Chapter II

2. Structure of Telecommunications Networks

The basic purpose of a telecommunications network is to transmit user information in any
form to another user of the network. These users of public networks, for example, a telephone
network, are called subscribers. User information may take many forms, such as voice or
data, and subscribers may use different access network technologies to access the network,
for example, fixed or cellular telephones. We will see that the telecommunications network
consists of many different networks providing different services, such as data, fixed, or
cellular telephony service. The structure for a generic telephone system as depicted in figure
2.1 shows four basic components: customer premises equipment, the local network, the
switching plant, and the long-haul network.

Figure 2.1: Telephone system.

2.1. Customer Premises Equipment
The most common piece of equipment on the customers premises is, of course, the ordinary
telephone, the handset. Today, a number of other items can also be found. There is scarcely a
telephone without an answering service, which is provided by a box next to the phone. Up
until the early 1990s the Internet was the domain of the technical types. Today the personal
computer with the attendant modem is an appliance found in many homes. Higher-capacity
modems convey data from more complex processing center industrial sites.
Facsimile (Fax) machines have also experienced explosive growth in deployment, and the
private branch exchange (PBX), which is simply a local switchboard for connecting the
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phones in an office building to the outside world, has in many instances been replaced by
central national switching hubs. In industrial, commercial, and scientific sites an ubiquitous
installation is the local-area network (LAN). A LAN may range from a simple bus with a few
computers to a complex of switches and routers linking together hundreds of computers and
specialized pieces of equipment. A LAN may or may not be connected to the telephone
network, but it is a very important part of modern telecommunication.
2.2. The Local Network
The local-access network provides the connection between the customers telephones (the
customer premises equipment) and the local exchange, local exchanges, which are the lowestlevel exchanges in the switching hierarchy. All of the ordinary telephones are connected to
the local telephone end office through pairs of 22- or 26-gauge wire twisted together in order
to minimize crosstalk. Hundreds of these twisted pairs are bundled in a cable. In order to
improve the quality of the analog voice signal, loading coils are attached to the twisted pairs.
Hundreds of these twisted pairs are bundled in a cable. In order to improve the quality of the
analog voice signal, loading coils are attached to the twisted pairs. These same coils are
removed for digital transmission of modem signals. Since they are by far the most common
means of access to the premises, a great deal of work is going into increasing the
information-carrying capability of twisted pairs. This would allow the classic telephone
network to play a role in what might be called the Internet revolution with a relatively modest
increase in investment. The generic term for these techniques is digital subscriber links
(DSLs). Asynchronous digital subscriber links (ADSLs) recognize that most Internet users
receive far more information than they transmit; accordingly, the rates provided are 1.536
megabits per second (Mbps) on the downlink and 400 kilobits per second (kbps) on the
uplink. The latest development in this area is the very high-data-rate digital subscriber line
(VDSL), which provides uplink and downlink rate of 52 Mbps over optical links close to the
subscriber premises.
2.3. Long-Haul Network
The long-haul network carries traffic from one telephone end office to another end office. In
general, the long-haul network is a mesh of interconnected links (see figure 2.2). It is also
called Backbone. There may be a number of links in this path. The switch, which will be
discussed in the next subsection, serves to route the flow of traffic between links. A number
of different kinds of transmission media may be used to implement the links in the long-haul
network: twisted pairs with repeaters, coaxial cable, microwave radio, satellite, and optical
fiber. Increasingly, optical fiber is replacing the metallic media and microwave radio as the
transmission medium. This is the case for transoceanic cable as well. The dominance of
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optical fiber is not difficult to understand since it provides virtually error-free transmission at
gigabit rates. The only challenge to the domination of fiber is the satellite system in its area of
application. Satellites allow direct access to any point in their footprint; thus, new networks
can be set up quickly. Further, earthly impediments and distances constitute no barrier.
Satellites are unsurpassed in linking to remote areas, for example.

Figure 2.2: Long-haul network

2.4. Exchange Area Network

The exchange area network fills the transmission gap between local and long-distance trunks.
It normally interconnects local exchanges and tandem exchanges. Tandem exchanges are
those that make connections between central offices when an inter office trunk is not
available. A tandem exchange is to central offices as a central office is to subscriber telephone
sets. Mostly switching process is takes place at the exchange area networks.

The Functional Organization of Network Protocols:

A useful view of a telecommunications system is by the functions that it must perform in
order to convey information from one point to another. The Open Systems Interconnection
protocol structure provides a delineation of these functions (see figure 2.3). In OSI closely
related functions are grouped into one of seven layers. This grouping allows simple interface
between the layers. Although the seven-layer structure can be fitted to any
telecommunications network, it is most suited to packet-switched networks. Fortunately,
these are the networks that we are most interested in.

Physical layer: It is the lowest level of OSI model. The signal that is to be conveyed
from one point to another is transformed into a signal suitable for transmission over
the medium at hand. In digital communication systems, our main concern is that zeros
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and ones of a digital stream modulate electrical or optical pulses that are transmitted
over the respective media. The implementation of functions such as signal filtering
and phase and timing recovery and tracking are handled at this level.

Link layer: The physical layer delivers raw bits to the link level, whose function is to
organize the flow of bits over a segment of the path called a link. A link could be, for
example, an optical fiber between buildings on a university campus or an
intercontinental satellite channel. The basic format of bits at the link level is the
frame, which consists of user information bits together with a number of overhead
bits. The overhead bits perform several functions. In general, frames are not of fixed
length; accordingly, framing bits indicating the beginning and end of a frame must be
provided. Parity bits can be included in a frame in order to detect and/or correct errors
that have occurred in transmission. In order to ensure that frames are delivered in
order, sequencing bits must also be included in the frame. The primary performance
issue at the link level is the efficacy of error detection and correction.

Figure 2.3: OSI seven-layer reference model.

Network layer: The frames, which are supposed to be error-free, are passed from the
link layer to the network layer, which is responsible for routing and flow control of
the links in the path between the source and the destination. At this level, a packet is
formed by adding addresses as well as other overhead to the frame. In packetswitched networks buffering is required to smooth flow between links.
The probability of buffer overflow is a function of the rate of traffic flow and the
information-carrying capacity of the link. A routing strategy could be based on
minimizing this probability.
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Transport layer: At this layer the end-to-end flow over all of the links in a path is
managed. Flow control can be used for efficient operation between systems whose
speeds are mismatched and as a type of congestion control. In some systems, errors
are detected and corrected at this level. Further, there is a requirement to provide
enough buffering to bring probability of buffer overflow to an acceptable level.

Session layer: Calls are established at the session layer. In a circuit-switched network,
the task is to find a suitable path through the network. The criterion that is relevant
here is the probability of call blocking, specifically, the probability that a suitable path
is not available to an arriving call. In packet-switched networks where resources are
assigned on demand, the criterion is whether there will be enough resources available
throughout the duration of a call. This is the admission control problem. The other
functions of the session layer include data transfer control using tokens, in the case of
request-response type dialogs (i.e. half duplex), synchronization in case of data
transfer failures.

Presentation layer: The performance issues that we will be considering do not arise
in the two upper layers. At the presentation layer the information is formatted for
purposes other than communication. Encryption is a form of formatting, for example.

Application layer: The application layer deals with the particular function that the
user is exercising, such as mail or image transfer, for example. Since much
functionality of different applications have a common structure for the
communication, the application layer supports these common functionalities in terms
of protocols called application service elements (ASEs) called common ASEs
(CASEs) and those functionalities which are specific to the application are modeled as
specific ASEs (SASEs).

The three technologies needed for communication through the

network are
(1) Transmission.
(2) Switching.
(3) Signalling.

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Transmission:
Transmission is the process of transporting information between end points of a
system or a network. Transmission systems use four basic media for information
transfer from one point to another:
1. Copper cables, such as those used in LANs and telephone subscriber lines
2. Optical fiber cables, such as high-data-rate transmission in telecommunications networks
3. Radio waves, such as cellular telephones and satellite transmission
4. Free-space optics, such as infrared remote controllers
In a telecommunications network, the transmission systems interconnect exchanges and,
taken together, these transmission systems are called the transmission or transport network.

Switching:

Then only a few cable connections were needed between exchanges because the number of
simultaneously ongoing calls is much smaller than the number of telephones. The first
switches were not automatic so switching was done manually using a switchboard. Strowger
developed the first automatic switch (exchange) in 1887. At that time, switching had to be
controlled by the telephone user with the help of pulses generated by a dial.

Signaling :
Signaling is the mechanism that allows network entities (customer premises or network
switches) to establish, maintain, and terminate sessions in a network. Signaling is carried out
with the help of specific signals or messages that indicate to the other end what is
requested of it by this connection.
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Some examples of signaling examples on subscriber lines are as follows:

Off-hook condition: The exchange notices that the subscriber has raised the
telephone hook (dc loop is connected) and gives a dial tone to the subscriber.

Dial: The subscriber dials digits and they are received by the exchange.
On-hook condition: The exchange notices that the subscriber has finished the call
(subscriber loop is disconnected), clears the connection, and stops billing.
Signaling is naturally needed between exchanges as well because most calls have to
be connected via more than just one exchange. Many different signaling systems are used for
the interconnection of different exchanges. Signaling is an extremely complex matter in a
telecommunications network.

Signaling to the Exchange from the Telephone :

Telephone exchanges supply dc voltage to subscriber loops, and telephone sets use
this supplied voltage for operation. The conventional telephone does not include any
electronics, and the supplied voltage and current are directly used for speech transmission in
addition to signaling functions that include the detection of on/off-hook condition and
dialing.

Setup and Release of a Call:

Each telephone has a switch that indicates an on- or off-hook condition. When the
hook is raised, the switch is closed and an approximately 50 mA of current starts flowing.
This is detected by a relay giving information to the control unit in the exchange.
The control unit is an efficient and reliable computer (or a set of computers) in the telephone
exchange. It activates signaling circuits, which then receive dialed digits from subscriber A.
The control unit in the telephone exchange controls the switching matrix that connects the
speech circuit through to the called subscriber B. Connection is made according to the
numbers dialed by subscriber A.
When the call is being routed to subscriber B, the telephone exchange supplies to the
subscriber loop a ringing voltage and the bell of subscriber Bs telephone starts ringing. The
ringing voltage is often about 70V ac with a 25-Hz frequency, which is high enough to
activate the bell on any telephone.
The ringing voltage is switched off immediately when an off-hook condition is detected on
the loop of subscriber B, and then an end-to-end speech circuit is connected and the
conversation may start.
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Figure shows the signaling phases on a subscriber loop. When the exchange detects the offhook condition of a subscriber loop, it informs us with a dial tone that we hear when we raise
the hook that it is ready to receive digits. After dialing it keeps us informed about whether the
circuit establishment is successful by sending us a ringing tone when the telephone at the
Other end rings .When subscriber B answers, the exchange switches off both the ringing
signal and the ringing tone and connects the circuit. At the end of the conversation, an onhook condition is detected by the exchange and the speech circuit is released.

ROTARY DIALING:

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The telephone set has a switch that is open in the on-hook condition and closed when the
hook is off. This indicates to the telephone exchange when a call is to be initiated and when it
has to prepare to receive dialed digits. In old telephones, which exchanges still have to
support, this method of local loop connection/disconnection is used to transmit dialed
digits as well (Figure ). We call this principle rotary or pulse dialing.
In rotary dialing a local loop is closed and opened according to the dialed digits, and
the number of current pulses is detected by the exchange. This signalling method is also
known as loop disconnects signalling. The main disadvantages of this method are that it is
slow and expensive due to high resolution mechanics and it does not support supplementary
services such as call forwarding.
When a digit is to be dialed, the dialing plate with finger holes is rotated clockwise to
the end and released. While homing, the switch is breaking the line current periodically and
the number of these periods indicates the dialed digit. For example, digit 1 has one
period, 2 has two periods, and 0 has 10 periods or cycles. Mechanics make the homing
speed approximately constant and each period is about 100 ms long with a 60-ms break.

Tone Dialing:
Modern telephones usually have 12 push buttons for dialing, each generating a tone with two
frequencies.
One of the frequencies is from the upper frequency band and the other from the lower band.
All frequencies are inside the voice frequency band (3003,400 Hz) and can thus be
transmitted through the network from end to end, when the speech connection is established.
This signaling principle is known as dual-tone multi frequency (DTMF) signaling.
Advantages of tone dialing are as follows:
It is quicker and dialing of all digits takes the same time.
Fewer dialing errors result.
End-to-end signaling is possible.

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 Additional push buttons are available (*, #, A, B, C, D) for activation of supplementary

services.

Telephone Numbering:
An international telephone connection from any telephone to any other telephone is made
possible by unique identification of each subscriber socket in the world.
International Prefix :
An international prefix or international access number is used for international calls. It tells
the network that the connection is to be routed via an international telephone exchange to
another country. The international prefix may differ from country to country, but it is
gradually becoming harmonized.

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The structure of the telephone number hierarchy.

Country Code:
The country code contains one to four numbers that define the country of subscriber B.
Country codes are not needed for national calls because their purpose is to make the
subscriber identification unique in the world. A telephone number that includes the
country code is called an international number and it has a maximum length of 12 digits.
Trunk Code, Trunk Prefix, or Area Code :
The trunk code defines the area inside the country where the call is to be routed. The first
digit is a long-distance call identification and other numbers identify the area. The first digit
is not needed in the case of an international call because that type of call is always routed via
the long-distance level of the destination network.
In the case of cellular service, the trunk code is used to identify the home network of the
subscriber instead of the location. With the help of this network code, a call is routed to the
home network, which then determines the location of the subscriber and routes the call to the
destination.

Subscriber Number:
The subscriber number in a fixed telephone network is a unique identification of the
subscriber inside a geographical area. To connect to a certain subscriber, the same number
is dialed anywhere in the area. Because of the numbering hierarchy, the subscriber part
of the telephone number of one subscriber may be the same as that of another subscriber in
another area.

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Local-Access Network:
The local-access network provides the connection between the customers telephone
and the local exchange. Ordinary telephone and ISDN subscribers use two wires, a pair, as a
subscriber loop, but for business customers a higher capacity optical fiber or microwave radio
link may be required. Many different technologies are used in a local-access network to
connect subscribers to the public telecommunications network.

Most subscriber connections use twisted pairs of copper wires. Subscriber cables contain
many pairs that are shielded with common aluminium foil and plastic shield. In urban areas
cables are dug into the ground and may be very large, having hundreds of pairs.
Distribution points that are installed in outdoor or indoor cabinets are needed to divide large
cables into smaller ones and distribute subscriber pairs to houses as shown in Figure.
An optical connection is used when a high transmission capacity (more than 2 Mbps) or very
good transmission quality is required. A microwave radio relay is often a more economical
solution than optical fiber when there is a need to increase data capacity beyond the capacity
of an existing cable network. Installation of optical or copper cables takes more time because
permissions from landowners and city authorities are required. Installation of cables is also
very expensive when they must be sunk into the ground.
One technology for implementation of ordinary subscriber loops for fixed telephone service
is known as wireless local loop (WLL). WLL uses radio waves and does not require
installation of subscriber cables; it is a quick and low-cost way to connect a new subscriber to
the public network. With the help of this technology, new operators can provide services in an
area where another old operator owns the cables. WLL is also used for replacement of old
fixed overhead subscriber telephone lines in rural areas.
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When cable network capacity for subscriber connections needs to be increased, it may
be more economical to install concentrators, remote subscriber units, or subscriber
multiplexers so as to utilize existing cables more efficiently.

Local Exchange:
Local or subscriber loops connect subscribers to local exchanges, which are the lowest level
exchanges in the switching hierarchy. These are the main tasks of the digital local exchange:

Detect off-hook condition, analyze the dialed number, and determine if a route is

available.
Connect the subscriber to a trunk exchange for longer distance calls.
Connect the subscriber to another in the same local area.
Determine if the called subscriber is free and connect ringing signal to her.
Provide metering and collect charging data for its own subscribers.
Convert 2W local access to 4W circuit of the network.
Convert analog speech into a digital signal (PCM).

Distribution Frames:

Fig:Local-access network and digital local exchange site

All subscriber lines are wired to the main distribution frame (MDF), as shown in Figure
which is located close to the local exchange. It is a large construction with huge number of
connectors. Subscriber pairs are connected to one side and pairs from the local exchange to
the other. Between these connector fields there is enough space for free cross
connections. Cables and connectors are usually arranged in a logical way considering the
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subscriber cable network structure and switching arrangements. This fixed cabling stays the
same over long periods of time, but connections between sides change daily, for example,
because a subscriber moves to another house in the same switching area.
A cross-connection in the MDF is usually done with twisted open pairs that are able to carry
data rates up to 2 Mbps. Ordinary subscriber pairs are used for analog telephone subscribers,
analog and digital PBX/PABX connections, ISDN basic rate connections and ADSL. ADSL
and ordinary analog telephone circuits use the same 2W subscriber loop. Data and speech
connections may be used simultaneously and they are separated in the exchange where
speech is connected to an ordinary analog exchange interface and data are routed to the
Internet, as shown in Figure.
A digital exchange may include both analog and digital subscriber interfaces. For digital
private (automatic) branch exchange (PBX/PABX) applications, 1.5- or 2-Mbps digital
interfaces are available If the local switch has ISDN capability, basic rate and primary rate
interfaces are avail-able. Ordinary subscriber pairs are used for ISDN basic rate
connections (160-Kbps bidirectional) and a network terminal (NT) is required on customer
premises. The primary rate interface of ISDN (1.5 or 2 Mbps) is used for PABX connections.
It requires two pairs, one for each transmission direction, and supports many simultaneous
external calls.

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