FacultyofScienceandTechnology

MASTERS THESIS

Studyprogram/Specialization:

Springsemester,2011

MasterofScienceinPetroleumEngineering/

Open

DrillingEngineering

Writer:MarianneHamarhaug

(Writerssignature)

Facultysupervisor:KjellKreFjelde
Institutesupervisor:MesfinBelayneh
Externalsupervisor(s):SajjadSajdi,AkerSolutions

Titleofthesis:WellControlandTrainingScenarios
Credits(ECTS):30

Keywords:

WellControl
Kick
HPHT
KickSimulations

Pages:94
+enclosure:

Stavanger,15thofJune2011

Date/year

Abstract
Wellcontrolisneededduringdrillingoperationstomaintainastableandsafewell.Moving
towardsdeeperwellswithhigherpressuresandtemperaturesmakestheoperational
workingwindowsmallerandmorecomplicatedthanforconventionalwells.Inthiswork
someofthechallengeswhendealingwithaHPHTwellenvironmentareidentified.
Duringconventionalwelloperationsitisdesirabletokeepthewellpressuresabovethepore
pressureandbelowthefracturepressureintheformation.Thisistoavoidinflowof
formationfluidsintothewellboreortheflowofdrillingmudintotheformation.Thepore
pressureprognosisisthereforeveryimportantinthecasinganddrillingmuddesign.
Thewellcontrolaspectsaredescribedfocusingonkickcauses,kickdetectionandthewell
killprocedures.
ThesimulationsetupwasbasedonaconstructedHPHTwellcase.Thesimulationsand
analysisinthisworkisfocusedonpressureandvolumedevelopmentinthewellduringa
kickcirculation,focusingonthedifferenceswhencirculatingoutakickinOBM,wherethe
gaswilldissolveinthemud,andaWBM,wheregasmigrationwilloccur.Acomparison
betweenakickcirculatedoutinanOBMandinaWBMshowsthatingeneralthewell
pressuresandgasvolumesinthewellwillbehigherwhenthekickistakeninaWBM
Simulationswerealsodonelookingatthepressureeffectexperiencedwhenperforming
connectionsandswabbingoperations.Hereitwasshownthatthepressuredrop
experiencedduringconnectionscanleadtoanunderbalancedsituationwherewegetan
inflowofformationfluids.Itisalsoseenthatthepressuredropduringconnectionsincreases
insmallerholesectionanditisalsoseenthattheswabbingeffectduringtrippingoutofthe
wellcanbereducedbypumpingoutofthehole.Thepressuredropoverthebitisalso
dependentonthepumprateused,anincreaseinpumprategivesasmallerpressuredrop
whenthepipeispulledatahighspeed.Theswabbingeffectalsogetsworseinsmallerhole
sections.

Acknowledgement
Inthisthesis,theDrillbenchsoftware(PresmodandKick)hasbeenusedonaconstructed
examplecasetodemonstratesometransientwelldynamicsrelatedtopressure/wellcontrol
inHPHTconditions.
IwillliketothanktheSPTGroup(www.sptgroup.com)forgivingmethechancetousethese
simulatorsinmythesiswork.Theyhavebeenveryusefultoolstodemonstratesome
importantissuestobeawareofwhenwithinpressurecontrolandwellcontroltraining.A
furtherpresentationoftheSPTgroupandthesoftwaresusedaregivenlaterinthethesis.
IwouldalsoliketothankBjrnThoreLeidlandandSajjadSajdiforthehelpIgotinthe
beginningofmythesisandforprovidingmewiththeDrillbenchsoftware.
FinallyIwouldliketoexpressmysinceregratitudetomysupervisorsKjellKreFjeldeand
MesfinBelaynhefortheirhelpfulguidanceandinvolvementduringmyworkonthisthesis.

Contents
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... 0
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... 2
NOMENCLATURE ................................................................................................................... 5
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 6
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

Well Control and its importance ................................................................................. 6

Pressure and kick simulations ..................................................................................... 7
Study objective............................................................................................................ 7
Structure of the thesis.................................................................................................. 7

2 BASIC PHYSICS ................................................................................................................. 7

2.1 Well pressure .................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Boyles law ...................................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Gas migration and migration speed ................................................................................ 9
2.4 Gas solubility.................................................................................................................. 9
3 BASIC REVIEW OF WELL CONTROL ............................................................................ 10
3.1 Kick and Kick detection ............................................................................................... 12
3.1.1 What is kick?.................................................................................................... 12
3.1.2 Reasons for kick ............................................................................................... 12
3.1.3 Kick detection .................................................................................................. 13
3.2 Barriers ......................................................................................................................... 15
3.3 Well control procedures ............................................................................................... 16
3.3.1 Drillers method ................................................................................................ 19
3.3.2 Wait & Weight ................................................................................................. 21
3.3.3 Bullheading ...................................................................................................... 22
3.3.4 Volumetric method .......................................................................................... 23
3.4 Kick tolerance .............................................................................................................. 23
3.5 HPHT wells and special challenges ............................................................................. 24
3.5.1 Challenges in HPHT wells ............................................................................... 24
3.5.2 Physical behavior in HPHT wells .................................................................... 26
4 WELL CONTROL TRAINING & SIMULATORS ............................................................. 28
4.1 Drillbench ..................................................................................................................... 28
3

4.1.1 Presmod module............................................................................................... 29

4.1.2 Kick module ..................................................................................................... 31
4.2 Discussion of special training aspects in an HPHT well environment ........................ 32
4.2.1 Kick behavior in OBM and WBM ................................................................... 32
4.2.2 ECD.................................................................................................................. 32
4.2.3 Temperature effects.......................................................................................... 33
4.2.4 Effect of cuttings .............................................................................................. 33
4.2.5 Effect of gas solubility ..................................................................................... 33
4.2.6 Surge and swab effect ...................................................................................... 34
5 BUILDING A SCENARIO IN DRILLBENCH FOR TRAINING PURPOSES ................. 35
5.1 Case description ........................................................................................................... 35
5.2 Well Input ..................................................................................................................... 37
5.2.1 Input in the 12 section ............................................................................... 37
5.2.2 Input in the 8 section ................................................................................. 45
6 SIMULATION RESULTS .................................................................................................... 47
6.1 Presmod simulation ...................................................................................................... 48
6.1.1 Mud gradient and temperature ......................................................................... 48
6.1.2 Friction and ECD ............................................................................................. 49
6.1.3 Temperature effect ........................................................................................... 56
6.1.4 Swabbing.......................................................................................................... 57
6.2 Kick simulation ............................................................................................................ 64
6.2.1 Undetected kick in OBM ................................................................................. 64
6.2.2 Closed in well with OBM ................................................................................ 67
6.2.3 Standard kick circulation OBM ....................................................................... 69
6.2.4 Closed in well with WBM ............................................................................... 74
6.2.5 Standard kick circulation WBM ...................................................................... 78
6.3 Comparisons of WBM and OBM................................................................................. 82
7 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................... 88
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. 90
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... 92
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 93

Nomenclature

OBMOilBasedMud
WBMWaterBasedMud
BHABottomHoleAssembly
LOTLeakoffTest
FITFormationIntegrityTest
BOPBlowOutPreventer
MWMudWeight
KMWKillMudWeight
LPMLitersPerMinute
BHPBottomHolePressure
BHTBottomHoleTemperature
ROPRateOfPenetration
TVDTrueVerticalDepth
MDMeasuredDepth
TDTargetDepth
SGSpecificGravity
DPDrillPipe
DCDrillCollar
IDInnerDiameter
ODOuterdiameter
ECDEquivalentCirculatingDensity
HPHTHighPressureHighTemperature

1Introduction
1.1 WellControlanditsimportance
Wellcontrolisofmajorimportancewhenplanning,designingandconstructingawell.An
uncontrolledwellcanleadtounwantedsituationandinworstcasescenarioitcanleadtoa
blowout.Wearedealingwithanunstablewellifwehavefluidflowingfromtheformation
intothewellorifthewellfluidsareflowingintotheformation.
Duringconventionaldrillingthewellpressureiskeptabovetheformationpressure.Ifthe
pressureinthewellisbelowtheporepressure,underbalancedconditions,thereisariskof
potentialkick.Ifthewellpressureisabovethefracturepressure,thereisapotentialriskfor
lossesofthedrillingmudintotheformation.Thegoalisthereforetostayabovethepore
pressureandbelowthefracturepressurewhendrillingthewell.Theporepressureand
fracturepressureprognosisisveryimportantindeterminingthecasingsettingdepth,for
maintainingastablewell.
CasingdesignbaseonmuddensityisshowninFig.1.Designingthewellsectionsaccording
totheporepressureprognosisofthewellisacommonprocedure[11].Minimummud
densityisbasedoncontrollingtheporepressure,themudweightisheretheporepressure
gradientinthewellplusanaddedsafetymargin.Atthesametimethemaximummud
densityisbasedoncontrollingthefracturepressure,herethemudweightisthefracture
pressureplusasafetymargin.Themethodisstraightforward,casingseatsareselectedso
thattheminimummuddensitydoesnotexceedthemaximumallowabledensity.Inthe
planningphase,reasonablyaccurateporegradientandfracturegradientpredictionsare
essential.Oneortwocontingencystringsshouldbeplannedifthisknowledgeislacking[2].

Figure1:Muddensityandcasingdesignbasedonporepressureprognosis.[26]

HPHTwellsmeansthatwearedealingwithhighpressureandhightemperatureformations
inthewell.Undertheseconditionsnormalwelldesignbecomesmoreadvanced[23].Here
wehavesmalleroperatingmarginssincethenwearedealingwithasmallerwindow
6

betweenporeandfracturepressure.Therearealsotheeffectsfromthehightemperature
bothwhenitcomestoequipmenttoleranceandalsothetemperaturecaninfluencethewell
stability.

1.2 Pressureandkicksimulations
Toinvestigatethepressuredevelopmentinthewellduringakicksituation,itispossibleto
useasimulator.InthisthesistheDrillbenchKickandPresmodsoftwareshavebeenusedto
simulateaconstructedHPHTwellcase.

1.3 Studyobjective
TheobjectiveofthisthesisistolookatwellcontrolinaHPHTwell.Buildingaconstructed
HPHTwellscenarioforsimulationpurposes.AnalyzingthepressuredevelopmentinHPHT
wellsduringdifferentoperationsandanalyzingdifferentkicksituationsandinvestigatehow
OBMandWBMaffectthepressureandvolumedevelopmentduringakicksituation.

1.4 Structureofthethesis
Thisthesisstartswithchapter1,wherethebasicporeandfracturepressureprognosisand
itsimportanceinthewellconstructionprocessaredescribed.Inchapter2,somebasic
physicsisdescribed.Inchapter3thereispresentedageneraltheoryaboutwellcontrol
focusingonkickcauses,kickdetection,wellcontrolproceduresandspecialaspectsina
HPHTwell.Chapter4givesanintroductiontotheDrillbenchsoftwareusedforsimulations
andadiscussionofsomespecialchallengesinaHPHTwellenvironment.Theninchapter5a
HPHTwellscenarioisbuiltforsimulationpurposes.Inchapter6theresultsfromthe
simulationsarepresentedanddiscussedandfinallyaconclusionisgiveninchapter7.

2 Basicphysics
2.1Wellpressure
Thehydrostaticpressureinthewellisgivenby:

0.0981

(2.1)

PW=hydrostaticpressureinthewell
=densityofthefluidinthewell
h=theTVDofthewell

Duringconventionaldrillingwewanttokeepthewellpressure,PW,abovetheformation
pressure,PP,andbelowthefracturepressure,PF,atalltimes.Thisisreferredtoas
overbalanceddrilling.

(2.2)

Whenwehaveunderbalancedconditions,thepressuresinthewellarelowerthanthe
formationpressure,resultinginaproductiveformation,whereformationfluidscanenter
7

thewell.Theflowrateisdependentonpermeabilityandthepressuredifferencebetween
theformationandthewell[2,3].Whenperformingunderbalanceddrillingthereneedtobe
installedmud/gasseparatorstohandlethereturnofformationfluidsmixedwiththedrilling
mud.
Managedpressuredrillingisdrillingwithapressureveryclosetotheformationpressure.
Equipmentisinstalledtokeepthewellpressureclosetotheformationpressureatalltimes.
Thereisalsoextraequipmentavailabletohandlekicksduringtheoperation[24].

2.2Boyleslaw
Theidealgaslawisgivenby[2]:

(2.3)

WherenisthenumberofmolesandRtheuniversalgasconstant.Inthecaseofagasinflux
containedwithinawellbore,nisconstantanditfollowsthat:

(2.4)

Boyleslawstatesthatatconstanttemperature,thevolumeofaquantityofgasisinversely
proportionaltoitspressure.Itisexpressedas[2]:

(2.3)

WherePandVarethepressureandvolumeofthegasatconditions1and2.
Thismeansthatifagasbubblecanriseandexpandfreelyinafluidcolumn,itwilldoublein
volumeforeachhalfinpressure.ThisisillustratedinFig.2,wherethegasbubbleis
expandingupwardsinanopenwell.Hereitisshownthatwhenagaskickmovesupinan
openwellthegasvolumewillexpandandthewellpressuresgetlower.

b)

a)

Figure2:a)Thegasbubbleatbottomofthewell.b)Thegasbubblehasmigratedupintheopen
well.[3]
8


Ifthewellisclosedin,andthisgasbubblerisesupwardsinthewell,itwillinflictaBHPtwice
thesizeasbeforethewellwasclosed.OnecansaythatthegasbringstheBHPuptosurface
asitmigratesupwardsinaclosedinwell.ThisisshowninFig.3,wherethegasbubbleis
movingupintheclosedinwell.Herethegaskickwillmoveupinthewell,butthegas
bubblewillnotincreaseinvolume,itwilltransportthepressurefrombottomoffthewellup
tothesurface.Boyleslawtellsusthatinaclosedwell,thegasbubblepressureatbottom
willbethesameasthegasbubblepressureatsurface.Thismeansthatinthesituation
whereagaskickcanmoveupinaclosedinwelltherewillbeveryhighwellpressures,which
canleadtowellproblems[3].

Figure3:a)Thegasbubbleatbottomofthewell.b)Thegasbubblehastraveledtothesurfacein
theclosedinwell.[3]

2.3Gasmigrationandmigrationspeed
Agasinfluxwilltendtomigrateupwardsinawell,thisisduetothelowdensityofthegas
comparedtothedrillingfluid.Whenagasinfluxismigratingthroughdrillingfluidsitisoften
simplifiedasacontinuousslug,asinglebubblegasinflux.However,togiverealisticresultsit
cannotjustbedescribedbyasingleslipvelocity.Atlargeconcentrations(>10%)thegaswill
risefastataround0.5m/sinatypicaldrillinggeometry.Therapidlymovinggascloudwill
leaveatrailofbubblessuspendedinthewellbytheyieldstressofthemud.Thesesmallgas
bubbleswillbestopped.Misinterpretationofsurfacepressureduringshutinwillindicate
thatgasmigrationisslow[4].

2.4Gassolubility
Anassumptionoftenmadeisthataninfluxdoesnotreactwiththedrillingfluidandthatthe
PVTpropertiesoftheinfluxofformationfluidsatwellboreconditionscorrespondtothe
surfaceconditions.Thisisnottrueifwearedealingwithgasinfluxeswhereasignificant
amountofgasisdissolvedinthedrillingfluid.Hydrocarbongaswilltosomeextentdissolve
inanydrillingfluid,butthesolubilityeffectcangenerallybeignoredinaWBM.InanOBM
9

thegassolubilityismoreimportantbecausehereagaskickcanbecompletelydissolvedin
thedrillingmud[5,23].

3Basicreviewofwellcontrol

WellcontrolisdefinedbytheNORSOKD010standard,itisthecollectiveexpressionforall
measuresthatcanbeappliedtopreventtheuncontrolledreleaseofwellboreeffluentsto
theexternalenvironmentoruncontrolledundergroundflow[6].Pressurecontrolisof
majorimportancewhenitcomestosafety.Itisthereforeimportanttounderstandthe
differentmechanismsthatcanleadtoanuncontrolledwell.
Primarywellcontrolconcernsmainlythecontrolofpressureduringdrillingusing
drilling/completionfluidsandotherweightmaterialstoavoidkicksituationstooccur.For
someoperationstheprimarywellcontrolmayalsobeperformedusingwellcontrol
equipment,suchasMPD.Secondarywellcontrolwillforalltypesofwelloperationsbe
performedusingwellcontrolequipment.Thatis,measuresandproceduresthatapplies
whenyouhavelostorarelosingtheprimarywellcontrol.Tertiarywellcontrolistocontrol
thewellpressuresbydrillingreliefwells[7].

Figure4:TheDeepwaterHorizonblowoutintheGulfofMexico.[8]

AnillustrationofthewellcontrolequipmentisshowninFig.5.Herethemostimportant
equipmentduringdrillingisshown:

10

Thedrillingfluidgoesdownthewellinsidethedrillpipeandupthewellinthe
annulustothepittankatsurface,wherethepitvolumeismeasured.
TheBOPsealsofthewellincaseofaninflowsituation.
Thechokeisusedtocontrolthewellpressure,whilethechokelineallowswellfluids
tobetransportedoutthewellwhentheBOPisclosed.
Aseparatorisusedtoseparatethegasfromthemud.

Figure5:Wellcontrolequipment.[9]

Leakofftestisperformedtopreventlostcirculation.Thisprocedureisdonebyclosingthe
wellandthenpressureuptheopenholesectioninthewellbelowthelastsetcasing.ItIs
donebeforedrillingintothenextwellsectionornextinterval.Thetestindicatesthe
strengthofthewellboreatthelastsetcasingshoe[10].
Formationintegritytestisperformedatthecasingshoetodetermineifthewellborewillbe
abletohandlethemaximummudweightanticipatedwhiledrillingthesection.Thetestis
donebypressurizingthecasingseataccordingtotheexpectedmuddensity,iftheformation
holds,drillingisresumed[10].

11

3.1KickandKickdetection
3.1.1Whatiskick?
Akickisanunwantedsituationwhereyouhaveanuncontrolledinflowofformationfluid
intothewellbore.Akickcanoccurwhenwehaveahydrostaticpressureinthewellthatis
lowerthantheporepressureintheformationsurroundingthewell.Whenthisoccurthe
higherformationpressurehasatendencytoforceformationfluidsintothewellbore.The
inflowofformationfluidcanbegas,oilorsaltwater[2,3].
Forakicktooccurweneed;
-

Wellborepressure<porepressure
Areasonablelevelofpermeability
Presenceofformationfluids

3.1.2Reasonsforkick
Kicksnormallyoccurwhentheformationpressureisgreaterthanthemudhydrostatic
pressure.Thiscausesfluidstoflowfromtheformationandintothewellbore.Thereare
multiplereasonswhytheformationpressureexceedsthemudpressureinthewell,themost
importantreasonsare[2,10];
-

Insufficientmudweight
Swabbingeffects
Improperfillup
Lostcirculation
Gascutmud

3.1.2.1Insufficientmudweight

Whenperformingvariouswelloperationsitisimportanttoensurethatthewellfluidsused
haveahigherhydrostaticpressurethantheformationpressure.Ifthemudweightusedin
thewellistoolow,lowerthantheformationpressure,thereisapossibilityforgettinginflow
offormationfluidsintothewellinducingasocalledkick.Insomecasestherecanbesome
uncertaintyintheporepressureprognosisandduringdrillingthereisariskforexperiencing
unexpectedhighporepressureswhichcanresultinakicksituation.Thetemperatureeffect
inHPHTwellscanmakeusbelievethatthemudweightatbottomofthewellisthesameas
weobserveatsurface,whiletheeffectivemudweightinthewellmightbelower.
3.1.2.2Swabbingeffects

Theswabbingeffectisthetemporarypressurereductionwegetinthewellwhenpullingthe
drillpipeoutofthewell.Thispressurereductioncanresultininflowofformationfluidsto
thewellbore.Ifwecirculatewhilepullingthepipewecanreduceoreliminatetheswab
12

effect,inHPHTwellsthisprocedureiscommonandcalledpumpingoutofhole.The
pullingspeedisalsoofimportance,itisimportantnottopullouttoofast.Duringwell
planningitiscommontoperformswab/surgecalculationsinadvancetodeterminethesafe
operationallimits[3,24].Anexampleontheswabbingeffectcanbeifwehavea1.83sg
mudinthewell,theexpectedporegradientis1.8sg.Theswabbingeffectwhenpullingthe
pipeis0.04sg.Thismeansthatnowthewellpressureis1.79sg,whichisbelowthepore
pressure,thiscanleadtoinflowofformationfluidsintothewell.
3.1.2.3Improperfillup

Duringtripping,whenthepipeispulledoutofthewell,thefluidlevelinthewellisreduced
duetothevolumeofpulledpipe.Thiscanresultinareductionofthehydrostaticpressurein
thewellwhichcanleadtoakick.Itisthereforeofimportancetopayattentionwhenpulling
pipeoutofthewellandrefillingthewellwithmud.
Example:Whenpullingthe5DPoutofa2000mdeepwell,howmuchwillthemudlevelin
the19risersink?Howlargevolumedoweneedtorefill?A5DP=4.05l/m.
2000mx4.05l/m=8100l=8.1m3isthevolumeweneedtorefillwhenpullingthepipe
out.
19x0.0254=0.4826mID
Areaoftheriserisgivenby:(d2/4)=(x0.48262/4)=2.4649m2
Themudlevelintheriserwillfall:8.1m3/2.4649m2=3,29m

3.1.2.4Lostcirculation

Whentrippingintothewellwecangetasurgeeffect,whichcanresultinanincreaseofthe
wellpressure.Thiscanleadtofracturingoftheformationandlossofwellfluidintothe
fracturedformation.Thelossofwellfluidswillleadtoadropintheannulusfluidleveland
wegetareductionofhydrostaticpressureinthewellwhichcanresultinakicksituation.
3.1.2.5Gascutmud

Whendrillingformationgaswegetareductionoftheeffectivemudweightinthewell.The
reducedmudweightleadstoareducedbottomholepressure,whichcanresultininflowof
formationfluidsintothewellbore.

3.1.3Kickdetection
Whenwehaveanysignalsindicatinganunbalancedwellweshouldalwaysperformaflow
check.Thenthepumpsarestoppedandthemudflowisobserved.Ifthewellisflowing
whenthepumpsareoffitisaclearindicationthatthewellisnotinbalance.Thenthewell
mustimmediatelybeclosed.Itisimportanttodetectthekickasearlyaspossibletolimitthe
13

volumeofinflowintothewellbyclosingtheBOP.Themostimportantwarningsignsofa
kicksituationarediscussedbelow.
3.1.3.1Drillingbreak

AsuddenincreaseoftheROPcanbeawarningsignthattheoverbalanceisbeingreduced.
Thiscanbeawarningsignforapotentialkicksituation.TheROPwillvaryindifferent
formations,thisisduetodifferentformationtypesandformationstrengths,thereisalower
resistanceinsoftformationslikesandstone.WecanalsoexperienceanincreaseinROP
whendrillingthroughatransitionzoneaboveapermeablereservoir.
3.1.3.2Increaseinpitvolume

Anincreaseinthepitvolumeduringdrillingisasignalofakick.Wethenveryclearlyseethat
wehaveaninflowofformationfluidintothewellbore,resultinginincreasedpitgain.
Normallyflowratesaremeasuredusingflowmeters.Flowmetersgiveadirectmeasureof
theflowoutofthewell,soifthepumprateis2500lpmbutthegainis2700lpm,thenthere
mightbeakicksituationinthewell.
3.1.3.3Thewellisflowingwhenmudpumpsarestopped

Duringdifferentoperationsinthewellthemudpumpswillbeshutoff.Aflowingwellwhen
thepumpsareshutoffcanbeanindicationofakick.Itisimportanttounderstandthata
flowingwellwithpumpsoffnotnecessarilymeansthatwehaveakick,thewellcanalsobe
flowingduetotemperatureeffectsordensitydifferencebetweeninsideandoutsideofthe
drillstring.Duringconnectionswecanexperienceanetincreaseinthewelltemperature.
Thistemperatureeffectcanleadtofluidvolumeexpansion,resultinginincreasedreturn
volumeatsurface.
3.1.3.4Improperholefillupduringtripping

Duringtrippingandpullingoperationsatripsheetisusedrecordingthevolumeofdisplaced
mudduringtrippingandthevolumeofpumpedmudduringpulling.Thissheetshouldbe
calculatedandpreparedbeforewellentry,andanylargedeviationfromthecalculated
volumescanindicatethatwehaveaninflowofformationfluidsoralossofwellfluidstothe
formation.
3.1.3.5Increaseinreturnflowofmud

Whenwehaveanincreaseinthereturnflowratewhilepumpingataconstantrate,itcanbe
asignofakicksituation.Inflowofformationfluidintothewellborecanresultinan
increasedrateintheupwardflowintheannulus.Whenformationfluidstartstoflowupin
thewelltheformationfluidwillmixwiththemudgivinganincreaseinthereturnflowrate.

14

3.2Barriers
Itiscrucialforasafewelloperationthatthereisapressurebalanceinthewellatalltimes.
iethatthewellpressureshouldalwaysbehigherorthesameastheporepressure.Abarrier
consistsofoneormorebarrierelementstopreventanuncontrolledblowoutfromthewell.
Norwegianauthoritiesclaimsaysthatatanytimethereshallbetwoindependentbarriers
testedinthewell.Ifoneofthebarriersfails,alleffortistobeconcentratedonrestoringthis
barrier.
TheBOPisthesurfacewellcontrolequipment,themainpurposeoftheBOPistoclosein
thewellwhenneeded.TheBOPduringdrillingoperationsisaccordingtoNORSOKD010
classifiedasasecondarybarrierelement[6].TherearedifferenttypesofBOP`s;annularBOP
andramBOP.TheannularBOPistypicallyusedontopoftheBOPstack,whichhasthe
flexibilitytosealaroundavariablepipesize.

Fig.6showsthewellbarriersduringdrilling.HereweseeadrillingBOP,thefunctionofthe
drillingBOPistoprovidecapabilitiestocloseinandsealthewellborewithorwithout
tools/equipmentthroughtheBOP[6].

15


Figure6:Illustrationofthewellbarriersduringdrilling.[6]

3.3Wellcontrolprocedures

Ifthedetectionsignalsindicatethatwehaveanuncontrolledwell,andwehaveakick,then
weneedtohandlefast.Weneedtostoptheinflowofformationfluidsfromthebottomof
thewelltoquicklyrestorethepressurebalance.Thefirststepistostopdrillpiperotation
andmudpumpsandshutinthewellatthetopofannulus.Thesafetyvalveontopofthe
well,theBOP,willshuttheannulusbetweenthewellandthedrillstring.
16

Therearetwodifferentproceduresforshuttinginthewell,wehavehardshutinandsoft
shutin.Inhardshutintheannularpreventerisclosedimmediatelyafterthepumpsareshut
down.Insoftshutinprocedures,thechokeisopenedbeforethepreventersareclosed,and
oncethepreventersareclosed,thenthechokeisclosed.Thetypeofshutinprocedure
chosendependsmostlyontypeofrigandthedrillingoperationoccurring[10].
Afterthewellisclosed,theinflowatthebottomwillstarttoslowdownduetothepressure
buildupwhenmoreformationfluidsandgasmigratesupwardsinthewell.Wewillalso
registerthispressurebuildupatthetopofthewellwherewehavepressuregaugesbothin
theannulusandonthedrillstring.Thestabilizedpressureonthetopofthedrillstringis
calledSIDPP(Shutindrillpipepressure)andontopoftheannulusiscalledSICP(shutin
casingpressure),showninFig.7.Afterthepressuresattophavestabilized,thewellisin
balanceagain,butthisisatemporarysituation.Weneedtogetthewellinfullbalancewith
aheaviermudcolumnbeforethevalvescanbeopenedanddrillingresumed[7].Thisisdone
usingoneofthewellkillmethodsdescribedbelow;drillersmethod,waitandweighmethod,
volumetricmethodorbullheading.

Figure7:Wellsystemwithclosedvalves.

Theformationfluidenteringthewellbeforeitisshutinoftencontainslargevolumesofgas.
Whenthewellisshutin,thegasovertimecanchangethewellpressure,resultinginmajor
consequences.Theinfluxofgaswillbehaveverydifferentwhenthewellisshutinregarding
whichtypeofmudisusedinthewell.IfthegasinfluxistakeninOBM,thentheinfluxwill
dissolveinthemudandstayatbottomaslongasthewellisclosedin.Ifthegasinfluxis
takeninWBMitisnotpossibletostopthegasfrommigratingupwards,thenwemustallow
thegastoexpandupwardsinthewellandtherebygainlowerpressure.Ifthepressure
exceedswhattheformationcanhandlethenwehavethepossibilityforfracturing.The
pressureloadinthewellandespeciallyatthecasingshoewherethereisalargerpossibility
17

forfracturingorleakageisverydependentontheheightoftheinflowinthewellandalso
thedensity[7].Thedensityofthemixingbetweenmudandformationinfluxwillvaryifwe
havegas,oilorwaterinthewell.Theheightoftheinflowisdependentonthevolumeand
thecapacityofthewell.Inawellwithalowcapacity(smallannulus),evensmallvolumes
cangiverelativelylargeheights,whilewellswithalargerannuluswillbeabletohandle
largerinflowvolumeswithouteffectingtheheightsignificantly,thisisshowninFig.8.The
pressureloadisthereforeaffectedbytheinflowvolume,andwewanttoavoidlargeinflow
volumes.

Figure8:Kickheightcomparisonbetweena)smallannulusandb)largeannulus.

Theinfluxwillnotstopuntilthewellborepressureatthepointofinfluxisequaltothe
formationpressure:

(3.1)

Pp=formationpressure
PHDP=Hydrostaticpressureofmudinthedrillpipe
PHA=Hydrostaticpressureofmudintheannulus
PHKICK=Hydrostaticpressureofkickintheannulus

Whenthewellisclosedduetoaninflowofformationfluids,andwearewaitingforthe
pressurebuilduptostabilize,wecanstillgetaformationfractureattheweakestpointinthe
well,normallyjustbelowthelastsetcasingshoe.Herethemudwillstarttoleakintothe
formation,beforethepressuresatbottomarehighenoughtostoptheinflow.Wethenget
anundergroundblowout[2].Togetoutofthisproblemweneedtoincreasethepressures
atbottomandalsoreducethepressuresatthefracture.Whenthepressureinthewell
18

exceedstheformationstrengththewellcanfractureallthewayuptosurface.Wethenget
ablowout,whichusuallymustberepairedbydrillingareliefwell[7].
Tobeabletokillthewellsafelywerelyongoodknowledgeaboutthevolumesinthewell,
bothinsidethedrillpipeandintheannulus.Afterthewellisclosedinakicksituation,we
havelostourprimarybarrier.Wenowneedtorestorethisbarrierbyreplacingthemudin
thewellwithaheaviermud.Whenthewellisclosedinandstabilized,thepressuresattop
ofthewellincombinationwiththemudcolumnatthebottom,keepthebalanceatthe
bottom.Torestorefullcontrolandresumedrillingweneedtoremovetheformationfluidin
thewellandchangethemud[3].Tokillthewellmeanstorestorefullhydrostaticbalance.
Tocirculatetheinfluxupandoutofthewellweneedtohavethedrillstringatbottomof
thewellandcirculatethefluiddownitandreturnupthroughtheannulus.Thiscanbedone
withthedifferentmethodsdescribedbelow.
Datathatneedstobecalculatedwhenperformingakillprocedureare[3]:
ThekillmuddensityiscalculatedfromtheSIDPP:

(3.2)

killmud=Killmuddensity
oldmud=Oldmuddensity
Sm=Safetymargin

Thepumppressuretostartthekillprocedure:
(3.3)
ICP=Initialcirculationpressure
Sr=Wellfrictionmeasuredwhencirculatingthewellwithkillrate(foundinadvance)
Sm=Safetymargin,(requiredoverbalance)

Pumppressureneededwhenthekillmudisdownatthebit:

(3.4)

FCP=Finalcirculationpressure
3.3.1Drillersmethod
TheprinciplebehindthismethodistokeeptheBHPconstantwhencirculatingthekickout
throughthechokeline.TheBHPiskeptconstantbyproperchokeadjustments.Sincethereis
adirectcorrespondencebetweenthepressureatbottomandthepressureinthepumpwe
wanttokeepthepumppressureconstantduringcirculation.

(3.5)
19

PBH=Bottomholepressure
PHYD=Hydrostaticpressure
PF=Frictionalpressure
PC=Chokepressure

AsthegasisrisinginthewellwewanttokeepboththeBHPandthepressureattopofthe
drillstringconstant.Thekickiscirculatedslowlyupwardsintheannulustowardsthe
chokeline.Themudpumpisdrivenwithconstantspeedandcirculatestheinflowupwardsin
thewell,showninFig.9.Atthesametimewehavetoregulatethechokevalveattopofthe
annulusandkeepaconstantpressureattopofthedrillstring,showninFig.10.Thekickis
circulatedoutthroughthechokelineandisthensentthroughamud/gasseparatorwhere
thegasisflared.Itisimportanttokeepthebottomholepressureconstantduringthe
operation,tobalancetheformationpressure.Nowthewellisfilledwithalightmud,andto
restorethepressurebalanceinthewell,weneedtocirculateinaheaviermud.Thenew
heaviermudisthencalculated.Thenwestarttocirculateintheheaviermudbykeepingthe
BHPconstant.Whenthemudcolumnentersuptheannulusitisheavyenoughtobalance
theformationpressure,andnoextrapressureattopisneeded.Eventuallytheheavymud
fillstheentirewellandnowthewelliskilled[3,7].

Review
-

Easytoimplement,itdoesn`tdemandanyspecialcalculations.Twomanometer
keepingcontrolofthedifferentpressures.
Circulationcanstartatoncewhenthepressuresatthetophavestabilized.
Themethoddemandsalongercirculationtime,becausewefirsthavetocirculateout
theinflux,beforeintroducingthenewheavymud.

Figure9:Killsheetduringdrillersmethod.[9]
20


Figure10:Chokepressuredevelopmentusingdrillersmethod.[9]

3.3.2Wait&Weight
Thewaitandweightprocedureinvolvescirculatingouttheinfluxatthesametimeasthe
heaviermudisintroduced.WestillhavetokeeptheBHPconstantduringthekillprocedure.
Whenchangingthemudatthesametimeascirculatingtheinfluxoutwedon`thavea
constantmudcolumninthewelltostartwith.Inthedrillstringtheheaviermudwillgo
downandgraduallychangethemudcolumn,whileintheannuluswestillhaveaninflux
goingupwardswhichchangesthecompositionofthemudcolumn.Sincewedon`thavea
constantmudcolumnwhenusingthewaitandweightmethodweneedtocalculatethe
pressurechangesinthedrillstring.Weneedtocalculateinadvancehowthepumppressure
needtobedecreasedwhilefillingthepipewithkillmudandatthesametimemaintaininga
constantBHPallthetime.Thechokeisproperlyadjustedsuchthatthispumppressure
scheduleisfollowed.ThisensuresthatourBHPiskeptconstant[3,7].InFigs.11and12a
typicalpumpandchokepressuredevelopmentisshownduringthekillcirculation.
Whentheheaviermudisstartingtoreturnuptheannulus,thepressureattopofthedrill
stringwillbekeptconstant.FromthispointthemethodisnodifferentfromtheDrillers
method.Towaitentailsthatwehavetowaitwiththekillingofthewelluntilthemud
densityandthecirculationgraphwiththepressuresiscalculated/predicted.Toweight
entailsthatweneedtoweighuptheheavymudbeforestartingtoinjectit.
Review
-

Wehavetowaitwithcirculatingthewelluntilthecalculationsaredoneandthe
pumppressureschedulekillsheetisready.Therequiredkillmuddensitymustbe
calculatedandthenewheavymudmustbemixed.
Thisisafastermethodwhenkillingthewell.Circulatingintheheavymudatonce.

21

Themethodismorecomplicatedtoperform,firstcalculations,andthenwehaveto
followapredeterminedpathforpressurecontrolandpumpingoftheheavymud.
Thismethodhaslimitationswhenwearedealingwithhorizontalwells,difficultto
predictthepressurecirculationgraph.

Figure11:Killsheetduringwaitandweight.[9]

Figure12:Chokepressuredevelopmentusingwaitandweight.[9]

3.3.3Bullheading
Thepurposeofbullheadingistopumpthekickbackintothereservoir,usingreverse
circulation.ThereisariskforincreasingtheBHPwhenusingthismethod,whichcanleadto
formationfracturing.Thismethodisalsousedifthereareproblemswithundergroundblow
outs,inHPHTwells.[3]
22

3.3.4Volumetricmethod
Usingthevolumetricmethodimpliesthatthekickisnotcirculatedtosurface,butitmigrates
upinthewell.Thismethodisusedifthereisnopossibilitytocirculatethewellthroughthe
drillstring.Thismethodcanthereforeonlybeusedinfreegaskicksthatnaturallywill
migrateupinthewell.
Usingthevolumetricmethodwearelettingthegaskickexpandasitmigratesupinthewell,
whilekeepingtheBHPconstant.TheBHPiskeptconstantbybleedingoforpumpingmud
intothewellasthegasexpandsupinthewell.[3]

3.4Kicktolerance
Kicktoleranceisasensitivitystudyofmaximumkickvolumethatcanbetoleratedinthewell
andsafelycirculatedoutwithoutfracturingtheweakestformationinthewell.Theweakest
formationisnormallyjustbelowthelastsetcasingshoe.Thekicktolerancecanalsobe
definedasthemaximumallowableporepressureatnexttargetdepthorthemaximum
allowablemudweightinthewellwithoutbreakingthelastsetcasingshoe.Itisimportantto
estimateifthewellpressureatthecasingshoewillexceedthefracturepressureand
therebycauselostcirculation/andanundergroundblowout.Kicktoleranceisaffectedbya
numberofvariablessuchas;kicksize,casingshoepressure,formationpressure,mud
weight,densityofinfluxandcirculatingtemperature[2].Typicalkicktolerancevaluesare
shownintable1.Ifawellcannothandlekicksizesdefinedbythevolumesspecified,thelast
casingshoehastobesetdeeper.

Table1:Typicalvaluesofkicktolerances[21].

Hole size (inch)

6 and smaller
8.5
12.25
17.5
26

Kick volume (bbl)

10-25
25-50
50-100
100-150
250

Fromtheequationbelow(3.1)weseethatthemaximumcasingshoepressurealsodepends
onthedensityofthefluidmixtureinthewell,thesmallermixwehave,thelargerwillthe
maximumcasingshoepressurebe.

(3.6)

Pcs=casingshoepressure
PBOT=bottomholepressure
mix=densityofthemixedfluid
hTVD=heightofthewell

23

Thecasingshouldbesetasdeepaspossibleinthewellduetoeconomicalreasons,sothe
optimalselectionofcasingsettingdepthsisimportant.Thecasingsettingdepthisnormally
determinedfromtheporepressureandfracturepressureprognosis.Itisimportantthatthe
hydrostaticpressureofthemudalwaysishigherthantheformationpressure,butlower
thanthefracturepressure.Inthecasingseatselectionitisnotalwaysenoughtoonlylookat
theporepressureprognosis.Theweakestpointinthewellwillbebelowthelastsetcasing
shoe,andtheopenholesectionmightnotbeabletowithstandtheforcesexperienced
duringakickandleadtofracturing.Thereforeitcanbecrucialtoincludekicktolerance
calculationsinthecasingseatdesign[2,22].InthepaperHPHTWellControl;AnIntegrated
Approach[1]kicktolerancedatawhereupdatedandthecasingdesignwasbasedonusinga
moreadvanceddynamickicksimulator.AnexampleofkicktolerancecurvesaregiveninFig.
13.

Figure13:Casingshoepressurefordifferentkicksizes[1].

3.5HPHTwellsandspecialchallenges
AhighpressureandhightemperaturewellisdefinedintheNORSOK_010rev3asawell
wheretheexpectedshutinwellpressureishigherthan690barsandthestaticBHTisabove
150degreesCelsius[6].
3.5.1ChallengesinHPHTwells
WehavedifferentchallengeswhendealingwithaHPHTwell;oneisduetothesmallmargin
betweenporepressureandfracturepressurewhichrequiresthattheBHPiscontrolled
carefully.Alsotemperature,pressureandballooningeffectscanbechallenginginaHPHT
environment.

24

3.5.1.1Temperatureeffect

Wehavetemperatureeffectsinhightemperaturewells.Duetothetemperatureeffectsthe
drillingfluiddensitywillchangealongthewelldepth.Hightemperatureswilldecreasethe
densityofmud,soifthewellisdominatedbyhightemperaturethedownholeeffectivemud
weightwillbelowerthanwhatyouobserveatsurface.Insomecasesitiseasytomixthe
temperatureeffectwithakickincidentduetotheincreaseinmudvolumeatsurface.This
canbedangerousduringdrillingoperationsbecausewethenhaveaneffectivemudweight
downinthewellthatislowerthanwhatweobserveatsurface,thismeansthattheriskof
anunderbalancesituationishigher[1].Ifwegetunderbalanceduringdrillingthenformation
fluidscanstarttoflowintothewellbore.Toavoidkicksitcanbenecessarytoadjustthe
effectivesurfacemudweightsothatwegetthecorrecteffectivemudweightdownhole.
Thetemperatureofthedrillingmudcanchangerapidlydependingontheoperation,when
wehavestaticconditionsinthewellthemudtemperatureapproachesthegeothermal
temperatureinthewell.Whenwestarttocirculatethewell,coldmudfromthedrillstring
willentertheannuluswhilehotmudwillbeflowinguptheupperpartoftheannulus.This
causesthemuddensityandrheologytochangerapidlyatdifferentpositionsinthewell,
causingvariationsintheECDsandchangesinsurfacemudvolumes[11].
3.5.1.2Pressureeffects

InHPHTwellswegetmorevariationinthehydrostaticpressuresthanwegetwhendrilling
standardwells.Thisisduetothemuddensitychangescausedbytemperatureandpressure.
Highpressuresincreasesthedensityofmud,soifthewellisdominatedbyhighpressures
thedownholeeffectivemudweightwillbehigherthanwhatweobserveatsurface.Wealso
experiencepressureeffectsduetochangesintherheology,firstwegetfrictionalpressure
changesduetorheologyvariationscausedbytemperatureeffectsandalsorheology
changescaninducetransitionsinflowregimescausinghigherfrictionalpressurelosses[1].
3.5.1.3Ballooning

NormallyHPHTwellsaredeeperthanconventionalwells,wecanthereforeseeaballooning
effect.Ballooningeffectscanoccurduringdrillingoperations,wherethereturnmudvolume
varies,givingeitheratooloworatoohighreturnrate.Thesefalsekickscanmakethedriller
shutdownthewellwhenitiscompletelyunnecessary.Itisthereforeimportanttoseparate
theballooningeffectfromsituationswherewehavemudlosstotheformationorakick.We
canexperiencetheballooningeffectwhenwelookatthewellunderbothstaticand
dynamicconditions[11].
Theballooningofshalesisoneoftheeffects.Whenthepumpsinthewellareturnedon,we
haveapressurelossintheannulusandthedrillinghydrostaticpressurewhichcauseanover
pressureontheshaleformationinthewell.Whenthepumpsthenareturnedoffwegeta
pressuredecreaseontheshale,whichcanleadtoasmalldecreaseindiameterofthewell
leadingtoanincreasedmudvolumeoutofthewell.Thiscanbeinterpretedasakick,
leadingtowellshutdown.Theballooningeffectalsooccurinconventionalwellsbutismuch
morecommoninHPHTwells,thisisbecausetheyoftenhavegraterdepths[19,22].
25

3.5.1.4Undetectedkicks

ForHPHTwellsthereisariskfortakingsmallundetectedkicksinoilbasedmud,becausethe
influxofgasdissolvestotallyandhidesinthemud.Inthiscasewewillnotseeanychangein
pitvolumewhentheinfluxismovingtowardsthesurfaceuntilfreegasstartstoboilout.
Thenwewillhaveasharpincreaseinthepitvolumeandweneedtoshutinthewellassoon
aspossible.Itisimportantthatthekickdoesntreachtheriser,whichleadtoaverycritical
situation,becausethenwenolongerhavetheabilitytoleadthekickawayfromtheopen
platform.WhenthefreegasstartstoboiloutofthesolutionwegetadecreaseintheBHP,
thisdecreasecanleadtoanewkicksituationinthewell[2].

3.5.2PhysicalbehaviorinHPHTwells
Differentcomponentsinthedrillingmudwillchangeaccordingtothepressureand
temperatureinthewell.Themostcommoncomponentsinadrillingmudarewater,baseoil
andweightmaterials.Wenormallydistinguishbetweenwaterbasedmud(WBM),which
normallycomprisesofwateranddifferentsalts,andoilbasedmud(OBM).Thesedifferent
typesofdrillingfluidswillreactdifferentlytopressureandtemperature.
Thedrillingmuddensityisbothdependentonpressureandtemperature.Thedensityof
mudwillvaryinthewellwithvaryingtemperature,andtheactivemudvolumemight
changeduringdrillingwhenturningthepumpsonandoff.Thiscanoccurduetomud
expansion/contractionbecauseoftemperatureorpressurevariationsinthewell[1].
Thedrillingmudrheologyisaffectedbytemperatureandpressure,especiallyinwellswith
smallmarginbetweenfracturepressureandporepressurelikeHPHTwell,itisthereforea
needforappropriateevaluationsofthepressureandtemperaturedistributioninthewell
[1,18].
Inthemixturebetweenmudandhydrocarbonsweseeabigdifferencebetweenwhenthe
hydrocarbonsaremixingwithwaterbasedmudoriftheyaremixingwithoilbasedmud.The
solubilityofhydrocarbonsinOBMismuchlargerthaninWBM,theywillthereforebehave
significantlydifferentwhenwehaveinfluxintothewell.AninfluxofvolatileoilinWBMwill
releasefreegaswhenitispumpedupwardsinthewellduetopressurereduction,andthis
freegaswillexpandaccordingtotheidealgaslaw.AinfluxoffreegasinWBMwillnot
dissolveinthemud.WhenwehaveaninfluxofvolatileoilinOBMitwillmixtotallywiththe
baseoilandwewillgetanewbaseoilwithdifferentproperties,andifwehaveainfluxof
freegasinOBMitwillbeinfinitesolubleinthebaseoil[25].Theflowoffreegasisgenerally
takingplaceinthebubbleorslugflowregime.Thistransitionzonewillbedeterminedbythe
nonNewtonianpropertiesofthemixturebetweenthemudandtheinflux[1].Whenthegas
isintheslugflowregimetherewillbeamuchhighergasslipvelocitythanduringdispersed
bubbleflowregime.

26

Whenwehavelowcirculationinthewellandthedrillstringisrotatedslowlyornotatall,
thenwecangetsaggingofweightmaterialoutofthedrillingfluidinthelongrun.This
occursinhighlyinclinedsectionsofthewell,andcanbepronouncedinwellswithlong,
horizontalsections.Lossofweightmaterialfromthemudmaycauseseriousproblemsfor
thepressurecontrolwhenthelightermudreachessectionswithsmallinclinations,wherea
strongercarryingcapacityofcuttingsisneeded[1].
Inoverbalancedconditions,thewellpressureisabovetheformationpressureandwehave
noinflowofformationfluids.ButifaHPHTwellisdrilledinoverbalancethroughagas
formationandisthenleftwithoutcirculationforatimeperiod,thengasfromtheformation
canstarttodiffusethroughthespurtzoneandfiltercake,andaccumulateinthedrilling
fluid.IfwearedrillingwithOBMsubstantialamountsofgascandiffuseintothemuddespite
overbalancedconditions.Thiscanleadtopotentialwellcontrolproblemswhenthewellis
circulatedagain[12].
Hydratescanformwhenwehavewaterandlighthydrocarbonspresent.Hydrateformation
cantakeplaceinthewell,normallyweseehydratesformwhenwehavelowtemperature
andlowpressures,orifthereistemperaturesabove25Candlargepressurechanges.The
riskofhydrateformationtakingplacealsoincreaseswithincreasingwaterdepths.The
hydratescancausesevereproblemsinthewellwithrespecttowellcontrolastheydeposit
inthewellandthewellequipment.Hydratescanplugthechokeandkilllinewhichprevent
theiruseinawellcirculationtheycanplugformationatorbelowtheBOP,theycanalsoplug
aroundthedrillstringpreventingdrillstringmovement,andtheycanplugtheBOP
preventingitfromclosingfully[13].Itisthereforeveryimportanttoevaluatethepotential
forhydrateformationandhowtohandlethem.Itiscommonproceduretopumpglycolin
wellstopreventhydrateformation.
Itisalsoimportanttounderstandthatduringdrillingoperationswehavevariousdrilling
parameterswhichcreateaverytransientdownholesituation.

27

4Wellcontroltraining&simulators
Theneedforappropriatetrainingbecomesmoreimportantaswemovetowardsmore
narrowmargins,deeperwells,highertemperaturesandpressures.Itbecomesmorecrucial
tobeabletoforeseepossibleunwantedeventsthatcanoccurandhowtoavoidthemfrom
happening[22].Indrillingoperationsthemaingoalistopreventkickincidents.Byusinga
drillingsimulatorintheplanningstageofthewellitcanhelpeliminateunwantedwell
situations,toanalyzedifferentwellcontrolsituationsandforevaluatingprocedures.
Advancedwellcontrolsoftwareisthereforeimportantintheplanning,operationaland
evaluationstages.
Ifweareusingsimulatorsfortraining,itisimportantthattheyrepresenttherealwell
conditionsasrealisticaspossible.Hence,accurateinputdataisrequiredifaspecificwell
prospectistobedrilledandtrainedfor.
InHPHTwelltrainingitisimportanttoputfocusonthefollowing:
-

Thereisanincreasingamountofwellcontrolincidents,trainingcanhelpusbetter
understandhowtoavoidunwantedsituations.
Trainingcanhelpintheunderstandingofhowtooperateinnarrowmargins,deep
wells,horizontalwells..
Trainingcanhelpidentifywellcontrolrisks.
Seeifcurrentproceduresneedtobeupdated.
Helpimprovecrewtraining,trainthepersonneltomaketherightdecisionsinthe
differentsituations.

4.1Drillbench
DrillbenchisacommercialsoftwarepackagewhichcanbeobtainedfromtheSPTGroup
whichownsthesoftware.Itisasimulationpackagethatcanbeusedforplanningandfollow
upofdrillingoperations.Inthisthesiswehavebeenveryfortunatetobeenusingthis
softwarepackagetosimulatedifferentwellcontrolscenarios.TheDrillbenchsoftwarehas
severalmodulesandamongstotherthereexistbothsteadystateandtransientmodulesthat
canbeusedforanalyzingthepressureconditionsinwellsbothduringnormaloperations
andduringwellcontrolincidents.InthischapterPresmodandKickmoduleswillbe
describedtogetherwithapresentationoftheSPTGrouptakendirectlyfrom[14].

Figure14:SPTGroup.[14]
28


TodaySPTGroupdevelopsandmarketsOLGA,OLGAOnline(edpm),Drillbench(Flow
Simulations)andMEPO(ReservoirOptimisation),softwareproductsthatsupportsolutions
maximizingproductionandreservoirperformance.OLGAOnline(edpm)isaprovendynamic
onlinerealtimeproductionsupportsystem,assistingintheunderstandingofmultiphase
flowthatenablessustainedcosteffectiveoperations.
SPTGroupcurrentlyemploysmorethan200professionalsworldwide,withagoodmixof
experience,expertiseandeducationformaintainingtheanticipatedgrowthofthecompany.
Inadditiontoafullcomplementofengineers,ouremployeesrangefrompaleontologiststo
programmerstohighlyskilledsalesandmarketingpersonnel.
HeadquarteredinOslo,Norway,SPTGrouphasofficesandsubsidiariesinBergen,Cairo,
Calgary,Dubai,Hamburg,Houston,KualaLumpur,London,MexicoCity,Milan,Moscow,Rio
deJaneiro,PerthandStavanger.Tosupportthesecorporateoffices,SPTGroupalsohasan
extensivenetworkofagentsandrepresentativesworldwide.

Figure15:Drillbench.[14]
DRILLBENCH

DYNAMICWELLCONTROL
Realisticmultiphasewellcontrolsimulatorprovidingthebestplanningandoperational
supportthroughconsiderationof:
Personnelsafety
Rigdowntime
Kicktolerance
Maximumpressureloads
Freegasbreakoutdepth
Waterbasedgasmigration
Oilbasedgasdissolution
Mudgasseparatorcapacity
Horizontalkicks
Wellkilloperations[17]

4.1.1Presmodmodule
Presmodaddsanewdimensiontodrillinghydraulicsbyincludingdynamictemperature
calculationsinthehydraulicmodel.Presmodofferstheuseraneasierandmoreexact
29

evaluationofhowtheoperationalconditionsandcriticalfluidpropertiesinfluencepressure
(ECD)andtemperatureconditionsinthewell.
Keyfeatures;

Hydraulicdesign
Operationalforecasting
Interpretationofdownholepressureandtemperaturereadings(PWD)
Developmentofoperationalguidelines
Developmentofoperationalguidelinesincriticalwells
Calculationofequivalentstaticandcirculationdensity(ESD&ECD)
Calculationoftemperatureprofilesfordifferentoperationalconditions
Calculationsofthermalexpansioneffects
Calculationoffluidpropertiesvs.depth

Challenge
LackofhydraulicpowertoreachthetargetinanERDwell,fracturingtheformationwith
largemudlossesandfrequentkickincidentsareonlyafewexamplesofverycostlyproblems
thatcanbereducedthroughproperplanningwiththecorrecttool.
DrillbenchPresmodisahydraulicsoftwareprogramusedworldwidebydrillingengineersto
helpintheirdecisionmakingprocesses.Presmodallowstheengineertodesignandplan
operationswithinthesimulatorandthusprepareforreality.Theparametersusedinnormal
operations(i.e.,circulation,rotation,drilling)canallbealteredtoreproducerealoperational
situations.Criticalparameterscanbevisualisedatseverallocationsinthewellthroughthe
flexiblegraphics.
Thecombinationofaccuratemodelling,thegraphicalpresentationandtheabilityto
simulateareofspecialimportancewheneverthedesignmarginsdecreases.Itiswellknown
thatinadvancedwellslikeHPHTwells,deepwaterwells,extendedreachwells,wellsin
depletedreservoirsorinareaswithgasorwaterinjection,themarginsbetweenpore
pressureandfracturepressuremaybesmall.Inthefuture,thedrillingtargetswillprobably
beevenmoredifficult.Drillingadvancedandcomplicatedwellsrequiresanextraplanning
effort.Presmodcanbeusedtosimplifythisplanningprocessanditallowsthedrilling
engineertomakebetterdecisions.
Solution
DrillbenchPresmodaddsanewdimensiontodrillinghydraulicsbyincludingdynamic
temperaturecalculationsinthehydraulicmodel.Thissoftwareprogramisaresultof
extensiveR&DperformedatRogalandResearchwithinflowmodellingofnonNewtonian
fluids.Presmodofferstheuseraneasierandmoreexactevaluationofhowtheoperational
conditionsandcriticalfluidpropertiesinfluencepressure(ECD)andtemperatureconditions
inthewell.ByusingPresmodintheplanningstageofthewell,thedrillingengineerwillbe

30

abletomonitortheprocessesthatoccur,thusallowingtheusertosupervisethatthewell
conditionswillmeetthedesignrequirementsthroughouttheoperations.[16]

4.1.2Kickmodule
Kickisauniquesoftwareprogramforwellcontrolengineering,traininganddecision
makingsupport.ThesoftwareisbasedontheresultsofR&Dactivitiesofmultiphaseflow
modelling,laboratoryandfullscaleexperimentsandextensiveverification.Thesimulator
usesadvancedmathematicalmodelsinordertosimulatetherealprocessinthewell.Itcan
handlevariouswells,includingmanyspecialandcomplexconditions.Kickistheresultof
extensiveR&Dactivitieswithinwellcontrol,performedatPetecandRogalandResearch
duringthelastdecades.
Keyfeatures;

Evaluationofwellcontrolprocedures
Kicktolerancestudies
Evaluationofcasingsettingdepths
Casingdesign
Designofsurfaceequipment
Evaluationofkickdetectionsystems
Postanalysisofkickincidents
Trainingofkeypersonnelpriortodifficultdrillingoperations

Makingmistakesinakicksituationcanbedangerousandresultinhugecostsadditionsto
yourtotalwellproject.Shouldthingsgoterriblewrong,itmightresultinanuncontrolled
blowoutsituation.Evenifanormalkickincidentrarelyleadstoafullblowoutsituation,itis
expensivetohandlethekickduetothecostlyrigtimewhichislost.Aprimarygoalfor
drillingengineersisthereforetoavoidanykicksituationinwellplanninganddesign.Proper
welldesignbyusinganaccuratekicksimulatorisfairlycriticalwhentryingtoreducethe
frequencyofkickincidenceandtofindtheoptimalmethodforhandlingakick.
Furthermore,asthedrillingtargetsaregettinghardertoreach,itmaybenecessaryto
evaluatesafetymarginsinthewelldesign.Tryingtomaintainanadequatesafetylevelwill
requirecarefulplanninginvolvingadvancedsoftware.Kickisasuperiorengineeringtool
usedworldwidebydrillingengineersforachievingbestwellcontrol.[15]

31

4.2DiscussionofspecialtrainingaspectsinanHPHTwell
environment
Inthefollowing,wewilltrytohighlightsomespecialthingsthatonehastobeespecially
awareofwhenaddressinganHPHTwell.AnHPHTwellismuchmorecriticalwithrespectto
wellcontrolbothwithrespecttofrequencyofkickandconsequences.Thereareaspectsthat
aremorecritical/specialforaHPHTwellanditisimportanttoreflectthisintraining
programsandsimulatortoolsused.DrillbenchhasthecapacitytoevaluateHPHTwellsand
oneofthewellsithasbeenusedforisshownin[1].
4.2.1KickbehaviorinOBMandWBM
Themudisnormallyeitherwaterbasedoroilbased.Themaintasksforthemudareto
transportcuttingsandcooldownthesystem.Themudtypechosenwillhaveahugeimpact
onthewellcontrolscenario,anditisthereforeimportanttochoosetherightmudinthe
differentsectionsforthewell[18,22].
WBM[9]:
-

Thekickiseasilydetected.
Thegaskickwillstarttomigrateupwardsevenifthewellisshutin.
Maximumcasingshoepressureandchokepressureswillbelargerduringwellkill
operationscomparedtoOBM.
InWBMthegaskickisexpectedatsurfaceearlierthaninOBM.
Thewellpressureswillbuildupallthetimethewellisshutin,theywillbuildupuntil
thekickisjustbelowtheBOP.

OBM[9]:
-

ForhighpressuresthekickwillfullydissolveintheOBM.
Thekickcanbeundetectedinthewell.
Thekickwillboilrapidlyintheupperpartsofthewell.
Requiresfastaction,therewillbealargeexpansioninthewellasthefreegasstarts
toboiloutfromthemud,thewellthereforeneedstobeshutinasquicklyas
possible.
Therewillbelowermaximumcasingshoepressureandchokepressureinawellwith
OBM.
Thekickwillnotmigrateupwardswhenthekickisdissolvedinthemud,withno
circulation.
ThegaskickisexpectedatsurfacelaterthanwithWBMsincethereisnofreegas
migrationwhenthekickisdissolved.

4.2.2ECD
Theequivalentcirculatingdensityisaveryimportantparameterinavoidingkicksandlosses,
particularlyinwellsthathaveanarrowwindowbetweenthefracturegradientandpore
32

pressuregradient.ItisanincreaseintheBHPthatoccursonlywhenthemudiscirculated,
thisisduetofrictionintheannulusasthemudispumped.TheECDisimportantinaHPHT
wellbecauseofthenarrowwindowbetweenporepressureandfracturepressure.TheECD
isafunctionofthemudweight,therheologicalproperties,frictionalpressuredropinthe
annulusandsolidsloading.Themudweightweobserveatsurfacemightnotbetheeffective
mudweightdowninthewell,theECDtakesintoaccountthepressuredropintheannulus
[2].

4.2.3Temperatureeffects
InaHPHTwellwearesubmittedtohightemperaturesandhighpressureswhichcanaffect
theconditionsinthewell.Thehydraulicsimulationtakesintoaccountthatmuddensitywill
changedependingonthetemperatureandpressureconditionsinthewell.Temperature
effectsduringconnectionscancauseflowreturnatsurfaceandiseasilymixedwithan
inflowsituation.Itcanthereforebeveryimportanttoperformfingerprinting,toavoidbeing
fooledbythetemperatureeffect.Byusingfingerprinting,[23],wemeanthatwhenthewell
isgettinganincreaseinthereturnmudduringconnections,wecanrecordhowmuch
increasewegeteachtimeweperformaconnection.Thatwaywecanmoreeasilycontrol
andmonitorthewellsituation,becauseweknowhowmuchincreaseinmudleveltoexpect
duringdifferentwelloperations.
Whenthewelliscirculatedthereiseitheranetcoolinginthewelloranetheatinginthe
well.Ifthereisanetcoolinginthewellthewellispressuredominated,thenthemudweight
willincreasedowninthewell.Ifthewellistemperaturedominatedtherewillbeanet
heatinginthewell,thenthemudweightwilldecreasedowninthewell.Whenthewellis
temperaturedominatedthereisahigherriskfortakingakickdowninthewell,becausethe
mudweightinthebottomofthewellmightbelowerthanwhatisobservedatsurface.
Whenthisoccursthereisariskforunderbalancedconditions,whichcanleadtoakick[11].
4.2.4Effectofcuttings
Themudscarryingcapacityisimportanttobeabletocarryoutthecuttingsfromthewell.
Whendissolvedgasismixedwiththemudthemudweightwilldecreaseandthecarrying
capacityandweightmaterialofthemudisaffected.
4.2.5Effectofgassolubility
Wearedealingwithdifferenttypesofmud,fromWBMthathasnogassolubilitytoOBM
thatcansolvelargeamountsofgas.Thismeansthatitiscrucialtobeabletodetectany
volumechangesinthewellasearlyaspossible.Theeffectofgassolubilitycanleadto
undetectedkicks.SincelargeamountofgascandissolveinOBM,thegasmightnotbe
detectedbeforeitstartstoboiloutfromthemud.Normallywhenweexperience
undetectedkicks,theyarerelativelysmall,lessthan0.5m3.Itisthereforeimportanttohave

33

adetailedporepressureprognosistoavoidsituationswherethewellisinunderbalance,and
cantakeakick[2].
4.2.6Surgeandswabeffect
Theeffectoftheupanddownmovementsofthestringcaninfluencetheconditionsinthe
well.Whenthestringistrippingintotheholethemudwillbepushedforwardsintoawave
motion,thisiscalledsurgepressure.Whenpullingthepipeoutofthewell,swabbing,there
canformaunderpressureinthewellthatcanleadtoaninflowofformationfluidsinto
thewell.Thepressurethatarisesisdependentonthefreeareabetweenthepipeandthe
annulus,itisalsodependentontheviscosityofthemud,thevelocityofthepipemovement
andthelengthofthepipe[3].InHPHTwellswheretherearesmallmargins,itiscommon
proceduretopumpoutofholetoreducetheswabpressure.Fig.16showshowimportantit
istomaintaincirculationduringswabbingoperationstoavoidunderbalancedconditions.

Figure16:BHPwhenswabbing.[1]

34

5BuildingascenarioinDrillbenchfortrainingpurposes

5.1Casedescription
InthiscasewearelookingataHPHTwell.Itisanexplorationwelldrilledtoinvestigateif
thereisanoilreservoirinthelimestone/dolomiteformationatapproximately4400mTVD
seenintheporepressureprognosisFig.16.Thereisanexpectedreservoirtemperatureof
170Candtheexpectedreservoirpressureis:
Pp=1.8x4400x0.0981=777bar
Thewellisplannedasaverticalwelldrilledfromsurfacedowntothereservoirlocatedat
approximately4400mTVD.Thewellisextendedfromseabottomtosurfaceusinga21OD
riser,sealevelissetto250mTVD.Ingeneralthecasingandlinersinthewellaresetto
ensurewellintegrityandprotecttheformationagainstlargepressuresduringtheoperation.
Thecasingissetandcementedbeforethewellisintroducedtoanewheaviermud.The
heaviermudisintroducedtobalancetheporeandfracturepressuresinthewell,thisisto
maintainastablewellbeforedrillingfurtherdown.Thecasingseatdesignisnormally
decidedfromtheporegradientprognosis.
Thefirstwellsection,the30conductorissetat350mTVD,100metersbelowseabottom.
Thenextsectionisthe20casingsectionandthatextendsfromseabottomdownto1400m
TVD,thissectionissetinshaleanditissetrightbeforetheporepressureincreases.Then
thenextcasingsection,133/8casing,issetat2900mTVD,wheretheporepressureis
around1.5sg.Thereasonwhywewanttosetthecasingasdeepas2900m,isbecause
thereisasuspectedunstableshaleformationat2700m.The12holeisthenplanned
drilleddownto4200mTVD,wherethe95/8casingisplannedset.The95/8casing
settingdepthisdeterminedfromtheporepressureprognosis,wewanttosetthecasingjust
abovethereservoirsection.
Weassumethatwetakeakickinthe12sectionpriortoreachingthenextcasingseat
depthat4200mTVD.Hereweareassumingthatwehaveapermeableformationwith
porosity,resultingininflowofformationfluidsintothewellbore.Whenwearedrillingthis
sectionthemudusedwillbebothanOBMandalsoaWBM.
Whenperformingthedifferentsimulations,wewanttoseethedifferenteffectsthedrill
fluidwillhaveindifferentkickscenarios.AsdescribedearlierOBMandWBMwillreactvery
differentwhenthereisaninfluxofgasinthewell.ForOBMthegaskickwillcompletely
dissolveinthemudandifthewellisclosedthekickwillstayatbottomuntilthewellis
circulatedagain.Undetectedkickscanbetakenwithoutasevereincreaseinpitgainand
theywillnotbedetectedbeforefreegasstartstoboiloutofthesolutionintheupperparts
ofthewell.ForWBMthegaskickwillbeabletomigrateupinthewellevenatclosedin
conditions.Anormalkickcirculationisalsoperformed,wherewelookatthedifferent
35

pressureandvolumedevelopmentinbothOBMandWBM.Inthe12openholesection
wealsolookat;
-

Mudtemperatureduringstaticanddynamicconditions
Pressuredropduringconnectionsandflowratechanges
Swabbingeffect
Differentkickscenarios

The8sectionisthendrilleddowntotopofthereservoirWewillalsosimulateasituation
inthe8wellsection.Herewewilllookattheswabbingeffectandhowthewellpressure
willchangewithvaryingflowrate.
Theporepressureprognosisinthewellisfoundfromthediagrambelow(Fig.17):

Figure17:Expectedporeandfracturepressureinthewell.

36

5.2WellInput
Theinputdatadescribestheparametersusedindefiningthesimulationcase.Heretheinput
dataforthe12holesectionisdescribedindetail,andthentheadditionaldataused
whensimulatingthe8holeismentionedattheendofthissection
5.2.1Inputinthe12section

5.2.1.1Formation

Thesurfacetemperaturespecifiesthestartingpointforcalculatingthegeothermal
temperatureshowninFig.18.
Thelithologyisthedifferentformationsweseeinaverticalwell.Inthiscaseweassumethat
weonlyhaveseawaterandoneformationwithageothermalgradientdowninthewell.
Lithology
Name

Top

Bottom

Geotherma
l
gradient

Specific
heat

Specific
heat
gradient

Thermal
conductivit
y

Thermal
conductivit
y
gradient

[m]

[m]

[C/m]

[J/kg*K
]

[J/kg*K2
]

[W/m*K]

Density
gradient

[W/m2*K2
]

[kg/m3
]

[kg/m3*K
]

Sea water

25,00

250,00

-0,01

4180,00

NAN

0,58

0,00

1000,00

NAN

Formation
1

250,0
0

6000,0
0

0,04

1000,00

NAN

2,00

NAN

2500,00

NAN

Figure18:Geothermaltemperatureintheformation.
37

Density


5.2.1.2Survey

Thesurveyinputshowsthewelltrajectory.Inthiscasewehaveaverticalwellwithno
inclination.

Figure19:Trajectoryoftheverticalwell.

5.2.1.3Poreandfracturepressure

Theporepressuresandfracturepressuresforthiscaseisfoundfromtheporepressure
prognosisofthewellinFig.17.Heretheyarespecifiedforvariousdepthsandplottedinthe
simulator.

38


Figure20:Poregradientandfracturegradient.

5.2.1.4Wellboregeometry

Thewellboregeometryisthespecificationoftheactualhole.Theriserelongatesthewell
fromthebottomoftheseauptosurface.
Riser
Name

Length

21" Riser

[m]
250,00

Inner
Outer
diameter diameter
[in]
19,000

[in]
21,000

39

Thecasingprogramchosenisdescribedinmoredetailinthecasedescription.

Casing program
Hanger Setting
Inner
Outer
Hole
Top of
depth
depth diameter diameter diameter cement
[m]
[m]
[in]
[in]
[in]
[m]

Name
30" X-52 309.7 lbs/ft

250,00

350,00

28,000

30,000

36,000

250,00

20" P110 94 lbs/ft

250,00 1400,00

19,122

20,000

26,000

250,00

13 3/8" P110 80.70

lbs/ft

250,00 2900,00

12,217

13,374

17,500 2700,00

Material above
cement
Sea water
WBM example#2
1.5sg
WBM example#2
1.5sg

Thelengthoftheopenholesectionisfromthelastsetcasingshoetothebottomofthe
drilledwell.

Open hole section

Length Diameter

[m]
1300,00

[in]
12,250

Figure21:Wellschematics.
40


5.2.1.5Drillstringandbit

Thedrillstringiscomposedofadrillcollarandadrillpipe,valuesandsectionlengthsare
giveninthetablebelow.
Component section
Component

Type

Section
Inner
Outer
length diameter diameter
[m]

DC 8 1/2" DrillCollar
150,00
dp 5" S135 19.50 lb/ft
Drillpipe 4050,00

[in]

[in]

3,750
4,276

8,500
5,000

Joint
Joint
inner
outer
diameter diameter
[in]
[in]
3,750
2,750

8,500
6,625

Thebitusedtodrillthe12sectionofthewellisaTriconebit,dataisgivenbelow.
Bit: Bit 12 1/4 TriCone
Name:
Bit 12 1/4 TriCone
Outer diameter [in]
12,252
Flow area
[in2]
0,95
Bit nozzles
Diameter
[in]
0,563
0,563
0,563
0,500

5.2.1.6Drillingfluid,PVTmodelandrheology

ThedrillingmudusedinthiscaseisoneOBMandoneWBM,thedataisgivenbelow.

Table2:Theoilbasedmuddata.
Fluid: My mud
Name:
Base oil density
Water density
Solids density
Density
Reference temperature
Oil water ratio:
Rheology type:
Pvt model:

[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
[Celsius]

My mud
820,00
1000,00
4200,00
1830,00
15,56
80/20
Non-Newtonian; Fann tables
Compositional

41

Table3:Thewaterbasedmuddata.

Fluid: Mynew mud

Name:
Mynew mud
Base oil density
[kg/m3]
820,00
Water density
[kg/m3]
1000,00
Solids density
[kg/m3]
4200,00
Density
[kg/m3]
1830,00
Reference temperature [Celsius]
15,56
Oil water ratio:
0/100
Rheology type:
Non-Newtonian; Fann tables
Pvt model:
Compositional

InthePVTmodelseparatedensitymodelsareappliedforeachphase;oil,waterandsolid
material.Andfluiddensityiscalculatedbycombiningthephasedensities.
Thesimulatorcomputesthefrictionalpressurelossesthroughthewell,todothisarheology
modelisneeded.Arheologymodeldescribeshowtheyieldstressandtheshearrateinthe
fluidisconnected.ThesimplestmodelistheNewtonianmodelwhichdescribesalinear
relationshipbetweenshearstressandshearrate.Inmostdrillingfluidstheapparent
viscositymeasureddependsonshearrate.NonNewtonianfluidsthataredependentonthe
shearratearepseudoplasticiftheapparentviscositydecreaseswithincreasingshearrates
anddilatantsiftheapparentviscosityisincreasingwithincreasingshearrate.Drillingfluids
andslurriesaregenerallypseudoplastic.Thesimulatorcanusethreedifferentrheology
models;Binghamplastic,PowerlawandRobertsonStiff.[20]
Anymixingratioofreservoirfluidanddrillingmudcanoccurafterinfluxinawell,the
objectiveofthePVTcompositionalmodelistopredictthephysicalpropertiesofthemixed
fluid.
ThePVTmodelchosenfortheOBMexampleisdensitycorrelationsmodel:
Fluid models
Oil density model:
Glasso
Rheology model:
Robertson-Stiff
Water density model:
Dodson-Standing

42

Figure22:Fannreadingsandshearstress.

Figure23:Rheologypropertiesforthe1.83sgOBM.
43

5.2.1.7Temperature

Therearetwotypesoftemperaturemodelsthatcanbeusedinthesimulations,dynamic
andmeasured.Inthedynamictemperaturemodel,heattransferandtemperaturewillbe
computeddynamically.Themeasuredtemperatureinthewellisfoundusingthegeothermal
temperature.ByperformingsimulationsinPresmod,theexpectedwelltemperatureisfound
usingthegeothermaltemperatureasastartingpoint.Thesimulationresultisshownin
figure4.Thetemperatureisfoundbycirculatingthewelluntilthemudinthewellreachesa
steadystate.Constanttemperaturedifferenceischosenbetweentheinletandoutletofthe
mud.

Figure24:SimulationofwelltemperatureduringcirculationperformedinPresmod.

5.2.1.8Reservoirproperties

Weassumethattheporepressureat4200metersisequaltothemudweighttobeableto
takeinakick:
Pp=4200x1.83x0.0981=754
Thereservoirdataisgivenbelow.
Lithology
Name

Top
[m]

Bottom Pressure Temperature

[m]
[bar]
[Celsius]

Formation1 4190,00 4200,00

754,0

170,00 Reservoir model

Reservoir fluid
Pvt model:
Compositional

44

Flow model

Influx type:

Methane

5.2.1.9Surfaceequipment

Thesurfaceequipmentisimportantduringthekillcirculation.Themaindataislistedbelow.

Chokeline
Length
[m] 250,00
Number of kill and chokelines
1

Pump
Liquid rate change [m3/s2]
0,00
Volumetric output [m3/stroke] 0,01
Response delay
[min]
0,20

BOP
Closure time
[min] 0,30
Response delay [min] 0,45

5.2.2Inputinthe8section
Inthe8sectionwehavesomeadditionalinputdata,thesearegivenbelow.
5.2.2.1Wellboregeometry

Inthecasingprogram,a95/8casingissetat4200mTVD.Andtheopenhole8section
isonly200meters.
Casing program
Hanger Setting
Inner
Outer
Hole
Top of
depth
depth diameter diameter diameter cement
[m]
[m]
[in]
[in]
[in]
[m]

Name
30" X-52 309.7 lbs/ft

250,00

20" P110 94 lbs/ft

13 3/8" P110 80.70
lbs/ft
9 5/8" P110 43.5
lbs/ft

350,00

28,000

30,000

36,000

250,00

250,00 1400,00

19,122

20,000

26,000

250,00

250,00 2900,00

12,217

13,374

17,500 2700,00

250,00 4200,00

8,756

9,626

12,250 4000,00

Open hole section

Length Diameter
[m]
[in]
200,00

12,250

45

Material above
cement
Sea water
WBM example#2
1.5sg
WBM example#2
1.5sg
OBM example#1 1.86
sg


Figure25:Wellschematicsforthe8section.
5.2.2.2Drillstringandbit

Thissectionhasasmallerdiametersothedrillcollarandbitsizeissmallerherethaninthe
12section.
Component section
Component

Type

Section
Inner
Outer
length diameter diameter
[m]

DC 7 1/2" DrillCollar
150,00
dp 5" S135 19.50 lb/ft
Drillpipe 4250,00

[in]

[in]

3,500
4,276

Joint
Joint
inner
outer
diameter diameter
[in]
[in]

7,500
5,000

Bit: Bit 8 1/2 pdc

Name:
Bit 8 1/2 pdc
Outer diameter [in]
8,500
Flow area
[in2]
0,70

5.2.2.3Drillingfluid

Thedrillingfluidusedinthe8sectionisa2.0sgOBM.
Fluid: My mud
Name:
Base oil density
Water density
Solids density
Density
Reference temperature
Oil water ratio:
Rheology type:

[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
[kg/m3]
[Celsius]

My mud
820,00
1000,00
4200,00
2000,00
15,56
80/20
Non-Newtonian; Fann tables

46

3,500
2,750

7,500
6,625

6Simulationresults
ThischapterwilladdresstheresultsfoundfromthesimulationsdonebothinPresmodand
Kick.InthepressureandtemperaturesimulationsdoneinPresmod,thedrillingfluidusedis
OBMforboththe12sectionandthe8section.WhilethedifferentKicksimulationsin
the12sectionisdoneusingbothOBMandWBM.
SimulationsdoneinPresmodare;
-

Thetemperatureprofileofthemudduringstaticanddynamicconditions.
Thefrictionpressurelossduringconnections,bothinthe12sectionandthe8
section.
Theeffectofswabbingwithandwithoutpumpconnected,bothinthe12section
andthe8section.

SimulationsdoneinKick;
-

UndetectedkickinOBM.
ClosedinwellwithOBM.
KickcirculationinOBM.
ClosedinwellwithWBM.
KickcirculationinWBM

AcomparisonofakickcirculationinbothOBMandWBMisshown.Hereweclearlyseethe
differencesinpressureandvolumeasthekickiscirculatedoutthechokeline.

47

6.1Presmodsimulation
6.1.1Mudgradientandtemperature

Thetemperatureprofileinthewellwillreachasteadystatewhenthewelliscirculated.As
seenfromFig.26,atsteadystateconditionstherewillbeapositiveheattransferfromthe
formationinthelowerpartsofthewell,whileintheupperpartstherewillbeanegative
heattransfertotheformation.However,duetoconvection(fluidtransport)the
temperatureprofileofthemudwillbedifferentthanthegeothermalgradient.Itwillbe
warmerintheupperpartsandcolderinthelowerparts.

Figure26:Temperatureofmudwhenthewelliscirculated.

Whenthefluidsinthewellareheldstaticthemudtemperatureinthewellwillapproachthe
geothermaltemperaturegradientinthewell.ThisisshowninFig.27.Understaticconditions
thereisnonewmudgoingintothesystem,thereforethemudinthewellwillbeaffectedby
thegeothermalconditionsinthewell.Intheuppersectionsinthewellthemudwillcool
down,whileinthelowersectionsthemudwillgetwarmedup,gettingclosetothe
temperaturegivenbythegeothermalgradient.

48


Figure27:Temperatureofmudwhenthewellisnotcirculated.

6.1.2FrictionandECD

Inthewellwewillhaveafrictionforceactingwhenthewellfluidiscirculated,butwhenthe
wellfluidsarestaticwewillnothavethedynamicfrictionforcepresent.Asthefluidmoves
throughthewelltherewillbefrictionbetweenthefluidandthesurroundingcasingandpipe
wallandwithinthefluiditself,thiscreatesapressuredrop.Thefrictioneffectcanbefound
usingthePresmodsimulator.FromthesimulatedECDwecanfindthefrictionalpressures
forvariousflowrates.TheECDsimulationisdoneforboththe12sectionandforthe8
sectioninthewellwiththe1.83sgOBM.
6.1.2.1FrictionandECDinthe12section

InFig.28wecanseethemudflowratedistributionduringthesimulation.Firstwecirculate
thewelluntilsteadystatewitharateof3000lpm,thenthewellstopscirculatingfor10
minutes,beforewestarttocirculatewith500lpm,2000lpmand3000lpm.

49


Figure28:Mudflowrateforthe12section.

FromFig.29theECDatbitdepthissimulatedusingthe1.83sgOBM.Whenthewellis
circulatedwitharateof3000lpmtheECDatbitdepthisstableat1830kg/m3.

Figure29:ECDfora1.83sgOBMinthe12section.

50

InTable4theresultfromthesimulationisshown,alsothefrictionpressureisshownwhen
changingflowrate.Hereitisshownthatthefrictionalpressuredropduringconnectionsis
6.7bars.

Table4:ECDandfrictionpressuredropwhenchangingflowrateinthe12section.

Flowrate(lpm)
3000
0
500
2000
3000

ECD(kg/m3)
1821
1805
1815
1819
1821

PFRICTION(sg)

0.016
0.010
0.004
0.002

PFRICTION(bar)

6.7
4
1.6
0.8

Figure30:BHPinthe12section.

InFig.30thepressuredropduringthesimulationisshown.Whenthecirculationstartsthe
BHPstabilizesat751bar,whenthepumpisturnedoffthepressurefallsdownto744bar
duringthe10minuteswithnocirculation,i.ewhenpumpingwith3000lpm,thereisaround
7barsfrictionalpressurelossduringconnections.

51


Figure31:BHTinthe12section.

Initiallythemudwasassumedtohaveatemperatureequaltothegeothermalprofile.When
thewelliscirculatedtheBHTwillstabilizeataconstanttemperatureshowninFig.31.
DuringaconnectionwhenthewellisnotcirculatedtheBHTwillstarttoincrease,anditwill
thenstarttodecreaseagainwhenthemudinthewellstartscirculatingagain.Thereasonfor
thisisthatthesurroundingformationstartstoheatupthewellinthelowerpartswhenthe
pumpsareoff.
DuringthesimulationthereisanincreaseinthepitgainwhenthewelliscirculatedinFig.
32.Thisjustexpressthatwhenthewellstartswithamudtemperatureequaltothe
geothermalprofileandisbeingcirculatedforawhile,therewillbeanetheatingofthemud
inthesystem.Italsotellsusthatifthewellisclosedforalongtime,areverseeffectwillbe
seen.

52


Figure32:Pitgaininthewellduringsimulation.

6.1.2.2FrictionandECDinthe8section

Thesameprocedureasaboveisperformedduringsimulationofthe8section.Except
herethestartflowrateissetto1500lpm,whichisanormalcirculationrateinthissection.
ThechangeinmudflowrateisshowninFig.33.

Figure33:Mudflowrateforthe8section.

InFig.34theECDforthe8sectionisshown.Herethereisobservedalargerdropinthe
ECDwhenthecirculationisstoppedthanforthe12sectioninFig.29.

53


Figure34:ECDatbitdepthforthe2.0sgOBM.

FromFig.34theECDatbitdepthissimulatedusingthe2.0sgOBM.Whenthewellis
circulatedwitharateof1500lpmtheECDatbitdepthisstableat2023kg/m3.FromTable5
theresultsfromthesimulationareshown,alsothefrictionpressureisshownwhenchanging
flowrate.Hereitisshownthatthefrictionalpressuredropexperiencedunderconnectionsis
20bars.
Table5:ECDandfrictionpressuredropwhenchangingflowrateinthe8section.

Flowrate(lpm)
1500
0
500
1000
1500

ECD(kg/m3)
2023
1977
2010
2018
2023

PFRICTION(sg)

0.046
0.033
0.008
0.005

PFRICTION(bar)

20
14.2
3.5
2.2

ThedropinECDislargerinthe8section,showingthattheECDcanhaveahugeimpact
onthewellwhenitisnotcirculated.ItisimportanttosimulatetheECDcloselyduring
connectionstoknowhowmuchtheECDwillbeaffectedbythechangeinflowrateinthe
differentwellsections,sincewegetalargedropinECDwhichcanleadtoawellproblem.
WhenthecirculationstartstheBHPstabilizesat873bar,whenthepumpisturnedoffthere
isapressuredropdownto854barduringthe10minuteswithnocirculation.Thatisa
pressuredecreaseof20bars.ThepressuredecreaseisshowninFig.35.

54

Figure35:BHPinthe8section.

Figure36:BHTinthe8section.

55

Duringthesimulationthereisasmallincreaseinthepitgainwhenthewelliscirculated.
Duringthe10minconnectionthereisnoincreaseinpitgain,fromFig.37.Asforthe12
sectionweseetheincreaseinpitgainbecausewhenwestarttocirculatethewellwewill
getanetheatingofthemud.Thereisalsoaclearincreaseinpitgainastheconnection
starts,thisisduetothe20barsdropinBHPseeninFig.35,andthepressuredropleadsto
fluidexpansionasthepumpisturnedoff.

Figure37:Pitgainduringsimulation.

6.1.3Temperatureeffect

InFig.38thetemperatureofthemudinthewellisshown.Fromthemuddensityplot,Fig.
39,itisshownhowthemuddensityisaffecteddowninthewell.Themuddensityobserved
atsurfaceisnotsameastheoneobserveddowninthewell.Thisplotshowsthatthewellis
subjectedtotemperatureeffectsandthattemperatureisdominatingwithrespecttofluid
densitiesinthewell.Themuddensitygoingupintheannulusisactually1.79sgdowninthe
welland1.8sgatsurface.Thisshowshowimportantitistoensurethatthemudweightis
largeenough,themudweightshouldalwaysbeafewpressurepointsabovethepore
pressuretoaccountforbothtemperatureandpotentialswabeffects.Thismakesitmore
complicatedtodesignthemudgradientinHPHTwellswherethereusuallyisverysmall
marginsinthewell.

56


Figure38:Temperatureprofileinthewell.

Figure39:Muddensityinthewell.

6.1.4Swabbing

Whenswabbingtherearetwooptions,eithertouseopentop,meaningnocirculationduring
swabbingorusingpumpconnected,meaningthatthepumpiscirculatingmudintothewell.
Swabbingfastmeansthatthestandispulledoutoftheholeataspeedaround1minuteper
stand,whileswabbingslowistopullthestandoutataround5minutesperstand.The
swabbingsimulationisdoneforboththe12sectionand8section,thisistoshowthe
differenceinECDwhenswabbinginthetwosections.Theswabbingeffectgetsworsein
smallersections.
6.1.4.1Swabbinginthe12section

SwabbingthewellwithnocirculationisshowninFig.40and41below,theredcurveisfor
swabbingslowat5minutesperstand,whilethegreencurveisforswabbingfastat1,4
minutesperstand.Herethereisalmostnodifferenceinswabbingoutoftheholefastor
slow.TheECDduringswabbingfallsfrom1800kg/m3toapproximately1780kg/m3.

57


Figure40:ECDwhenswabbinginthe12section,nocirculation.Redcurveisforpullingslow,
greencurveisforpullingfast.

Figure41:BHPwhenswabbinginthe12section,nocirculation.Redcurveisforpullingslow,
greencurveisforpullingfast.

Swabbingwithpumpconnected,withacirculationrateof500lpmisshowninFig.42.When
thepumpisconnectedduringswabbing,thepressureishigherthanwithoutcirculation.This
meansthatthewellpressureislessaffectedwhenwecirculate,whichmeansthatitissmart
toconnectthepumpduringswabbingtoavoidadecreaseinpressure,thenwecanavoid
inducingakick.Whenwelookattheredcurve,swabbingwithalowrateof5minutesper
standweseethatthewellpressureisalmostnotaffected,indicatingthatwealmosthaveno
frictionwhenpumpingoutofthehole.Whenpullingthestandatahighspeed,1,4minutes
58

perstand,theeffectontheECDbecomesmoreprominent,hereweseethatwegetfriction
whenpullingthestand..Thisindicatesthatwhenswabbingitisimportanttonotswabtoo
fast,becauseitcanleadtoalargedecreaseinwellpressureandthewellcantakeinakick.
InFig.43thesameeffectasfortheECDisshownfortheBHP,herethereisapressure
decreasewhenswabbingfast.

Figure42:ECDwhenswabbinginthe12section,circulationrate500lpm.Redcurveisfor
pullingslow,greencurveisforpullingfast.

Figure43:BHPwhenswabbinginthe12section,circulationrate500lpm.Redcurveisfor
pullingslow,greencurveisforpullingfast.

59

Swabbingwithpumpconnected,withacirculationrateof1500lpmisshowninFig.44.
LookingatthegreencurvewhenthepumpiscirculatingwithahighcirculationratetheECD
islessaffectedwhenswabbingfast.Thisindicatesthatanincreaseinthepumprateduring
swabbingcanavoidthedecreaseinwellpressurethatcanleadtokick.Thisalso
demonstratesthatonehastousesimulationstofindtheoptimalrate.

Figure44:ECDwhenswabbinginthe12section,circulationrate1500lpm.Redcurveisfor
pullingslow,greencurveisforpullingfast.

60

6.1.4.2Swabbingthe8section

Whenswabbinginthe8sectionwithopentop,nocirculation,thewellpressureismore
affectedthanforthe12section.TheECDatbitdepthwithnocirculationinFig.45drops
downfrom1960kg/m3to1915kg/m3.Hereweseealargereffectwhenswabbingfast,the
greencurve.TheBHPinFig.46showsthesametrendastheECD.

Figure45:ECDwhenswabbinginthethe8section,nocirculation.Redcurveisforpullingslow,
greencurveisforpullingfast.

Figure46:BHPwhenswabbinginthe8section,nocirculation.Redcurveisforpullingslow,
greencurveisforpullingfast.

61

Swabbingwithpumpconnected,withacirculationrateof500lpmisshowninFig.47.
LookingatthegreencurveforswabbingfasttheECDfallsfrom2000kg/m3to1925kg/m3.
Hereweagainseetheeffectofswabbingfast.WegetahigherBHPdropandahigherdrop
inECD.Thisshowsthatinsmallerholesections,onehastobecarefulwiththetripping
speed.

Figure47:ECDwhenswabbinginthe8section,circulationrate500lpm.Redcurveisforpulling
slow,greencurveisforpullingfast.

Figure48:BHPwhenswabbinginthe8section,circulationrate500lpm.Redcurveisfor
pullingslow,greencurveisforpullingfast.

Swabbingwithpumpconnected,withacirculationrateof1500lpmisshowninFig.49.
Lookingatthegreencurvewhenthepumpiscirculatingwithahighcirculationrate,theECD
islessaffectedwhenswabbingfast.Thisisthesameeffectthatwecanseeinthe12
section.Itindicatesthatanincreaseinthepumprateduringswabbingcaneliminatethe

62

decreaseinECDandavoidtheriskfortakingakick.Thisisveryimportantinthe8section
wheretheswabeffectsarelarger.

Figure49:ECDwhenswabbing8section,circulationrate1500l/min.

InHPHTwellsitiscommonproceduretocirculatethewellwhilepullingoutoftheholeto
eliminatetheeffectofswabpressures.Simulationscanbeusedtofindtheoptimalrate
sincethiswilldependontherheologicalbehaviorofthemudwhichmayvarydependingon
mudchosen.

63


6.2Kicksimulation
ThekicksimulationsperformedinthissectionaredonebothwithOBMandWBM.Looking
especiallyathowthepressuredevelopmentinthewellisaffectedusingdifferenttypesof
mudinakicksituation.SimulationisdoneforanundetectedkickinOBM,aclosedinwell
withOBMandwithWBM,astandardkickcirculationforOBMandforWBM.Inthedifferent
simulationswelookathowthewellpressureswillbeaffectedandhowthedifferentkick
scenarioswilldevelopinthewellandalsocomparingthedifferencesinakickcirculationin
OBMandWBM.
6.2.1UndetectedkickinOBM
WhenthewellissubjectedtoHPHTconditionswecangetundetectedkicksinoilbased
mud.Thismeansthatasmallamountofgasinfluxwillcompletelydissolveinthemudand
notberegisteredbythedrillingpersonnel,thiscane.g.happenwhenwearepullingpipetoo
fastonreciprocatingcasing.Inthiscasewewillnotseeanychangeinpitvolumewhenthe
influxismovingtowardsthesurfacebeforethefreegasstartstoboilout.Thenwewillhave
asharpincreaseinthepitvolumeandneedtoshutinthewellassoonaspossible.When
thishappens,thehydrostaticpressurewillstarttoreduceandtherecanbeariskfortakinga
newkick.Itisveryimportanttofindoutwhenthishappenstocheckifthereistimetoclose
theBOPbeforethekickenterstheriser.Ifthekickstartstomigrateinsidetheriser,theonly
optionleftisthediverter,toforcethekickawayfromtherig.
A1.0m3kickistakeninthelowerpartofthe12"section.Circulationrateis2000lpm.
Therewillbenomajorincreaseinpitgainbeforetheinfluxstartstoboiloutofthemud,as
showninFig.50.

Figure50:Showsthepitgainwhenrunningthe133/8casing.
64

Itisshownintheplotthatthefreegasstartstoboiloutafterapproximately110minutes.
Wethenseealargeexpansioninthepitgain.Thepositionwherefreegasstartstoboiloutis
crucialformaintainingasafewell.Theprocedureisthentoshutinthewellassoonas
possibleandcirculateitthroughthechoke.Thekickishopefullybelowtheriserandwhenit
isdetected.Ifthekickhasenteredtheriseritwillbemoredifficultandsometimes
impossibletomaintainwellcontrol.Oneshouldalsonotethatwhenthekickisinfreegas
formitwillmigrateonitsown,evenwhenthereisnocirculation.FromFig.51theposition
atwhichthefreegasstartstoboiloutisata400metersdepthwhichisjustbelowtheBOP
placedattheseabottom,250metersdepth.Therigpersonnelthenhavetoreactfastand
closeinthewell.

Figure51:Thepositioninthewellwherefreegasstartstoboiloutofthemud.

FromFig.52weseetheBHPdevelopmentwhenthekickmigratesupwardsinthewell.First
thereisasmalldecreaseinpressureasthekickentersthewell,butthenthepressureiskept
stableuntilthefreegasstartstoboiloutandweseeamajordecreaseinpressure.This
pressuredecreasecaninsomecasesleadtoanewkicksituation.

65


Figure52:BHPdevelopmentduringundetectedkick.

Figure53;Theleftfigureshowsthepositionwheretheinfluxentersthewell.Therightfigure
showsthewellschematicsandatwhichdepththefreegasstartstoboiloutfromthesolution.
66

6.2.2ClosedinwellwithOBM
Thewellhastakenakick,thefirstprocedureisthentoclosetheBOPandstopcirculation.At
thispointwhenthewellisclosedinthekickwillremainatbottomofthewelluntil
circulationisresumed.

Thewellistakinginakick,pitalarmlevelissetto2m3.Thereisnoincreaseinpitlevelafter
thewellisshutin,Fig54.ThisisbecausewithHPHTwellconditionsthegaskickwilldissolve
completelyintheOBM.

Figure54:PitgaininOBM.Pitalarmlevelissetto2m3.

After3minutesthewellisclosedandcirculationisstopped,sincethekickisfullydissolved
inthemud,itwillnotbemovingupwardsinthewell.Hence,thecasingshoepressurewillbe
stableandconstantafterthewellhasbeenclosedin,Fig.55.

67


Figure55:CasingshoepressuredevelopmentforkickinclosedwellwithOBM.

Fig.56showsthewellschematicsoftheinflux,whichispositionedatbottomofthewell,
anditdoesnotmigrateupwardsaslongasthewellisnotcirculated.

Figure56:Positionofinfluxinthewell.
68

6.2.3StandardkickcirculationOBM
Wearedrillingdowninthewellwithan1.83sgOBM,theinitialrateofpenetrationis10
m/hr.Whiledrillingtheinitialpumprateissetto2000lpm.ConstantBHPmodelisusedto
keeptheBHPconstantduringthecirculation,thisisdonebyvaryingthechokepressure.The
pitalarmlevelissetto2m3,meaningthatwhenweregisterthispitgainonsurfaceanalarm
willgoofftellingustoclosetheBOPandstopcirculating.
Inthiscaseakickisdetectedandweneedtoshutinthewell.Startbyturningthepumpoff
andclosetheBOP.ThenwewaituntiltheBHPhasstabilizedbeforethechokeisopenedand
thekickiscirculatedoutwithasafetymarginof10bars.Thecirculationrateusedfor
circulatingoutthekickis500lpm.
FromFig.57weseeanincreaseinpitgainwhenthekickentersthewell,thenitiskept
stableasthekickmovesupinthewelluntilthefreegasstartstoboiloutandweseeaclear
increaseinpitvolume.

Figure57;PitgainduringcirculationinOBMafterkickdetection.

Wegetadecreaseinchokepressure(Fig.58)whenwestarttocirculateoutthekick,thenit
keepsalmostconstantwhilethedissolvedgasmovesupinthewell.Afterapproximately440
minutesthereisalargeincreaseinchokepressure,thisisthepointwherefreegasstartsto
expandinthewell.Thisincreaseinchokepressureisseenbecauseweneedalarger
pressureacrossthechoketocompensateforthedecreaseinthehydrostaticcolumninthe
well.Asthekickstartstoleavethewellthroughthechokelinethereisacleardecreasein
chokepressure,whichcontinuesuntilthekickisoutofthewell.
69

Figure58:ChokepressuredevelopmentforakickinOBM.

Thegasflowrateout(Fig.59)showstherateoffreegasleavingthewell.Fromthefigurewe
seethatfreegaswillbepresentatthechokeandmud/gasseparatorquitesoonafterthe
kickisboilingoutofthesolution.Whenthefreegasexpandsclosetothesurfacewegeta
highgasrateout.Hence,itisimportanttoreactquicklyandbeprepared.

Figure59:ShowsthegasflowrateoutofthewellwithOBM.
70

ThecasingshoepressureinFig.60and61increasewhenweclosetheBOPandstopthe
pumpsafter3,1min.After6,5minutesthewellisstableandthecasingshoepressureis
constantatapproximately528bar.

Figure60:Thecasingshoepressure.KickcirculationinOBM.

Whenthewelliscirculatingthekickup,weneedtomaintaintheconstantBHPsomewhat
higherthantheformationpressure.Thereasonforthisistoavoidanewkick.Asafety
marginof10barsisusedbyadjustingthechokeproperly.Thewelliscirculatedwithakill
rateof500lpm.Onecanobservethatinthiscase,themaximumcasingshoepressurewillbe
reachedjustafterthekickisinitiated.Thereasonforthiscanbethattheheightofthekickis
displacedoveralargerheightinthebeginningduetothedrillcollars,Fig.62a).Whenthe
kickmovesupwardintothewiderregionbetweenopenhole/DC,theheightofthekickwill
bereduced,Fig.62b).Thiscanbeexplainedbytheformulagivenbelow.

(6.1)

BoththedensityformudandforkickwillbefairlyconstantforakickinOBM.Thereforeitis
shownthatthemaximumcasingshoepressureisverydependentontheheightofthekick.

71


Figure61:Thecasingshoepressure,kickcirculationOBM..

Figure62:a)KickislocatedatDC.b)KickislocatedaboveDC.

72

After132minutesweseethatthecasingshoepressurestartstodecrease(Fig.63).This
meansthatthetopofthekickisatthecasingshoe.Hereweclearlyseehowthecasingshoe
pressuredecreasesasthekickispassingthecasingshoe,andafter172minutesthekickhas
passedtheshoeandthecasingshoepressureflattensjustbelow530bars.Whenthekick
haspassedthecasingshoethecasingshoepressurewillkeepconstantuntilallofthekickis
outofthewell.Thecasingshoepressureisatamaximumwhenwestarttocirculatethekick
outofthewell.

Figure63:Thecasingshoepressuredevelopment,inOBM.

Fig.64showshowtheBHPchangesasthekickentersthewell,wethengetadecreasein
pressureduetoareductioninhydrostaticpressure.Whenthecirculationisstoppedandthe
wellisclosedinthereisanincreaseinpressureduetofurtherinflowofhydrocarbons.Then
thepressureisheldconstantinashorttimeperiodbeforecirculationisstarted.Asafety
marginisaddedtotheBHPtoensurethatthepressureiskeptabovetheformation
pressure.DuringthewholekillcirculationtheBHPiskeptconstant.

73

Figure64:BHPwhencirculatingakickoutinOBM.

6.2.4ClosedinwellwithWBM
Whensimulatingthewellwithakicktakenina1.83sgWBM,wearelookingatwhatwill
happenwhenthewellisclosedinandcirculationisstopped.A2m3kickistakenintothewell
andtheBOPisthenclosedandthecirculationisstopped.Asthewellisshutingasmigration
willtakeplaceandleadtoincreasedwellpressures.Inclosedinconditionsthegaswill
transportthepressureupinthewellaccordingtoBoyleslawgiveninchapter2..
Inthepitgainplot(Fig.65)wecanseethatthekickistakenintothewell.Sincethewellis
immediatelyclosedintherewillbenoincreaseinpitgainafteritisclosed.

74


Figure65:PitgainclosedinwellwithWBM.

FromthecasingshoepressureinFig.66itisshownthatthewellisclosedinafter25minutes
andthatthereisapressurebuildupevenatclosedinconditions,thiswasnotthecasefor
OBM.Wehaveacasingshoebrakdownatapproximately80minutesafterthewellisclosed
in.AsweseeinWBMwehaveapressurebuildupinthewellevenatclosedinconditions.
Thispressurebuildupishappeningduetofreegasmigration.

Thewellpressure
willincreaseduring
theshutinperiod
Casingshoe
breakdown

Wellis
closedin

Figure66:CasingshoepressureinWBM.
75

Afteracertaintimethepressureatthecasingshoewillstabilize,whenthishappensallthe
freegashasgatheredattopofthewell,(Fig.67).Theequationbelowcangiveusthe
maximumpressureattopofthewell.

(6.2)

PWH=Wellheadpressure,thepressureattopofthewell.

Herethegasis
attopofthe
well.

Figure67:Casingshoepressure,closedinwellwithWBM.

ThepositionofthegasfrontinthewellwhenthecasingshoebreaksisshowninFig.68.
Hereweseethatwhenthegasfrontisat2200metersdepththepressureinthewellwill
exceedthemaximumpressurethatthecasingshoecanhandle.Thishappensafter
approximately106minutes,atthispointthewellisfilledwithagasbubbleextendingfrom
3400metersallthewayupto2200meters.Fromthiswecanseethatwecannotwaittoo
longbeforewellkillprocedureisinitiated,topreventfracturing.

76


Figure68:Thepositioninthewellwherethecasingshoebreak.

Figure69:Positionofthegaswhenthecasingshoebreaks.

77


6.2.5StandardkickcirculationWBM
Thepitalarmlevelissetat2m3,thekickistakenintothewellandthepumpsare
immediatelyshutoffandthewellisclosed.Thenweopenthechokeandstarttocirculate
thekickoutofthewell.Circulationrateusedforcirculatingthekickoutis500lpm.
Fromthepitgaincurve,Fig.70,itisshownthatthekickistakenintothewell.Thenthewell
isclosedinbeforethekickiscirculatedout.Asweseefromthefigurewegetanincreasein
pitvolumeatoncewestarttocirculatethewell.Thisisbecausethegasatoncestartsto
expandupwardsinthewell,andatsurfacewewillregisteranincreaseinthepitvolume.
Thiscanberelatedtotheidealgaslawshowninchapter2.Wherewecanassumethatifwe
haveasinglegasbubbleinfluxinthewellwithagivenvolumeandpressure,(PV)bottom,at
closedinconditionsitwillstarttomigrateandexpandupinthewell,thenwegetalarger
volumeandlowerpressureofthegasbubbleasitmovesupinthewell,(PV)surface.
Whenthegaskickentersthewellwehavealargepressureandasmallvolume.Asthegas
movesupinthewellwegetasmallerpressurebutthevolumeofgaswillexpand.Atthe
pointwherethepitgainstartstodecreasethekickisstartingtoleavethewell.

Figure70:PitgaininWBM.

Thechokepressure,Fig.71,showshowwegetamajorincreaseinchokepressurewhenwe
starttocirculatethewell,thisincreaseinpressureisduetoreducedhydrostaticpressurein
thewellasthegasstartstoexpand.Weneedtocompensatethelowerpressuresinthewell
byincreasingthechokepressuretokeepaconstantbottomholepressureduringthe
78

circulation.Atthepointwherethechokepressurestartstodecreasetheinfluxisstartingto
flowoutofthewell.ThepointatwhichthegasstartstoflowoutofthewellisshowninFig.
72,hereweseethatthegasstartstoflowoutataearlierstagethaninOBM.

Figure71:ChokepressureinWBM.

Figure72:GasflowrateoutforthekickinWBM.

Whenwestarttocirculateweseethatthecasingshoepressureishigherthanthefracture
pressureinFigs.73and74,thismeansthatthecasingshoewillnotbeabletowithstandthe
pressuresinthewell.Thefrontoftheinfluxisatthecasingshoedepthafterapproximately
79

53minutes,anditwillmigrateupwardsinthewell.Theinfluxwillthenpassthecasingshoe,
andwecanseethatthepressurewillstarttodecreaseasthekickispassing.Whenthekick
haspasttheshoethepressurewillkeepconstantuntilthekickiscompletelycirculatedout
ofthewell.Maximumcasingshoepressureisapproximately543bar,thisisreachedaswe
starttocirculatethekickoutofthewell.

Figure73:PressureatcasingshoeinWBM.

Figure74:PressureatcasingshoeinWBM,duringthewholecirculation.
80


Figure75:BHPinWBM.

ThepositionofthegasfrontinFig.76showshowlongtimeittakesbeforethegasreaches
thesurface.

Figure76:PositionofgasfrontinWBM.

81

Figure77:Thewellschematictotheleftshowsthewellasthekickentersthewell.Thewell
schematicsinthemiddleshowsthepositionofthegaswhenitisjustbelowthecasingshoe(53
min).Thewellschematicstherightsideshowsthepositionofthegasfrontaswhenithaspassed
thecasingshoe,(120min).

6.3ComparisonsofWBMandOBM
Thekickscenarioisdependentonthetypeofmudusedinthewell.Waterbasedmudand
oilbasedmudwillreactindifferentwayswhenwegetaninflowofformationfluids.Insome
welldesignsonecouldpreferthewaterbasedtype,whileinothertheoilbasedwouldbea
betterchoice.HereIwillcomparethetwodifferenttypesofmudandthencomparethe
differenceinkickbehavior.Theconditionsinthetwocasesareasequalaspossible.Inthe
twosituationsdescribedhereboththeOBMandtheWBMhaveadensityof1.83sg.
Thepitalarmlevelinthewellisinbothcasessetat4m3.Whenthekickhasenteredthewell
itisthenclosedinandcirculationisstopped.TheBHPisthenstabilizedasthechokeis
openedandthepumpsareturnedonagain,circulatingthekickoutofthewell.Duringthe
circulationwewilllookatthecasingshoepressuredevelopmentinthewell,sinceitiscrucial
thatthecasingshoecanwithstandthewellpressuresasthekickmovesupinthewell.

82

Fig.78showsthepitgaindevelopmentinthewellforbothOBMandforWBM.Herewesee
thatforOBMthekickhasenteredthewellandwhenthewellisshutinitkeepsconstant
withasmalldecreaseuntilthereisasmallpeakattheendofsimulation,thisisthepoint
wherethefreegasboilsoutofthewell.ForWBMthekickwillenterthewellandwhenwe
starttocirculatethekickoutthegaswillstarttoexpandatonceandwegetanincreasein
pitgainatsurfacemuchearlierthanforOBM.Itisalsoobservedthatthevolumeofkickat
surfaceismuchhigherforWBMthanforOBM.

Figure78:LeftisthepitgaininOBM,rightisthepitgaininWBM.

ForbothsimulationsthemethodforcirculatingoutthekickistokeeptheBHPconstant.
BelowitisshownhowtheBHPchangeduringthesimulation,(Fig.79).ForboththeOBM
andtheWBMsimulationsthebottomholepressuresareverysimilar,thereisadecreasein
pressurewhenthekickentersthewell,thenwegetaincreaseasthewellisclosedinandas
circulationstartsthepressureiskeptconstantfortherestofthesimulation.Fromthefigure
weseethattheBHPforbothmudtypesisalmostthesame.

Figure79:LeftistheBHPinOBM,rightistheBHPinWBM.

83

ThechokepressuredevelopmentinFig.80showsthatforbothOBMandWBMthereisa
largeincreaseinpressureasthewellisclosedin.Thepressurestartstoincrease
immediatelyasthegasstartstoboiloutinthewell.ForWBMthishappensmuchsooner
thanforOBM,thisisbecausethegaskickwillstarttoexpandimmediatelyasthekickmoves
upinthewellwithWBM,whilethegaskickwillcompletelydissolveintheOBMandnot
expandbeforethefreegasstartstoboiloutfromthemud.Wealsoobservethatthechoke
pressuresinthewellwhenweuseWBMaresignificantlyhigherthanwhenweuseOBM.

Figure80:LeftisthechokepressureinOBM,rightisthechokepressureinWBM.

Inthepressuredevelopmentatthecasingshoe(Figs.81and82)therearealsolarger
pressuresinthewellwithWBM.ForboththeOBMandtheWBMthepressureatcasing
shoeishigherthanthefracturepressureandtheshoewillbreak.ForbothOBMandWBM
themaximumcasingshoepressureappearswhenwestarttocirculate.Thedifferencein
maximumcasingshoepressureinthetwocasesisduetothelargervolumeofgaspresentin
WBM.WhilegaswilldissolveinOBM,itwillexpandinWBM.Asthekickpassestheshoewe
seeacleardecreaseincasingshoepressureinbothcases,thecleardifferenceisthetime
thekickpassestheshoe.Fromthecasingshoepressureweseeacleardecreaseinpressure
asthekickstartstomoveup,passingthecasingshoe.ForWBMweseethisdecreasestart
muchearlier,afterapproximately45minutes.WhileforthekickinOBMwedontseethe
decreaseinpressurebeforeafter120minutes.Inbothcasesthepressureisstableafterthe
kickhaspassedthecasingshoe.

84

Figure81:LeftisthepressureatcasingshoeinOBM,rightisthepressureinWBM.

Figure82:LeftisthepressureatcasingshoeinOBM,rightisthepressureinWBM.

Fromthegasflowrateoutplots(Fig.83)itisshownatwhattimethegasstartstoleavethe
wellandatwhichrate.ThekickinWBMstartstoleavethewellmuchearlierthanthekickin
OBM.ThisisbecauseinOBMthekickwillbefullydissolvedinthemudasthekickmovesup
inthewelluntilthegasstartstoboiloutfromthesolutionandwegetahighgasflowrate
out.ThegasflowrateoutishigherinWBMthanitisinOBM.

85


Figure83:LeftisthegasflowrateoutinOBM,rightisthegasflowrateoutinWBM.

InOBMthegasfrontwillreachthesurfaceatalaterstagethanthegasfrontinWBM(Fig.
84).ThistellsusthatthekickinWBMmovesmuchfastertothesurfaceandthatakickin
WBMismoreeasilydetectedthanOBMbecauseweobserveitatanearlierstage.The
reasonwhythekickinWBMwillreachthesurfaceearlierisduetothefreegasmigrationin
thewell,whilethekickinOBMwillonlytravelupthewellaccordingtothespeedofthe
pumprate.

Figure84:LeftisthepositionofgasfrontinOBM,rightisthepositionofgasfrontinWBM.

Fromthefigurebelow(Fig.85)itisshownhowthekickwillaffectthepressureattheBOP
placedattheseabottom.AgainweobservethatthepressureswhenusingWBMarehigher
thanwhenusingOBM.

86


Figure85:LeftisthepressureatBOPinOBM,rightisthepressureatBOPinWBM.

87

7Conclusions
Wellcontrolisofmajorimportancewhenperformingdrillingoperations.InHPHTwellsthis
becomesevenmoreimportant,aswearemovingtowardsmorenarrowmargins,deeper
wellsandhigherpressuresandtemperatures.
Inthisthesissimulationshavebeenpreformedtoillustratetheconditionsinthewellduring
differentwelloperations,andduringdifferentkicksituations.
Duringconnectionsitisseenthatthereisasignificantpressuredropwhichcaninfluencethe
pressureinthewell.Thepressuredropexperiencedduringconnectionscanleadtoan
underbalancedsituationwherewegetaninflowofformationfluids.Itisalsoseenthatthe
pressuredropduringconnectionsincreasesinsmallerholesections.
Itisshownthattheswabbingeffectduringtrippingoutofthewellcanbereducedby
pumpingoutofthehole.Whenthewelliscirculatedduringswabbingthereisalower
pressuredropoverthebitthanwhenthepumpisoff.Thepressuredropoverthebitisalso
dependentonthepumprateused,anincreaseinpumprategivesasmallerpressuredrop
whenthepipeispulledatahighspeed,thisalsodemonstratesthatonecanusesimulations
tofindtheoptimalrate.Theswabbingeffectalsogetsworseinsmallerholesections.
UndetectedkickscanbeaprobleminHPHTwells.Herethegasinfluxcancompletely
dissolveintheOBMwithoutseeingasignificantincreaseInpitgain.Asthewelliscirculated
thekickwillmoveupwardsinthewellandthekickwillnotbedetectedbeforefreegas
startstoboiloutofthesolution.Thepointwherethefreegasstartstoboilisimportant
whenitcomestowellcontrol.
DuringclosedinconditionsakickwillbehavedifferentlyinOBMandWBM.Sincethekick
willsolveintheOBMitwillstayatbottomofthewellduringclosedinconditionsuntilthe
welliscirculated.WhileinWBMthekickwillstarttomigrateupwardsandleadtoincreased
pressuresinthewell,thekickwilltransporttheBHPupinthewellaccordingtoBoyleslaw.
Thismeansthatoneneedtoreactquicklytoavoidfracturingofthecasingshoe.
AstandardkickcirculationinOBMandWBMhasbeenperformed,lookingatthedifferent
developmentinpressuresandvolumes.Fromthesimulationitisfoundthattherewillbea
muchhighervolumeincreaseatsurfacewhenakickinWBMistaken,thisisduetothe
solubilityofgasinOBM.Thechokepressuredevelopmentwillgenerallybehigherinthe
WBM,thisisduetothegasexpansionthattakesplaceasthekickmovesupinthewell.In
WBMthegasfrontwillreachsurfacemuchearlierthanintheOBM,thisisbecausethekick
inOBMonlymovesupinthewellfollowingthepumprate,whilethekickinWBMisalso
affectedbythegasslipvelocity.ThecasingshoepressureisalsohigherforthekickinWBM,
thisisbecausethekickstartstoexpandimmediatelythewelliscirculated,thevolumeofthe
kickbelowthecasingshoeisthereforelargerthanthevolumeofthekickinOBM,we
thereforegetahighercasingshoepressurewhenusingtheWBM.Theconclusionis
88

thereforethatgenerallywillinfluxestakeninWBMleadtolargerpressuresandgasvolumes
atsurfaceduringthewellkillcomparedtowhatisseeninOBM.

89

Listoffigures
Figure1:Muddensityandcasingdesignbasedonporepressureprognosis.[26] _________________________6
Figure2:a)Thegasbubbleatbottomofthewell.b)Thegasbubblehasmigratedupintheopenwell.[3]____8
Figure3:a)Thegasbubbleatbottomofthewell.b)Thegasbubblehastraveledtothesurfaceintheclosedin
well.[3]___________________________________________________________________________________9
Figure4:TheDeepwaterHorizonblowoutintheGulfofMexico.[8]__________________________________10
Figure5:Wellcontrolequipment.[9]___________________________________________________________11
Figure6:Illustrationofthewellbarriersduringdrilling.[6]__________________________________________16
Figure7:Wellsystemwithclosedvalves. _______________________________________________________17
Figure8:Kickheightcomparisonbetweena)smallannulusandb)largeannulus._______________________18
Figure9:Killsheetduringdrillersmethod.[9] ____________________________________________________20
Figure10:Chokepressuredevelopmentusingdrillersmethod.[9]____________________________________21
Figure11:Killsheetduringwaitandweight.[9] __________________________________________________22
Figure12:Chokepressuredevelopmentusingwaitandweight.[9]___________________________________22
Figure13:Casingshoepressurefordifferentkicksizes[1]. _________________________________________24
Figure14:SPTGroup.[14]____________________________________________________________________28
Figure15:Drillbench.[14]____________________________________________________________________29
Figure16:BHPwhenswabbing.[1] ____________________________________________________________34
Figure17:Expectedporeandfracturepressureinthewell._________________________________________36
Figure18:Geothermaltemperatureintheformation._____________________________________________37
Figure19:Trajectoryoftheverticalwell. _______________________________________________________38
Figure20:Poregradientandfracturegradient. __________________________________________________39
Figure21:Wellschematics.__________________________________________________________________40
Figure22:Fannreadingsandshearstress.______________________________________________________43
Figure23:Rheologypropertiesforthe1.83sgOBM.______________________________________________43
Figure24:SimulationofwelltemperatureduringcirculationperformedinPresmod._____________________44
Figure25:Wellschematicsforthe8section.__________________________________________________46
Figure26:Temperatureofmudwhenthewelliscirculated. ________________________________________48
Figure27:Temperatureofmudwhenthewellisnotcirculated. _____________________________________49
Figure28:Mudflowrateforthe12section.__________________________________________________50
Figure29:ECDfora1.83sgOBMinthe12section.____________________________________________50
Figure30:BHPinthe12section. ___________________________________________________________51
Figure31:BHTinthe12section.___________________________________________________________52
Figure32:Pitgaininthewellduringsimulation. _________________________________________________53
Figure33:Mudflowrateforthe8section.___________________________________________________53
Figure34:ECDatbitdepthforthe2.0sgOBM. __________________________________________________54
Figure35:BHPinthe8section.____________________________________________________________55
Figure36:BHTinthe8section.____________________________________________________________55
Figure37:Pitgainduringsimulation. __________________________________________________________56
Figure38:Temperatureprofileinthewell.______________________________________________________57
Figure39:Muddensityinthewell. ____________________________________________________________57
Figure40:ECDwhenswabbinginthe12section,nocirculation.Redcurveisforpullingslow,greencurveis
forpullingfast.____________________________________________________________________________58
Figure41:BHPwhenswabbinginthe12section,nocirculation.Redcurveisforpullingslow,greencurveis
forpullingfast.____________________________________________________________________________58
Figure42:ECDwhenswabbinginthe12section,circulationrate500lpm.Redcurveisforpullingslow,
greencurveisforpullingfast. ________________________________________________________________59
Figure43:BHPwhenswabbinginthe12section,circulationrate500lpm.Redcurveisforpullingslow,
greencurveisforpullingfast. ________________________________________________________________59

90

Figure44:ECDwhenswabbinginthe12section,circulationrate1500lpm.Redcurveisforpullingslow,
greencurveisforpullingfast. ________________________________________________________________60
Figure45:ECDwhenswabbinginthethe8section,nocirculation.Redcurveisforpullingslow,greencurve
isforpullingfast. __________________________________________________________________________61
Figure46:BHPwhenswabbinginthe8section,nocirculation.Redcurveisforpullingslow,greencurveis
forpullingfast.____________________________________________________________________________61
Figure47:ECDwhenswabbinginthe8section,circulationrate500lpm.Redcurveisforpullingslow,green
curveisforpullingfast. _____________________________________________________________________62
Figure48:BHPwhenswabbinginthe8section,circulationrate500lpm.Redcurveisforpullingslow,green
curveisforpullingfast. _____________________________________________________________________62
Figure49:ECDwhenswabbing8section,circulationrate1500l/min. _____________________________63
Figure50:Showsthepitgainwhenrunningthe133/8casing. _____________________________________64
Figure51:Thepositioninthewellwherefreegasstartstoboiloutofthemud._________________________65
Figure52:BHPdevelopmentduringundetectedkick.______________________________________________66
Figure53;Theleftfigureshowsthepositionwheretheinfluxentersthewell.Therightfigureshowsthewell
schematicsandatwhichdepththefreegasstartstoboiloutfromthesolution. ________________________66
Figure54:PitgaininOBM.Pitalarmlevelissetto2m3. ___________________________________________67
Figure55:CasingshoepressuredevelopmentforkickinclosedwellwithOBM._________________________68
Figure56:Positionofinfluxinthewell._________________________________________________________68
Figure57;PitgainduringcirculationinOBMafterkickdetection.____________________________________69
Figure58:ChokepressuredevelopmentforakickinOBM. _________________________________________70
Figure59:ShowsthegasflowrateoutofthewellwithOBM._______________________________________70
Figure60:Thecasingshoepressure.KickcirculationinOBM. _______________________________________71
Figure61:Thecasingshoepressure,kickcirculationOBM.. _________________________________________72
Figure62:a)KickislocatedatDC.b)KickislocatedaboveDC.______________________________________72
Figure63:Thecasingshoepressuredevelopment,inOBM._________________________________________73
Figure64:BHPwhencirculatingakickoutinOBM._______________________________________________74
Figure65:PitgainclosedinwellwithWBM._____________________________________________________75
Figure66:CasingshoepressureinWBM.________________________________________________________75
Figure67:Casingshoepressure,closedinwellwithWBM. _________________________________________76
Figure68:Thepositioninthewellwherethecasingshoebreak._____________________________________77
Figure69:Positionofthegaswhenthecasingshoebreaks. ________________________________________77
Figure70:PitgaininWBM.__________________________________________________________________78
Figure71:ChokepressureinWBM.____________________________________________________________79
Figure72:GasflowrateoutforthekickinWBM._________________________________________________79
Figure73:PressureatcasingshoeinWBM. _____________________________________________________80
Figure74:PressureatcasingshoeinWBM,duringthewholecirculation.______________________________80
Figure75:BHPinWBM._____________________________________________________________________81
Figure76:PositionofgasfrontinWBM.________________________________________________________81
Figure77:Thewellschematictotheleftshowsthewellasthekickentersthewell.Thewellschematicsinthe
middleshowsthepositionofthegaswhenitisjustbelowthecasingshoe(53min).Thewellschematicstheright
sideshowsthepositionofthegasfrontaswhenithaspassedthecasingshoe,(120min).________________82
Figure78:LeftisthepitgaininOBM,rightisthepitgaininWBM.___________________________________83
Figure79:LeftistheBHPinOBM,rightistheBHPinWBM. ________________________________________83
Figure80:LeftisthechokepressureinOBM,rightisthechokepressureinWBM._______________________84
Figure81:LeftisthepressureatcasingshoeinOBM,rightisthepressureinWBM. _____________________85
Figure82:LeftisthepressureatcasingshoeinOBM,rightisthepressureinWBM. _____________________85
Figure83:LeftisthegasflowrateoutinOBM,rightisthegasflowrateoutinWBM.____________________86
Figure84:LeftisthepositionofgasfrontinOBM,rightisthepositionofgasfrontinWBM. ______________86
Figure85:LeftisthepressureatBOPinOBM,rightisthepressureatBOPinWBM. _____________________87

91

Listoftables
Table1:Typicalvaluesofkicktolerances[22]. ___________________________________________________23
Table2:Theoilbasedmuddata.______________________________________________________________41
Table3:Thewaterbasedmuddata.___________________________________________________________42
Table4:ECDandfrictionpressuredropwhenchangingflowrateinthe12section.___________________51
Table5:ECDandfrictionpressuredropwhenchangingflowrateinthe8section.____________________54

92

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