Geotechnical

Engineering
Principles and Practices of Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering

V. N. S. Murthy
Consulting Geotechnical Engineer
Bangalore, India

MARCEL DEKKER, I N C .

N E W YORK BASEL

CONTENTS

Foreword

Mark T. Bowers

Foreword

Bengt B. Broms

vii

Preface

ix

CHAPTER 1
1.1
1.2
1.3

General Remarks
A Brief Historical Development
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering

CHAPTER 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9

INTRODUCTION

SOIL FORMATION AND CHARACTERIZATION

Introduction
Rock Classification
Formation of Soils
General Types of Soils
Soil Particle Size and Shape
Composition of Clay Minerals
Structure of Clay Minerals
Clay Particle-Water Relations
Soil Mass Structure

1
1
2
3

5
5
5
7
7
9
11
11
14
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Contents

CHAPTER 3 SOIL PHASE RELATIONSHIPS, INDEX PROPERTIES

AND CLASSIFICATION
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22

Soil Phase Relationships

Mass-Volume Relationships
Weight-Volume Relationships
Comments on Soil Phase Relationships
Index Properties of Soils
The Shape and Size of Particles
Sieve Analysis
The Hydrometer Method of Analysis
Grain Size Distribution Curves
Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils
Consistency of Clay Soil
Determination of Atterberg Limits
Discussion on Limits and Indices
Plasticity Chart
General Considerations for Classification of Soils
Field Identification of Soils
Classification of Soils
Textural Soil Classification
AASHTO Soil Classification System
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
Comments on the Systems of Soil Classification
Problems'

CHAPTER 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.1Q
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14

SOIL PERMEABILITY AND SEEPAGE

Soil Permeability
Darcy's Law
Discharge and Seepage Velocities
Methods of Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity of Soils
Constant Head Permeability Test
Falling Head Permeability Test
Direct Determination of k of Soils in Place by Pumping Test
Borehole Permeability Tests
Approximate Values of the Hydraulic Conductivity of Soils
Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Layers of Soils
Empirical Correlations for Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic Conductivity of Rocks by Packer Method
Seepage
Laplace Equation

19
19
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31
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Contents

4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22

xiii

Flow Net Construction

Determination of Quantity of Seepage
Determination of Seepage Pressure
Determination of Uplift Pressures
Seepage Flow Through Homogeneous Earth Dams
Flow Net Consisting of Conjugate Confocal Parabolas
Piping Failure
Problems

CHAPTER 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6

EFFECTIVE STRESS AND PORE WATER PRESSURE

Introduction
Stresses when No Flow Takes Place Through the
Saturated Soil Mass
Stresses When Flow Takes Place Through the Soil
from Top to Bottom
Stresses When Flow Takes Place Through the Soil
from Bottom to Top
Effective Pressure Due to Capillary Water Rise in Soil
Problems

CHAPTER 6 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN SOILS

DUE TO SURFACE LOADS
'6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12

Introduction
Boussinesq's Formula for Point Loads
Westergaard's Formula for Point Loads
Line Loads
Strip Loads
Stresses Beneath the Corner of a Rectangular Foundation
Stresses Under Uniformly Loaded Circular Footing
Vertical Stress Beneath Loaded Areas of Irregular Shape
Embankment Loadings
Approximate Methods for Computing az
Pressure Isobars
Problems
.

CHAPTER 7
7.1
7.2
7.3

COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION

Introduction
Consolidation
Consolidometer

116
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122
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126
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131
138

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xiv

Contents

7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
7.12
7.13
7.14

The Standard One-Dimensional Consolidation Test

Pressure-Void Ratio Curves
Determination of Preconsolidation Pressure
e-logp Field Curves for Normally Consolidated and
Overconsolidated Clays of Low to Medium Sensitivity
Computation of Consolidation Settlement
Settlement Due to Secondary Compression
Rate of One-dimensional Consolidation Theory of Terzaghi
Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation
Rate of Settlement Due to Consolidation
Two- and Three-dimensional Consolidation Problems
Problems

CHAPTER 8 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
8.25

Introduction
Basic Concept of Shearing Resistance and Shearing Strength
The Coulomb Equation
Methods of Determining Shear Strength Parameters
Shear Test Apparatus
Stress Condition at a Point in a Soil Mass
Stress Conditions in Soil During Triaxial Compression Test
Relationship Between the Principal Stresses and Cohesion c
Mohr Circle of Stress
Mohr Circle of Stress When a Prismatic Element is Subjected to
Normal and Shear Stresses
Mohr Circle of Stress for a Cylindrical Specimen
Compression Test
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Theory
Mohr Diagram for Triaxial Compression Test at Failure
Mohr Diagram for a Direct Shear Test at Failure
Effective Stresses
Shear Strength Equation in Terms of Effective Principal Stresses
Stress-Controlled and Strain-Controlled Tests
Types of Laboratory Tests
Shearing Strength Tests on Sand
.
.
Unconsolidated-Undrained Test
Unconfined Compression Tests
Consolidated-Undrained Test on Saturated Clay
Consolidated-Drained Shear Strength Test
Pore Pressure Parameters Under Undrained Loading
Vane Shear Tests

213
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240
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247

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Contents

8.26
8.27
8.28
8.29

xv

Other Methods for Determining Undrained Shear Strength

of Cohesive Soils
The Relationship Between Undrained Shear Strength and
Effective Overburden Pressure
General Comments
Questions and Problems

CHAPTER 9
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17

Introduction
Boring of Holes
Sampling in Soil
Rock Core Sampling
Standard Penetration Test
SPT Values Related to Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils
SPT Values Related to Consistency of Clay Soil
Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Pressuremeter
The Flat Dilatometer Test
Field Vane Shear Test (VST)
Field Plate Load Test (PLT)
Geophysical Exploration
Planning of Soil Exploration
Execution of Soil Exploration Program
Report '
Problems

CHAPTER 10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.10
10.11
10.12
10.13

SOIL EXPLORATION

STABILITY OF SLOPES

Introduction
General Considerations and Assumptions in the Analysis
Factor of Safety
Stability Analysis of Infinite Slopes in Sand
Stability Analysis of Infinite Slopes in Clay
Methods of Stability Analysis of Slopes of Finite Height
Plane Surface of Failure
.
Circular Surfaces of Failure
Failure Under Undrained Conditions (</>u = 0)
Friction-Circle Method
Taylor's Stability Number
Tension Cracks
Stability Analysis by Method of Slices for Steady Seepage

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330
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.349
3 51
3 51
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xvi

Contents

10.14
10.15
10.16
10.17
10.18

Bishop's Simplified Method of Slices

Bishop and Morgenstern Method for Slope Analysis
Morgenstern Method of Analysis for Rapid Drawdown Condition
Spencer Method of Analysis
Problems

CHAPTER 11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.13
11.14
11.15

LATERAL EARTH PRESSURE

Introduction
Lateral Earth Pressure Theory
Lateral Earth Pressure for at Rest Condition
Rankine's States of Plastic Equilibrium for Cohesionless Soils
Rankine's Earth Pressure Against Smooth Vertical Wall with
Cohesionless Backfill
Rankine's Active Earth Pressure with Cohesive Backfill
Rankine's Passive Earth Pressure with Cohesive Backfill
Coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory for Sand for Active State
Coulomb's Earth Pressure Theory for Sand for Passive State
Active Pressure by Culmann's Method for Cohesionless Soils
Lateral Pressures by Theory of Elasticity for Surcharge Loads
on the Surface of Backfill
Curved Surfaces of Failure for Computing Passive Earth Pressure
Coefficients of Passive Earth Pressure Tables and Graphs
Lateral Earth Pressure on Retaining Walls During Earthquakes
Problems

CHAPTER 12 SHALLOW FOUNDATION I:

ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13

Introduction
The Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Soil
Some of the Terms Defined
Types of Failure in Soil
An Overview of Bearing Capacity Theories
Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Theory
Skempton's Bearing Capacity Factor TV.
Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity
The General Bearing Capacity Equation
Effect of Soil Compressibility on Bearing Capacity of Soil
Bearing Capacity of Foundations Subjected to Eccentric Loads
Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings Based on SPT Values (AO
The CPT Method of Determining Ultimate Bearing Capacity

400
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xvii

12.14 Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Footings Resting on Stratified

Deposits of Soil
12.15 Bearing Capacity of Foundations on Top of a Slope
12.16 Foundations on Rock
12.17 Case History of Failure of the Transcona Grain Elevator
12.18 Problems

CHAPTER 13 SHALLOW FOUNDATION II:

SAFE BEARING PRESSURE AND SETTLEMENT CALCULATION
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6
13.7
13.8
13.9
13.10
13.11
13.12
13.13
13.14
13.15

Introduction
Field Plate Load Tests
Effect of Size of Footings on Settlement
Design Charts from SPT Values for Footings on Sand
Empirical Equations Based on SPT Values for Footings on
Cohesionless Soils
Safe Bearing Pressure from Empirical Equations Based on
CPT Values for Footings on Cohesionless Soil
Foundation Settlement
Evaluation of Modulus of Elasticity
Methods of Computing Settlements
Elastic Settlement Beneath the Corner of a Uniformly Loaded
Flexible Area Based on the Theory of Elasticity
Janbu, Bjerrum and Kjaernsli's Method of Determining
Elastic Settlement Under Undrained Conditions
Schmertmann's Method of Calculating Settlement in Granular
Soils by Using CPT Values
Estimation of Consolidation Settlement by Using Oedometer
Test Data
Skempton-Bjerrum Method of Calculating Consolidation
Settlement (1957)
Problems

CHAPTER 14 SHALLOW FOUNDATION III:

COMBINED FOOTINGS AND MAT FOUNDATIONS
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5

Introduction
Safe Bearing Pressures for Mat Foundations on Sand and Clay
Eccentric Loading
The Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction
Proportioning of Cantilever Footing

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536

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xviii

Contents

14.6

Design of Combined Footings by Rigid Method (Conventional

Method)
"
14.7 Design of Mat Foundation by Rigid Method
14.8 Design of Combined Footings by Elastic Line Method
14.9 Design of Mat Foundations by Elastic Plate Method
14.10 Floating Foundation
14.11 Problems

CHAPTER 15 DEEP FOUNDATION I:

PILE FOUNDATION
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
15.5
15.6

Introduction
Classification of Piles
Types of Piles According to the Method of Installation
Uses of Piles
Selection of Pile
Installation of Piles

PART A-VERTICAL LOAD BEARING CAPACITY OF A SINGLE VERTICAL PILE

15.7
15.8
15.9
15.10
15.11
15.12
15.13
15.14
15.15
15.16
15.17
15.18
15.19
15.20
15.21
15.22
15.23
15.24
15.25

General Considerations
Methods of Determining Ultimate Load Bearing Capacity of a
Single Vertical Pile
General Theory for Ultimate Bearing Capacity
Ultimate Bearing Capacity in Cohesionless Soils
Critical Depth
Tomlinson's Solution for Qb in Sand
Meyerhof's Method of Determining Qbfor Piles in Sand
Vesic's Method of Determining Qb
Janbu's Method of Determining Qb
Coyle and Castello's Method of Estimating Qb\n Sand
The Ultimate Skin Resistance of a Single Pile in Cohesionless Soil
Skin Resistance Qf by Coyle and Castello Method (1981)
Static Bearing Capacity of Piles in Clay Soil
Bearing Capacity of Piles in Granular Soils Based on SPT Value
Bearing Capacity of Piles Based on Static Cone Penetration
Tests (CPT)
Bearing Capacity of a Single Pile by Load Test
Pile Bearing Capacity from Dynamic Pile Driving Formulas
Bearing Capacity of Piles Founded on a Rocky Bed
Uplift Resistance of Piles

592
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594
595
595
603

605
605
605
606
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609
610

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620
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628
629
631
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635
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671

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xix

PART B-PILE GROUP

15.26 Number and Spacing of Piles in a Group
15.27 Pile Group Efficiency
15.28 Vertical Bearing Capacity of Pile Groups Embedded in
Sands and Gravels
15.29 Settlement of Piles and Pile Groups in Sands and Gravels
15.30 Settlement of Pile Groups in Cohesive Soils
15.31 Allowable Loads on Groups of Piles
15.32 Negative Friction
15.33 Uplift Capacity of a Pile Group
15.34 Problems

CHAPTER 16 DEEP FOUNDATION II:

BEHAVIOR OF LATERALLY LOADED VERTICAL AND
BATTER PILES
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4

Introduction
Winkler's Hypothesis
The Differential Equation
Non-dimensional Solutions for Vertical Piles Subjected to
Lateral Loads
16.5 p-y Curves for the Solution of Laterally Loaded Piles
16.6 Broms' Solutions for Laterally Loaded Piles
16.7 A Direct Method for Solving the Non-linear Behavior of
Laterally Loaded Flexible Pile Problems
16.8 Case Studies for Laterally Loaded Vertical Piles in Sand
16.9 Case Studies for Laterally Loaded Vertical Piles in Clay
16.10 Behavior of Laterally Loaded Batter Piles in Sand
16.11 Problems

CHAPTER 17 DEEP FOUNDATION III:

DRILLED PIER FOUNDATIONS
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7
17.8

Introduction
Types of Drilled Piers
Advantages and Disadvantages of Drilled Pier Foundations
Methods of Construction
Design Considerations
Load Transfer Mechanism
Vertical Bearing Capacity of Drilled Piers
The General Bearing Capacity Equation for the Base Resistance

. (= O

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696

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700
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706
709
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725
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741
741
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Contents

17.9
17.10
17.11
17.12
17.13
17.14
17.15
17.16
17.17
17.18
17.19

Bearing Capacity Equations for the Base in Cohesive Soil

Bearing Capacity Equation for the Base in Granular Soil
Bearing Capacity Equations for the Base in Cohesive IGM or Rock
The Ultimate Skin Resistance of Cohesive and
Intermediate Materials
Ultimate Skin Resistance in Cohesionless Soil and Gravelly Sands
Ultimate Side and Total Resistance in Rock
Estimation of Settlements of Drilled Piers at Working Loads
Uplift Capacity of Drilled Piers
Lateral Bearing Capacity of Drilled Piers
Case Study of a Drilled Pier Subjected to Lateral Loads
Problems

CHAPTER 18 FOUNDATIONS ON COLLAPSIBLE AND

EXPANSIVE SOILS
18.1

General Considerations

PART A-COLLAPSIBLE SOILS

18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6

General Observations
Collapse Potential and Settlement
Computation of Collapse Settlement
Foundation Design
Treatment .Methods for Collapsible Soils

PART B-EXPANSIVE SOILS

18.7
18.8
18.9
18.10
18.11
18.12
18.13
18.14
18.15
18.16
18.17
18.18
18.19

756
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779
787
787

791
791

793
793
795
796
799
800

800

Distribution of Expansive Soils

800
General Characteristics of Swelling Soils
801
Clay Mineralogy and Mechanism of Swelling
803
Definition of Some Parameters
804
Evaluation of the Swelling Potential of Expansive Soils by Single
Index Method
804
Classification of Swelling Soils by Indirect Measurement
806
Swelling Pressure by Direct Measurement
812
Effect of Initial Moisture Content and Initial Dry Density on
Swelling Pressure
813
Estimating the Magnitude of Swelling
814
Design of Foundations in Swelling Soils
817
Drilled Pier Foundations
817
Elimination of Swelling
827
Problems
828

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xxi

CHAPTER 19 CONCRETE AND MECHANICALLY STABILIZED

EARTH RETAINING WALLS
PART A-CONCRETE RETAINING WALLS
19.1
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5

Introduction
Conditions Under Which Rankine and Coulomb Formulas Are
Applicable to Retaining Walls Under the Active State
Proportioning of Retaining Walls
Earth Pressure Charts for Retaining Walls
Stability of Retaining Walls

PART B-MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EARTH RETAINING WALLS

19.6
19.7
19.8
19.9
19.10
19.11
19.12
19.13

General Considerations
Backfill and Reinforcing Materials
Construction Details
Design Considerations for a Mechanically Stabilized Earth Wall
Design Method
External Stability
Examples of Measured Lateral Earth Pressures
Problems

CHAPTER 20
20.1
20.2
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
20.8
20.9
20.10
20.11
20.12
20.13
20.14
20.15

SHEET PILE WALLS AND BRACED CUTS

Introduction
Sheet Pile Structures
Free Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls
Depth of Embedment of Cantilever Walls in Sandy Soils
Depth of Embedment of Cantilever Walls in Cohesive Soils
Anchored Bulkhead: Free-Earth Support MethodDepth of
Embedment of Anchored Sheet Piles in Granular Soils
Design Charts for Anchored Bulkheads in Sand
Moment Reduction for Anchored Sheet Pile Walls
Anchorage of Bulkheads
Braced Cuts
Lateral Earth Pressure Distribution on Braced-Cuts
Stability of Braced Cuts in Saturated Clay
Bjerrum and Eide Method of Analysis
Piping Failures in Sand Cuts
Problems

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XXII

CHAPTER 21
21.1
21.2
21.3
21.4
21.5
21.6
21.7
21.8
21.9
21.10
21.11

SOIL IMPROVEMENT

Introduction
Mechanical Compaction
Laboratory Tests on Compaction
Effect of Compaction on Engineering Behavior
Field Compaction and Control
Compaction for Deeper Layers of Soil
Preloading
Sand Compaction Piles and Stone Columns
Soil Stabilization by the Use of Admixtures
Soil Stabilization by Injection of Suitable Grouts
Problems

APPENDIX A

SI UNITS IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

APPENDIX B SLOPE STABILITY CHARTS AND TABLES

951
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962
973
974
980
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983
983

987
993

REFERENCES

1007

INDEX

1025