Revised Study
Material
For
GATE PSU
Chemical Engineering
Instrumentation and Process Control
GATE Syllabus
Measurement of process variables; sensors, transducers
and their dynamics, transfer functions and dynamic
responses of simple systems, process reaction curve,
controller modes (P, PI, and PID); control valves;
analysis of closed loop systems including stability,
frequency response and controller tuning, cascade, feed
forward control.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
1.1 Temperature
1.1.1 RTD
1.1.2 Thermocouple
1.2 Pressure
1.2.1 Bellow Type Detectors
1.2.2 Bourdon Tube Type Detectors
1.3 Level
1.3.1 Gauge Glass
1.3.2 Ball Float
1.4 Flow
1.4.1 Head Flow Meter
1.4.1.1 Orifice Plate
1.4.1.2 Venturi Tube
1.4.1.3 Pitot Tube
1.4.2 Area Flow Meter
1.4.2.1 Rota Meter
1.4.3 Displacement Meter
1.4.3.1 Nutating Disc
3
3
3
4
5
5
5
6
6
7
7
7
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
Chapter 2
LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION
2.1 Definition
2.2 Laplace Transforms of Some Basic Functions
2.2.1 Forcing Function
2.2.1.1 Step Function
2.2.1.2 Ramp Function
2.2.1.3 Impulse Function
2.2.1.4 Exponential Function
2.2.1.5 Sinusoidal Function
2.3 Transforms of Derivatives
2.4 Transforms of Integrals
2.5 Theorems
2.5.1 Final Value Theorem
2.5.2 Initial Value Theorem
2.6 Laplace Inversion
13
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
17
20
21
21
21
21
22
Chapter 3
3.1 Transfer Function
3.2 Time Constant
3.3 First Order System
3.3.1 Mercury Thermometer
i
LINEAR OPEN LOOP SYSTEMS
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25
25
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3.3.2 Liquid Level Systems
3.3.3 Mixing Process
3.4 First Order Systems in Series
3.4.1 Non Interacting System
3.4.2 Interacting System
3.5 Linearization of Non Linear Systems
3.6 Unsteady State Response of Forcing Functions
3.6.1 Step Function
3.6.2 Impulse Function
3.6.3 Sinusoidal Function
3.6.4 Ramp Function
3.7 Transportation Lag
3.8 Second Order Systems
3.8.1 Damped Vibrator
3.9 Damping Coefficient
3.10 First Order System with Transportation Lag
3.11 Characteristics of Second Order Under Damped Systems
3.11.1 Overshoot
3.11.2 Decay Ratio
3.11.3 Rise Time
3.11.4 Response Time
3.11.5 Period of Oscillations
3.11.6 Natural Period of Oscillation
27
29
30
30
31
33
35
35
36
36
38
38
40
40
42
42
43
44
44
44
44
45
45
Chapter 4
LINEAR CLOSED LOOP SYSTEMS
4.1 Components of Control System
4.2 Block Diagram of Components
50
50
51
Chapter 5
5.1 P Controllers
5.2 PI Controllers
5.3 PD Controllers
5.4 PID Controllers
5.5 On Off Controllers
CONTROLLERS
57
57
58
59
60
61
CLOSED LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION
63
63
63
64
65
65
65
65
Chapter 6
6.1 Servo Mechanism
6.2 Regulator Mechanism
6.3 Open Loop and Closed Loop Transfer Function
6.4 Overall Transfer Function for Various Controllers
6.4.1 P Controller for Servo Mechanism
6.4.2 P Controller for Regulator Mechanism
6.4.3 P Controller For Servo Mechanism For First Order System Having Unit Feedback
ii
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System
6.4.4 P Controller for Regulator Mechanism For First Order System Having Unit Feedback
System
6.4.5 PI Controller for Servo Mechanism
6.4.6 PD Controller for Servo Mechanism
6.5 Effect of Controllers on Process Order
6.5.1 Effect of P Controller on First Order System
6.5.2 Effect of P Controller on Second Order System
6.5.3 Effect of I Controller on First Order System
6.5.4 Effect of D Controller on First Order System
67
68
70
71
71
72
73
74
Chapter 7
STABILITY OF CONTROLLERS
7.1 Characteristic Equation
7.2 Stability Criteria for Linear System
7.3 Routh Test
7.3.1 Steps
7.3.2 Limitations
7.4 Root Locus
7.4.1 Steps
7.5 Bode Plot
7.5.1 First Order Systems
7.5.2 Pure Capacitive Systems
7.5.3 Two First Order Systems in Series
7.5.4 Second Order Systems
7.5.5 Transportation Lag
7.5.6 P Controllers
7.5.7 PI Controllers
7.5.8 PD Controllers
7.5.9 PID Controllers
7.5.10 Bode Stability Criteria
7.5.11 Cross Over Frequency
7.5.12 Rules To Plot Bode Diagrams
75
75
76
76
76
77
78
78
81
82
83
83
84
85
85
86
86
87
87
87
87
Chapter 8
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
8.1 Gain Margin and Phase Margin
8.2 Inverse Response
8.3 Controller Tuning
8.3.1 Ziegler Nichols
8.3.1.1 Limitations Of Ziegler Nichols Tuning
8.3.2 Cohen and Coon
91
91
92
93
93
94
94
Chapter 9
CONTROL SYSTEMS WITH MULTIPLE LOOPS
9.1 Cascade Control Systems
iii
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Chapter 10
LEVEL 1
LEVEL 2
101
119
UNSOLVED QUESTIONS
142
QUESTIONS (2004 TO 2015)
151
151
153
155
159
163
165
167
169
171
172
174
176
SOLUTIONS
178
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Chapter 13
iv
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3
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LINEAR OPEN LOOP SYSTEM
3.8 SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS
The physical systems having second order differential equations are called second order
systems.
a2
d 2y
dy
a1
a0 y bf (t )
2
dt
dt
a2 d 2 y a1 dy
b
y f (t )
2
a0 dt
a0 dt
a0
2
d 2y
dy
2
y k p f (t )
2
dt
dt
where
a2
a
, 2 1
a0
a0
and
kp
b
a0
The general transfer function for second order systems are as follows:
G( s )
1
s 2 s 1
2
The physical examples are:
3.8.1 DAMPED VIBRATOR
Let a block of weight W resulting on a horizontal friction
less table is connected to a spring and viscous damper.
System is free to oscillate horizontally due to external
force F.
1. The force exerted by the spring (toward the left)
of -KY , where K is a positive constant, called
40
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Hookes constant.
2. The viscous friction force (acting to the left) of C.dY / dt, where C is a positive
constant called the damping coefficient.
The external force F(t) (acting toward the right).
3.
Newtons law of motion, which states that the sum of all forces acting on the mass is
equal to the rate of change of momentum (mass W acceleration), takes the form
d 2y
dy
C
Ky F
2
dt
dt
d 2y
dy
W 2 C
Ky F
dt
dt
W
Dividing by K , we get
Comparing with
W d 2 y C dy
F
y
2
K dt
K dt
K
2
d y
dy
2 2 2
y k pf (t )
dt
dt
we get
W
C
, 2
K
K
C
and
2 mK
and
kp
F
K
Example 3.1 A thermometer of 10sec initially at 30 0C, is suddenly immersed into a
water bath at 100 0C, How long will it take to reach the thermometer reading at 90 0C.
(a) 19.5 sec
(b) 17.5 sec
(b) 15.5 sec
(d) 18.5 sec
Solution:
we know that for step change in input, the response function is given by
Y (t ) A(1 e t / )
Hence,
41
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90 30 (100 30)(1 e t /10 )
60 70(1 e t /10 )
e t /10 0.142857
t 19.5 sec
3.9 DAMPING COEFFICIENT ( )
It provides the information about the degree of damping in the system. As the value of
decreases the oscillations increases in the system.
The nature of system is characterized by the value and nature of and it can be
understood better by following table:
3.10
FIRST ORDER SYSTEM WITH TRANSPORATATION LAG
Consider a first order system with a dead time d between X(t) and the output Y(t). We
can represent such a system by a series of two systems as shown in figure below.
42
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Transfer function for first order process
L Y (t )
L X (t )
Kp
ps 1
L Y (t d )
Transfer function for transportation lag
L Y (t )
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d s
Therefore, the transfer function between the input X(t) and the delayed output Y (t d ) is
given by
L Y (t d )
L X (t )
d s
ps 1
Similarly, Transportation lag with second order system is given by
L Y (t d )
L X (t )
K pe
K pe
d s
2s 2 2 p 1
p
By Pade approximations
e d s
d s
ds
ds
for first order systems
2 s 2 6 d s 12
d
2 s 2 6 d s 12
for second order systems
43
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3.11 CHARACTERSTICS OF SECOND ORDER UNDER DAMPED SYSTEM
To describe the second order under damped system following terms are used:
3.11.1 OVERSHOOT
Overshoot is a measure of how much the response
exceeds the ultimate value following a step change and
is expressed as the ratio A/B in above figure.
The overshoot for a unit step is related to by the
expression
Overshoot exp
1 2
3.11.2 DECAY RATIO
The decay ratio is defined as the ratio of the sizes of successive peaks and is given by C /
A in above figure. The decay ratio is related to by the expression
2
Decay Ratio exp
1 2
44
2
Overshoot
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3.11.3 RISE TIME
This is the time required for the response to first reach its ultimate value and is labeled
tr, in above figure. The reader can verify from that tr increases with increasing .
3.11.4 RESPONSE TIME
This is the time required for the response to come within 5 percent of its ultimate
value and remain there. The response time is indicated in above figure. The limits 5
percent are arbitrary and other limits have been used in other texts for defining a
response time.
3.11.5 PERIOD OF OSCILLATIONS
From the above figure, the radian frequency (radians/time) is the coefficient of t in the
sine term; thus,
1 2
(rad / time )
Since the radian frequency is related to the cyclical frequency f by 2 f , it follows
that
1
1
f
T 2
1 2
Where, T is the period of oscillations (time / cycle). In terms of above figure, T is the time
elapsed between peaks.
3.11.6 NATURAL PERIOD OF OSCILLATION
If the damping is eliminated [ = 0 ], the system oscillates continuously without
attenuation in amplitude. Under these natural or un-damped conditions, the radian
45
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frequency is 1/ , as shown by Eq. (8.26) when = 0. This frequency is referred to as the
natural frequency n :
1
T
The corresponding natural cyclical frequency f , and period T, are related by the
expression
fn
1
1
Tn 2 .
Example 3.2 A thermometer follows first order dynamics with 0.2 min is placed at
temperature bath keeping at 100 0C and is allowed to reach steady state. It is suddenly
transfer to another bath keeping at 150 0C at time t=0, and is left for 0.2 min, it is
immediately return to original bath at 100 0C. Calculate the thermometer reading at
time t=0.1 min.
Solution:
Y (t ) A(1 e t / )
at t 0.1min
Y (t ) (150 1000)(1 e 0.1/ 0.2 )
y y s 50(1 e 0.5 )
y 19.667 100
as y s 100
y 119.67 0C
Example 3.3 Derive the transfer function H(s) / Q(s), for the liquid level system when
Data:
46
(i)
Liquid level is at 1m.
(ii)
Liquid level is at 3m.
hs= 1m , qo= 10 m3 / min
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A= 1 m2 , R= 0.5
Solution:
(i)
Taking mass balance on tank when h= 1m,
q qo A.
dh
dt
unsteady state
dhs
steady state
dt
d (h hs )
q qs A.
dt
dH
Q A.
dt
taking Laplace transforms, we get
qs qo A.
Q(s ) A.sH (s )
(ii)
H (s ) 1
Q( s ) s
Taking mass balance on tank when h= 3m,
q qo qv A.
dh
dt
qs qos qvs A.
unsteady state
dhs
dt
q qs qv qvs A.
steady state
d (h hs )
dt
dH
dt
H
dH
H
Q A.
as Qv
R
dt
R
taking Laplace transforms, we get
Q Qv A.
H (s )
A.sH (s )
R
H (s )
R
Q(s ) ARs 1
Q( s )
47
H (s )
0. 5
Q(s ) 0.5s 1
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Example 3.4 A step change of magnitude 4 is introduce into a system having transfer
function G(s) = 10 / (s2 + 1.6 s + 1), than find out the vales of Overshoot, Decay ratio,
maximum value of y(t).
Weve G ( s)
Solution:
10
10
G( s)
2
s 1.6s 4
4(0.25s 0.4s 1)
2
2. 5
0.25s 0.4s 1
comparing with,
G( s )
G( s )
Kp
s 2 s 1
2
we get ,
0. 5
and
0.4
0.4 1
system system is under damped system.
Overshoot exp
1 2
0.4
Overshoot exp
2
1 0. 4
Overshoot 0.2538
Decay ratio Overshoot 2 0.25382
Decay ratio 0.0644
We know that
48
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Y (s )
2.5
2
X (s ) 0.25s 0.4s 1
4
X (t ) 4 X (s )
s
Y (s )
2. 5
2
4s
0.25s 0.4s 1
G( s )
Y (s )
10
s 0.25s 2 0.4s 1
A 10
y (t )max A(1 Overshoot )
y (t )max 10(1 0.2538)
y (t )max 12.538
Example 3.4 if X(t) = 3 is a step change in input, for the transfer function
10
G ( s) 2
find out overshoot, decay ratio, frequency and y(t)max.
2s 0.3s 0.5
Solution:
49
Weve
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10
2s 0.3s 0.5
10
G( s )
2
0.5( 4s 0.6s 1)
20
G( s ) 2
4s 0.6s 1
Comparing with
G( s )
G( s )
Kp
2s 2 2 s 1
we get ,
2 and
0.15
Overshoot exp
1 2
0.15
Overshoot exp
2
1 0.15
Overshoot 0.6209
Decay ratio (Overshoot )2
Decay ratio (0.6209)2
Decay ratio 0.3855
frequency ,
2 f
1 2
frequency , f 0.0787
y (t )max A(1 Overshoot )
y (t )max 60(1 0.6209)
y (t )max 97.254
50
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LINEAR CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
4.1 COMPONENTS OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Any control system may be divided into the following components:
1. Process
2. Measuring element
3. Controller
4. Final control element
For Example Figure show below is a sketch of
the apparatus. A liquid stream at a temperature
Ti enters an insulated, well-stirred tank at a
constant flow rate w (mass/time). It is desired to
maintain (or control) the temperature in the
tank at TR By means of the controller. If the
measured tank temperature Tm differs from the
desired temperature TR, the controller senses the difference or error, = TR Tm and
changes the heat input in such a way as to reduce the magnitude of . If the controller
changes the heat input to the tank by an amount that is proportional to , we have
proportional control.
The system shown in the above figure may be divided into the following components:
1. Process (stirred-tank heater).
2. Measuring element (thermometer).
3. Controller.
4. Final control element (variable transformer or control valve).
51
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4.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPONENTS
For computational purposes, it is convenient to represent the control system of by
means of the block diagram. Such a diagram makes it much easier to visualize the
relationships among the various signals.
Let represent the block diagram of the control system as shown in example 4.1, in the
next figure:
4.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION
These blocks are inter connected together and for arranging a complete control system.
In order to obtained the overall transfer function (the ratio of final output and input is
their Laplace transform), a procedure called block diagram reduction technique is
followed. Some of the important rules for reduction are as follows:
For more details
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