantconditioning(sometimesreferredtoasinstrumentalconditioning)isa
methodoflearningthatoccursthroughrewardsandpunishmentsforbehavior.
Throughoperantconditioning,anassociationismadebetweenabehavioranda
consequenceforthatbehavior.Forexample,whenalabratpressesabluebutton,
hereceivesafoodpelletasareward,butwhenhepressestheredbuttonhe
receivesamildelectricshock.
TheCognitiveLearningTheoryexplainswhythebrainisthemostincredible
networkofinformationprocessingandinterpretationinthebodyaswelearn
things.Thistheorycanbedividedintotwospecifictheories:theSocialCognitive
Theory(SCT),andtheCognitiveBehavioralTheory(CBT).
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Whenwesaythewordlearning,weusuallymeantothinkusingthebrain.This
basicconceptoflearningisthemainviewpointintheCognitiveLearningTheory
(CLT).Thetheoryhasbeenusedtoexplainmentalprocessesastheyareinfluenced
bybothintrinsicandextrinsicfactors,whicheventuallybringaboutlearninginan
individual.
CognitiveLearningTheoryimpliesthatthedifferentprocessesconcerninglearning
canbeexplainedbyanalyzingthementalprocessesfirst.Itpositsthatwith
effectivecognitiveprocesses,learningiseasierandnewinformationcanbestored
inthememoryforalongtime.Ontheotherhand,ineffectivecognitiveprocesses
resulttolearningdifficultiesthatcanbeseenanytimeduringthelifetimeofan
individual.
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A.SocialCognitiveTheory
IntheSocialCognitiveTheory,weareconsidering3variables:
behavioralfactors
environmentalfactors(extrinsic)
personalfactors(intrinsic)
These3variablesinSocialCognitiveTheoryaresaidtobeinterrelatedwitheach
other,causinglearningtooccur.Anindividualspersonalexperiencecanconverge
withthebehavioraldeterminantsandtheenvironmentalfactors.
SocialCognitiveTheoryIllustration(Pajares,2002)
Inthepersonenvironmentinteraction,humanbeliefs,ideasandcognitive
competenciesaremodifiedbyexternalfactorssuchasasupportiveparent,stressful
environmentorahotclimate.Inthepersonbehaviorinteraction,thecognitive
processesofapersonaffecthisbehavior;likewise,performanceofsuchbehavior
canmodifythewayhethinks.Lastly,theenvironmentbehaviorinteraction,
externalfactorscanalterthewayyoudisplaythebehavior.Also,yourbehaviorcan
affectandmodifyyourenvironment.Thismodelclearlyimpliesthatforeffective
andpositivelearningtooccuranindividualshouldhavepositivepersonal
characteristics,exhibitappropriatebehaviorandstayinasupportiveenvironment.
Constructionistlearningisinspiredbytheconstructivisttheorythatindividual
learnersconstructmentalmodelsinordertounderstandtheworldaroundthem.
Constructivismadvocatesstudentcentered,discoverylearningwherestudentsuse
informationtheyalreadyknowtoacquiremoreknowledge.
Inpsychology,cognitivedissonanceisthementalstressordiscomfortexperienced
byanindividualwhoholdstwoormorecontradictorybeliefs,ideas,orvaluesat
thesametime,performsanactionthatiscontradictorytooneormorebeliefs,ideas
orvalues,orisconfrontedbynewinformationthatconflictswithexistingbeliefs,
ideas,orvalues.
COGNITIVEDISSONANCEoccurswhentwoormoreattitudesareinconflict.
Needtheory
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Needtheory,alsoknownasThreeNeedsTheory,[1][2]proposedbypsychologist
DavidMcClelland,isamotivationalmodelthatattemptstoexplainhowtheneeds
forachievement,power,andaffiliationaffecttheactionsofpeoplefroma
managerialcontext.Thismodelwasdevelopedinthe1960ssoonafterMaslow's
hierarchyofneedsinthe1940s.McClellandstatedthatweallhavethesethree
typesofmotivationregardlessofage,sex,race,orculture.Thetypeofmotivation
bywhicheachindividualisdrivenderivesfromtheirlifeexperiencesandthe
opinionsoftheirculture.[1]Thisneedtheoryisoftentaughtinclassesconcerning
managementororganizationalbehaviour.
Needforachievement[edit]
Mainarticle:Needforachievement
Theypreferworkingontasksofmoderatedifficulty,preferworkinwhichthe
resultsarebasedontheireffortratherthanonanythingelse,andprefertoreceive
feedbackontheirwork.Achievementbasedindividualstendtoavoidbothhigh
riskandlowrisksituations.Lowrisksituationsareseenastooeasytobevalidand
thehighrisksituationsareseenasbasedmoreupontheluckofthesituationrather
thantheachievementsthatindividualmade.[3]Thispersonalitytypeismotivated
byaccomplishmentintheworkplaceandanemploymenthierarchywith
promotionalpositions.[4]
Needforaffilliation[edit]
Mainarticle:Needforaffiliation
Peoplewhohaveaneedforaffiliationprefertospendtimecreatingand
maintainingsocialrelationships,enjoybeingapartofgroups,andhaveadesireto
feellovedandaccepted.Peopleinthisgrouptendtoadheretothenormsofthe
cultureinthatworkplaceandtypicallydonotchangethenormsoftheworkplace
forfearofrejection.Thispersonfavorscollaborationovercompetitionanddoes
notlikesituationswithhighriskorhighuncertainty.[1]Peoplewhohaveaneedfor
affiliationworkwellinareasbasedonsocialinteractionslikecustomerserviceor
clientinteractionpositions.[3]
Needforpower[edit]
Mainarticle:Needforpower
Peopleinthiscategoryenjoyworkandplaceahighvalueondiscipline.The
downsidetothismotivationaltypeisthatgroupgoalscanbecomezerosumin
nature,thatis,foronepersontowin,anothermustlose.However,thiscanbe
positivelyappliedtohelpaccomplishgroupgoalsandtohelpothersinthegroup
feelcompetentabouttheirwork.Apersonmotivatedbythisneedenjoysstatus
recognition,winningarguments,competition,andinfluencingothers.[1]Withthis
motivationaltypecomesaneedforpersonalprestige,andaconstantneedfora
betterpersonalstatus.[4]
ExperientialLearning(CarlRogers)
Rogersdistinguishedtwotypesoflearning:cognitive(meaningless)and
experiential(significant).Theformercorrespondstoacademicknowledgesuchas
learningvocabularyormultiplicationtablesandthelatterreferstoapplied
knowledgesuchaslearningaboutenginesinordertorepairacar.Thekeytothe
distinctionisthatexperientiallearningaddressestheneedsandwantsofthe
learner.Rogersliststhesequalitiesofexperientiallearning:personalinvolvement,
selfinitiated,evaluatedbylearner,andpervasiveeffectsonlearner.
ToRogers,experientiallearningisequivalenttopersonalchangeandgrowth.
Rogersfeelsthatallhumanbeingshaveanaturalpropensitytolearn;theroleofthe
teacheristofacilitatesuchlearning.Thisincludes:(1)settingapositiveclimatefor
learning,(2)clarifyingthepurposesofthelearner(s),(3)organizingandmaking
availablelearningresources,(4)balancingintellectualandemotionalcomponents
oflearning,and(5)sharingfeelingsandthoughtswithlearnersbutnotdominating.
AccordingtoRogers,learningisfacilitatedwhen:(1)thestudentparticipates
completelyinthelearningprocessandhascontroloveritsnatureanddirection,(2)
itisprimarilybasedupondirectconfrontationwithpractical,social,personalor
researchproblems,and(3)selfevaluationistheprincipalmethodofassessing
progressorsuccess.Rogers<alsoemphasizestheimportanceoflearningtolearn
andanopennesstochange.
