590

CHAPTER 11 TRANSIENT STABILITY

New York, where he received the Borden Prize,

and he holds an S.M. in computer science and electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology.
Wadad Dubbelday is an engineer at the Navy at
the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command
(SPAWAR) office in San Diego, California. She holds
a B.S. in physics from the Florida Institute of Technology and holds M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering-applied physics from the University
of California at San Diego.
Peter Hirsch is a project manager in the Power
Systems Assets Planning and Operations Department of the Electric Power Research Institute. He

also is the manager of the software quality group

within EPRIs Power Delivery and Markets Sector.
He holds a B.S. in applied mathematics and engineering physics and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in
mathematics from the University of Wisconsin. He
is a Senior Member of the IEEE.
Guorui Zhang is principal engineer at EPRISolutions, a subsidiary of the Electric Power Research Institute. He received his B.S. in computer
software engineering at Singh University, China; he
received his Ph.D. in electrical engineering at the
University of Manchester Institute of Science and
Technology, Manchester, England. He is a Senior
Member of the IEEE.

11.1
THE SWING EQUATION
Consider a generating unit consisting of a three-phase synchronous generator
and its prime mover. The rotor motion is determined by Newtons second
law, given by
Ja m t Tm t $ Te t Ta t

where J total moment of inertia of the rotating masses, kgm 2

11:1:1

a m rotor angular acceleration, rad/s 2

Tm mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover minus the

retarding torque due to mechanical losses, Nm
Te electrical torque that accounts for the total three-phase electrical
power output of the generator, plus electrical losses, Nm
Ta net accelerating torque, Nm
Also, the rotor angular acceleration is given by
a m t

do m t d 2 ym t

dt
dt 2

11:1:2

o m t

dym t
dt

11:1:3

where o m rotor angular velocity, rad/s

ym rotor angular position with respect to a stationary axis, rad

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591

SECTION 11.1 THE SWING EQUATION

Tm and Te are positive for generator operation. In steady-state Tm

equals Te , the accelerating torque Ta is zero, and, from (11.1.1), the rotor acceleration a m is zero, resulting in a constant rotor velocity called synchronous
speed. When Tm is greater than Te , Ta is positive and a m is therefore positive,
resulting in increasing rotor speed. Similarly, when Tm is less than Te , the
rotor speed is decreasing.
It is convenient to measure the rotor angular position with respect to a
synchronously rotating reference axis instead of a stationary axis. Accordingly, we define
ym t o msyn t dm t

11:1:4

where o msyn synchronous angular velocity of the rotor, rad/s

dm rotor angular position with respect to a synchronously
rotating reference, rad
Using (11.1.2) and (11.1.4), (11.1.1) becomes
J

d 2 ym t
d 2 dm t

J
Tm t $ Te t Ta t
dt 2
dt 2

11:1:5

It is also convenient to work with power rather than torque, and to work
in per-unit rather than in actual units. Accordingly, we multiply (11.1.5) by
o m t and divide by S rated , the three-phase voltampere rating of the generator:
Jo m t d 2 dm t o m tTm t $ o m tTe t

S rated
dt 2
S rated

pm t $ pe t
pmp:u: t $ pep:u: t pap:u: t 11:1:6
S rated

where pmp:u: mechanical power supplied by the prime mover minus

mechanical losses, per unit
pep:u: electrical power output of the generator plus electrical losses,
per unit
Finally, it is convenient to work with a normalized inertia constant,
called the H constant, which is defined as
H

stored kinetic energy at synchronous speed

generator voltampere rating
1

2
Jomsyn
S rated

11:1:7

joules=VA or per unit-seconds

The H constant has the advantage that it falls within a fairly narrow range,
normally between 1 and 10 p.u.-s, whereas J varies widely, depending on
generating unit size and type. Solving (11.1.7) for J and using in (11.1.6),
2H

o m t d 2 dm t
pmp:u: t $ pep:u: t pap:u: t
2
omsyn
dt 2

11:1:8

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592

CHAPTER 11 TRANSIENT STABILITY

Defining per-unit rotor angular velocity,

o p:u: t

o m t
o msyn

11:1:9

Equation (11.1.8) becomes

2H
d 2 dm t
o p:u: t
pmp:u: t $ pep:u: t pap:u: t
o msyn
dt 2

11:1:10

For a synchronous generator with P poles, the electrical angular acceleration a, electrical radian frequency o, and power angle d are
P
a m t
2
P
ot o m t
2
P
dt dm t
2

11:1:11

at

11:1:12
11:1:13

Similarly, the synchronous electrical radian frequency is

o syn

P
o msyn
2

11:1:14

The per-unit electrical frequency is

2
ot P ot o m t

o p:u: t
o syn 2
o msyn
o syn
P

11:1:15

Therefore, using (11.1.1311.1.15), (11.1.10) can be written as

2H
d 2 dt
o p:u: t
pmp:u: t $ pep:u: t pap:u: t
osyn
dt 2

11:1:16

Frequently (11.1.16) is modified to also include a term that represents a

damping torque anytime the generator deviates from its synchronous speed,
with its value proportional to the speed deviation
2H=o syn wp:u: td 2 dt=dt 2
pmp:u: t $ pep:u: t $ D=o syn d dt=dt
pap:u: t

11:1:17

where D is either zero or a relatively small positive number with typical

values between 0 and 2. The units of D are per unit power divided by per unit
speed deviation.

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593

SECTION 11.1 THE SWING EQUATION

Equation (11.1.17), called the per-unit swing equation, is the fundamental equation that determines rotor dynamics in transient stability studies.
Note that it is nonlinear due to pep:u: t, which is shown in Section 11.2 to be
a nonlinear function of d. Equation (11.1.17) is also nonlinear due to the
o p:u: t term. However, in practice the rotor speed does not vary significantly
from synchronous speed during transients. That is, o p:u: t F 1:0, which is
often assumed in (11.1.17) for hand calculations.
Equation (11.1.17) is a second-order dierential equation that can be
rewritten as two first-order dierential equations. Dierentiating (11.1.4), and
then using (11.1.3) and (11.1.12)(11.1.14), we obtain
d dt
ot $ o syn
dt

11:1:18

Using (11.1.18) in (11.1.17),

2H
dot
d dt
pmp:u: t $ pep:u: t $ D=o syn
pap:u: t
o p:u: t
o syn
dt
dt
11:1:19
Equations (11.1.18) and (11.1.19) are two first-order dierential equations.

EXAMPLE 11.1

Generator per-unit swing equation and power angle

during a short circuit
A three-phase, 60-Hz, 500-MVA, 15-kV, 32-pole hydroelectric generating
unit has an H constant of 2.0 p.u.-s and D 0. (a) Determine o syn and
o msyn . (b) Give the per-unit swing equation for this unit. (c) The unit is initially operating at pmp:u: pep:u: 1:0, o o syn , and d 10& when a threephase-to-ground bolted short circuit at the generator terminals causes pep:u: to
drop to zero for t d 0. Determine the power angle 3 cycles after the short circuit commences. Assume pmp:u: remains constant at 1.0 per unit. Also assume
o p:u: t 1:0 in the swing equation.
SOLUTION

a. For a 60-Hz generator,

o syn 2p60 377 rad=s

and, from (11.1.14), with P 32 poles,
! "
2
2
377 23:56 rad=s
o msyn o syn
P
32
b. From (11.1.16), with H 2:0 p.u.-s,

4
d 2 dt
o p:u: t
pmp:u: t $ pep:u: t
2p60
dt 2

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594

CHAPTER 11 TRANSIENT STABILITY

c. The initial power angle is

d0 10& 0:1745 radian

Also, from (11.1.17), at t 0,
d d0
0
dt
Using pmp:u: t 1:0, pep:u: 0, and o p:u: t 1:0, the swing equation
from (b) is
!
" 2
4
d dt
1:0 t d 0
2p60
dt 2
Integrating twice and using the above initial conditions,
!
"
d dt
2p60

t0
dt
4
!
"
2p60 2
dt
t 0:1745
8
At t 3 cycles

3 cycles
0:05 second,
60 cycles=second

!
"
2p60
d0:05
0:05 2 0:1745
8
0:2923 radian 16:75&

EXAMPLE 11.2

Equivalent swing equation: two generating units

A power plant has two three-phase, 60-Hz generating units with the following ratings:
Unit 1: 500 MVA, 15 kV, 0.85 power factor, 32 poles, H1 2:0 p.u.-s,
D0
Unit 2: 300 MVA, 15 kV, 0.90 power factor, 16 poles, H2 2:5 p.u.-s,
D0
(a) Give the per-unit swing equation of each unit on a 100-MVA system base.
(b) If the units are assumed to swing together, that is, d1 t d 2 t, combine the two swing equations into one equivalent swing equation.

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SECTION 11.1 THE SWING EQUATION

595

SOLUTION

a. If the per-unit powers on the right-hand side of the swing equation are

converted to the system base, then the H constant on the left-hand side
must also be converted. That is,
Hnew Hold

Sold
S new

per unit

Converting H1 from its 500-MVA rating to the 100-MVA system base,

!
"
Sold
500
2:0
H1new H1old
10 p:u:-s
S new
100
Similarly, converting H2 ,
!
"
300
H2new 2:5
7:5
100

p:u:-s

The per-unit swing equations on the system base are then

2H1new
d 2 d1 t 20:0
d 2 d1 t
o1p:u: t

t
o
1p:u:
o syn
dt 2
2p60
dt 2
pm1p:u: t $ pe1p:u: t
2H2new
d 2 d 2 t 15:0
d 2 d 2 t
o
o 2p:u: t

t
pm2p:u: t $ pe2p:u:
2p:u:
o syn
dt 2
2p60
dt 2
b. Letting:

dt d1 t d 2 t
o p:u: t o1p:u: t o 2p:u: t
pmp:u: t pm1p:u: t pm2p:u: t
pep:u: t pe1p:u: t pe2p:u: t
and adding the above swing equations
2H1new H2new
d 2 dt
o p:u: t
o syn
dt 2

35:0
d 2 dt
o p:u: t
pmp:u: t $ pep:u: t
2p60
dt 2

When transient stability studies involving large-scale power systems

with many generating units are performed with a digital computer, computation time can be reduce by combining the swing equations of those
units that swing together. Such units, which are called coherent machines,
usually are connected to the same bus or are electrically close, and they are
usually remote from network disturbances under study.
9

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