Instructor: Jurandir Primo, PE

2012

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Fairfax, VA 22030-6658
Phone & Fax: 703-988-0088
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HVAC Practical Basic Calculations

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HVAC PRACTICAL BASIC CALCULATIONS

HVAC (pronounced either "H-V-A-C" or, occasionally, "H-vak") is an acronym for Heating, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning. HVAC sometimes is referred to climate control as a process of treating air to control its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the requirements of the conditioned space.
The HVAC industry had been historically regulated by standards organizations such as ASHRAE,
SMACNA, ARI, ACCA, Uniform Mechanical Code, International Building Code, and AMCA established to
support the industry and encourage high standards and achievements.
The term ventilation is applied to processes that supply air to or remove air from a space by natural or
mechanical means. Such air may or may not be conditioned. An air conditioning system has to handle a
large variety of energy inputs and outputs in and out of the building where it is used.
The basic purpose of an HVAC system is to provide interior thermal conditions that a majority of
occupants will find acceptable. This simply require that air be moved at an adequate velocity. However,
occupant comfort will require that an HVAC system add or remove heat to or from building spaces.
Heat and temperature.
Heat: Heat may be defined as energy in transit from a high-temperature object to a lower-temperature
object. This heat transfer may occur by the mechanisms of conduction, convection and radiation.
Sensible heat: Kind of heat that increases the temperature of air. It is an expression of the molecular
excitation of a given mass of solid, liquid, or gas.
Latent heat: Heat that is present in increased moisture of air. It changes the matter from solid to liquid or
from liquid to gas. Heat that is required to change solid to liquid is called latent heat of fusion, and that
which is required to change liquid to gas is called latent heat of vaporization.
Enthalpy: Sum of sensible and latent heat of a substance e.g. the air in our environment is actually a
mixture air and water vapor. If the enthalpy of air is known, and the enthalpy of desired comfort condition is
also known, the difference between them is the enthalpy that must be added (by heating or humidification)
or removed (by cooling or dehumidification).
Temperature: A measure of the degree of heat intensity. The temperature difference between two points
indicates a potential for heat to move from the warmer point to the colder point. Unit in English system is
Fahrenheit, and in International System is Celsius.
Dry-bulb temperature (DB): The dry-bulb temperature is the temperature of air measured by a
thermometer freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation and moisture. More specifically, it is a
measure of the intensity of kinetic energy of the molecules in the air. It is one of "the most important
climate variables for human comfort and building energy efficiency.
Wet-bulb temperature (WB): The temperature registered by thermometer whose bulb is covered by a
wetted wick and exposed to a current of rapidly moving air. It is the temperature air would have if part of its
energy were used to evaporate the amount of water it would absorb to become fully saturated.
Dew point temperature: The temperature at which condensation begins when the air is cooled.
Relative humidity (RH) = (actual vapor pressure of air-vapor mixture/pressure of water vapor when the
air is completely saturated at the same DB temperature) x 100.

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Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by the motion of molecules of water vapor. It is dependent on
the amount of water vapor in the air and the temperature of the air.
Thermodynamics Basic Concepts.
The biggest problem in thermodynamics is the student to learn and recognize heat, work, force,
energy, power and other technical terms. So, it is very important to remember some concepts below:
Cal - The Cal is the standard unit of measurement for heat. The gram calorie, small calorie or calorie
(cal) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 19.5 C to
20.5 C under standard atmospheric pressure of 1.033 Kg/cm (14.7 psi).
Btu - British Thermal Unit. The Btu is the standard unit of measurement for heat. A Btu is defined as
the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 58.5F to 59.5F under
standard pressure of 30 inches of mercury (14.7 psi).
Energy Unit Conversions:
Unit
1 Btu

Multiply
0.252
107.7
778.7
0.00396
0.00000116
1000
3.9604

To obtain
kcal
Kgf.m
ft.lbf
Btu
kW.h
cal
Btu

Unit
1W

Multiply
0.001
0.00134
0.0002387
44.2
0.000948
0.000284

To Obtain
kW
hp
kcal/s
ft.lbf/min
Btu/s
ton (refrig)

Unit

Multiply

To Obtain

0.3002
1.055
1.435
106.6
778.8
0.001
0.000239
0.000239
0.000423
1.8
4186.8
4.1868
778.2

ton (refrig)
kW
hp
kgf.m/s
ft.lbf/s
kilojoule/kilogram/C = kJ/(kg.C)
kilocalorie /kilogram/C = kcal/(kg.C)
Btu/pound/F = Btu/(lb.F)
Btu/pound/C = Btu/(lb.C)
Btu/pound/C = Btu/(lb.C)
joule/kilogram/C = J/(kg.C)
kilojoule/kilogram/C = kJ/(kg.C)
pound-force.foot/pound/R

1Cal
1 kcal
Watt is the metric unit for power.

1 Btu/s

1 joule/kilogram/K = J/(kg.K) =
1 joule/kilogram/C = J/(kg.C) =

1 Btu/pound/F = Btu/(lbF)

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Obs.:
1 Watt = 1 Watt-Hour = 0.000948 (Btu/s) x 60 x 60 = 3.412 Btu/h
1 Btu/h = 0.293 Watt = 0.000293 kW
Celsius (also known as centigrade) is a temperature scale that is named after the Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius (17011744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his death. Then
nominally, 0 C was defined as the freezing point of water and 100 C was defined as the boiling point of
water, both at a pressure of one standard atmosphere (1.033 Kg/cm).
Fahrenheit is the temperature scale proposed in 1724 by, and named after, the physicist Daniel Gabriel
Fahrenheit (16861736). On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water was 32 degrees Fahrenheit
(F) and the boiling point 212 F at standard atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
Pressure (P) is the force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object.
Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the local atmospheric or ambient pressure.
Torr
(Torr)

pound-force
square
(psi)

Unit

Pascal
(Pa)

bar
(bar)

atmosphere
(atm)

1 Pa

1 N/m

0.00001

0.000009867 0.0075006

0.000145

1 bar

100000

106 dyn/cm2

0.9867

750

14.5

1 at

98066

0.980665

0.968

735.5

14.223

1 atm

101325

1.01325

1 atm

760

14.7

1 torr

133.322

0.013332

0.0013158

1 mmHg

0.0193

1 psi

0.006894

0.068948

0.068046

51.72

1 lbf/in

per
inch

Tons of Refrigeration:
For commercial and industrial refrigeration systems most of the world uses the kilowatt (kW) as the basic
unit refrigeration. Typically, commercial and industrial refrigeration systems are rated in Tons of
Refrigeration (TR).
One Ton of Refrigeration was defined as the energy removal rate that will freeze 1 ton of water at 0 C
(32 F) in one day, or, the amount of heat required to melt 1 ton of ice in 24 hours. The unit's value is
approximately 11,958 Btu/h (3.505 kW), redefined to be exactly:
1 Ton of Refrigeration = 12,000 Btu/h (3.517 kW) = 3024 Kcal/h
Metabolic rate.
Metabolic rate is measured in Met units. A Met is the average amount of heat produced by a sedentary
person (e.g. office work = 1 Met).
1 Met unit corresponds approximately: 360 Btu/h = 90,718 cal/h = 90.718 kcal/h.
Human beings are essentially constant-temperature creatures with a normal internal body temperature of
98.6F. Heat is produced in the body as result of metabolic activity.

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If the internal temperature rises or falls beyond its normal range, mental and physical operation is
jeopardized or affected, and if the temperature deviation is extreme, then serious physiological disorders or
even death can result.
Comfort Zone.
The comfort range of temperature during summer varies between 70 to 76F dry bulb temperatures and
45 - 65% relative humidity.
The comfort range during cold winters would be in the range of 65 to 68F dry bulb temperature and
relative humidity of a minimum of 30%.
Heat Transfer.
Conduction is the spontaneous transfer of thermal energy through matter, from higher temperature to
lower temperature, and acts to equalize temperature differences. It is also described as heat energy
transferred from one material to another by direct contact.
Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases. Convection is circulation of
a fluid or gas/air caused by temperature difference. Commonly an increase in temperature produces a
reduction in density.
Evaporation: It is exclusively a cooling mechanism. Evaporative losses become a predominant factor
when ambient temperatures are very high. When surrounding temperature is about 70F, most people lose
sensible heat.
Radiation is the only form of heat transfer that can occur in the absence of any form of medium; it means
heat transfers through a vacuum. Thermal radiation is a direct result of the movements of atoms and
molecules in a material.
Determinants of Thermal Comfort - Dry-bulb Temperature:
Thermal Comfort zone: It is an area plotted on the psychrometric chart. During summer the comfort
range of temperature varies between 70 to 76F dry bulb temperatures and 45 - 65% RH. During cold
winters the comfort condition would be in the range of 65 to 68F dry bulb temperature and relative
humidity of a minimum of 30%.
Humidity: Density of water vapor per unit volume of air is expressed in units of lbs. of water/ft of dry air.
Specific humidity = weight of water vapor per unit weight of dry air, expressed in grains/lb.
Relative Humidity (RH): Human tolerance to humidity variations: in winter is from 20 to 50%; in summer,
the range extends up to 60% @ 75F. High humidity causes condensation problems and reduces body
heat loss by evaporative cooling.
Psychrometrics Concepts.
Psychrometrics or psychrometry are terms used to describe the field of engineering concerned with the
determination of physical and thermodynamic properties of gas-vapor mixtures. The term derives from the
Greek psuchron meaning "cold" and metron meaning "means of measurement".
Thermodynamic properties of moist air are affected by atmospheric pressure. The standard temperature
is 59F and standard atmospheric pressure is 29.921 in-Hg (14.697 psi) at sea level.

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The apparent molecular mass or weighted average molecular weight of all components, for dry air is
28.9645, based on the carbon-12 scale.
The gas constant for water vapor is 1545.32/18.01528 = 85.778 ft-lb/lbR. The temperature and
barometric pressure of atmospheric air vary with altitude as well as with local geographic and weather
conditions.
Gravity is also assumed constant at the standard value, 32.1740 ft/s2.
Psychrometric chart.
A psychrometric chart is a graphical presentation of the thermodynamic properties of moist air and
various air-conditioning processes and air-conditioning cycles.
The most common chart is the temperature - humidity ratio (w) chart. The Dry Bulb Temperature
(DB) appears horizontally as the abscissa and the humidity ratios (w) appear as the vertical axis.
Abridged sample of psychrometric chart is shown below:

How to Read a Psychrometric Chart

Dry bulb temperature (DB): Verticals lines designate DB. A standard psychrometric chart for air
conditioning applications has a temperature range of 32 to 120F.
Wet bulb temperature (WB): Diagonals lines rising upward from left to right having negative slope slightly
greater than that of the h-lines. A wet bulb line meets the DB line of the same magnitude on the saturation
curve representing 100% RH.
Dew point temperature (DP): Follow the horizontal line from the point where the line from the horizontal
axis arrives at 100% RH, also known as the saturation curve. On a saturation curve the dry bulb, wet
bulb and dew point temperature (DP) have the same value.
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Relative humidity (RH%): Curved lines that radiate from lower left to upper right are RH lines. Horizontal
line at the bottom represents 0% RH; the uppermost curved line is 100% RH line.
Humidity ratio: Humidity ratio or specific humidity w-lines are horizontal lines on the Y-axis, they range
from 0 to 0.28 lb/lb. Humidity ratio is dimensionless, sometimes expressed as grams of water per
kilogram of dry air or grains of water/lb of air.
Specific enthalpy (h): Enthalpy lines incline downward to the right-hand side (negative slope) at an
angle of 23.5 to the horizontal line and have a range of 12 to 54 Btu/lb expressed in Btu/lb of air.
Specific volume (v): Specific volume lines are represented by the diagonal lines close to 90. The moist
volume ranges from 12.5 - 15 ft/lb, also called Inverse Density, is the volume per unit mass of the air.
Example:
An air-conditioned room at sea level has an indoor design temperature of 75F and a relative humidity of
50%. Determine the humidity ratio, enthalpy, density, dew point, and thermodynamic wet bulb
temperature of the indoor air at design condition.
Solution:
Find the room temperature 75F on the horizontal temperature scale. Draw a line parallel to the 75F
temperature line and establish the point where it meets the relative humidity curve of 50% at point (r). This
point denotes the state point of room air.
Draw a horizontal line toward the humidity ratio scale from point (r). This line meets the ordinate and
thus determines the room air humidity ratio w = 0.0093 lb/lb.
Draw a line from point (r) parallel to the enthalpy line. This line determines the enthalpy of room air on
the enthalpy scale, h = 28.1 Btu/lb.
Draw a line through point (r) parallel to the moist volume line. The perpendicular scale of this line
indicates v = 13.67 ft/lb.
Draw a horizontal line to the left from point (r). This line meets the saturation curve and determines the
dew point temperature, Tdew = 55F.
Draw a line through point (r) parallel to the wet bulb line. The perpendicular scale to this line indicates
that the thermodynamic wet bulb temperature (WB) = 62.5F.
Basic Psychrometrics Calculation.
There are hundreds of psychometrics charts and calculation spreadsheets to be downloaded. For the
examples below try http://www.linric.com/webpsy.htm

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Example 1. Calculate the air density, specific volume, and enthalpy in US units at the ambient conditions
of DB 87.8F, RH 80% and sea level.
Solution:
Air Density = 0.0714 lb/ft
Air Specific Volume = 14.32 ft/lb - dry air
Air Enthalpy = 46.35 Btu/lb - dry air
Example 2. Calculate the air density, specific volume, and enthalpy in US units at the ambient conditions
of DB 87.8F, RH 0% (Dry Air), and sea level.
Solution:
Air Density: 0.0723 lb/ft
Air Specific Volume: 13.8224 ft/lb - dry air
Air Enthalpy: 21.1196 Btu/lb - dry air
Example 3. Calculate the air density, specific volume, and enthalpy in US units at the ambient conditions
of DB 87.8F, RH 80%, and 1,000 feet in altitude.
Solution:
Air Density: 0.0688 lb/ft
Air Specific Volume: 14.8824 ft/lb - dry air
Air Enthalpy: 47.3494 Btu/lb - dry air
Basic Air Conditioning Calculations.
The air conditioning loads are the Sensible Heat Loads + Latent Heat Loads as explained below:

Sensible heat loads - Sensible heat gain is directly added to the conditioned space by conduction,
convection, and/or radiation. Sensible heat load is a total of:

a. Heat transmitted thru floors, ceilings, walls

b. Occupants body heat
c. Appliance & Light heat
d. Solar Heat gain thru glass
e. Infiltration of outside air
f. Air introduced by Ventilation

Latent Heat Loads - Latent heat gain occurs when moisture is added to the space from internal
sources or from outdoor air as a result of infiltration or ventilation to maintain proper indoor air
quality. Latent heat load is a total of:

a. Moisture-laden outside air form Infiltration & Ventilation

b. Occupant Respiration & Activities
c. Moisture from Equipment & Appliances

Humidity ratio or specific humidity - is dimensionless, sometimes expressed as grams of water

per kilogram of dry air or grains of water/lb of air.

1) Sensible Heat Loads:

A sensible heating process adds heat to the moist air in order to increase its temperature. The rate of heat
transfer from the hot water to the colder moist air is often called sensible heating, in Btu/h (kW), and is
calculated from the equation:
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Qsensible = m x Cp (To Ti) [Btu/h]

Where:
Q sensible = Sensible heat, (kW) (Btu/h)
m = Mass flow rate of air, (Kg/h) (lb/h)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of air (see tables), 0.24 Btu/lbF (1.01 Kcal/KgC)
air = Density of supply air, (Kg/m) (Lb/ft)
To, Ti = moist air temperature at final/initial states and the mass flow rate of supply air, (C) (F).
To maintain temperature requirements, the air inside a building keeps circulation through a cooling coil,
empirically determined by:
Qsensible = 1.08 x CFM (To Ti) [Btu/h]
Where:
CFM = Air circulation flow, CFM
Ti = Inside air temperature, F
To = Outside air temperature, F
The sensible heat loss from infiltration can also be calculated as:
Qsensible = 60 x CFM x air x Cp x (Ti To) [Btu/h]
Where:
Q = Heat loss in (Btu/h)
CFM = Volumetric air flow rate (CFM)
air = Density of the air (Ib/ft)
Cp = Specific heat capacity of air (see tables), 0.24 Btu/lbF (1.01 Kcal/KgC)
Ti = Inside air temperature (F)
To = Outside air temperature (F)
2) Latent Heat Loads:
The most commonly used method of removing water vapor from air (dehumidification) is to cool the air
below its dew point. The dew point of air is when it is fully saturated, at 100% saturation. The latent heat
to be removed is:
Qlatent = m x hfg x (Wo - Wi) [Btu/h]
Where:
Q = Cooling energy (kW) (Btu/h),
m = Mass flow rate of air (Kg/h) (Lb/h),
hfg = Latent heat of vaporization of water (see tables), 1060 Btu/lb (589 Kcal/Kg),
Wo, Wi = Moisture content of air (Kg/Kg) (lb/lb-dry air).
The amount of moisture added to the air must be removed through the cooling coil to maintain the humidity
requirements, determined by:
Qlatent = 4840 x CFM (Wo Wi)
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Where:
CFM = Air circulation flow, CFM
Wo = Outside moisture content of air (lb/lb-dry air)
Wi = Inside moisture content of air (lb/lb-dry air).
3) Humidity:
In a humidifying process, water vapor is added to moist air and increases the humidity ratio entering the
humidifier if the moist air is not saturated. The humidifying capacity is given by:
Hm = CFM x x (Ho Hi) [lb/min]
Where:
CFM = Volume flow rate of supply air, (CFM)
= Density of supply air, (lb/ft)
Ho, Hi = Moisture content of air at final and initial states, (Lb/lb of dry air).
Total heat loads are:
Qtotal = 4.5 x CFM x (Ho Hi) [Btu/h]
Where:
CFM = Volume flow rate of supply air, (CFM)
Ho, Hi = Moisture content of air at final and initial states, (Lb/lb of dry air).
Design Volume Flow Rate:
The design volume flow rate - V (Kg/m) (CFM) is calculated on the basis of the capacity to remove the
space cooling load at summer design conditions to maintain a required space temperature Tr:
V=

QTotal
60 x air x (Ho- Hi)

QSensible
60 x air x (To - Ti)

Where:
V = Design volume flow rate, (m/h) (CFM)
Q Total, Q Sensible = Design cooling load, (kW) (Btu/h)
air = Air density - may vary with air systems (see tables), (Kg/m) (lb/ft)
To = Room temperature - normally 75F (24C) - for comfort applications)
Ti = Supply air temperature leaving the cooling unit, (F) (C)
Ho = Room enthalpy Kg/Kg) (Lb/lb of dry air)
Hi = Supply air enthalpy Kg/Kg) (Lb/lb of dry air).
Total Refrigeration Load:
Since the sensible heat Qsensible and the latent heat Qlatent are known, the total Refrigeration Load
can be determined by:
RL = CFH x air x (Ho Hi) [Btu/h]
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Where:
CFH = Air flow in ft/h (CFM x 60)
air = Air density = 0.075 lb/ft
Hi = Enthalpy of the air - inside temperature
Ho = Enthalpy of the air outside temperature
OBS.:
CFM (Cubic feet per minute): amount of air that flows through a space in one minute. 1 CFM equals
approximately 2 liters/s (l/s). A typical system produces 400 CFM/ ton of air conditioning.
Constant of 4.5 = 1 CFM airflow, there are 60 units in an hour, then, 60 CFM = 4.5 lbs of air.
Constant of 1.08 = (Specific heat of air) 0.24 Btu/lb/F x 4.5 = 1.08 Btu/lb/F
Constant of 0.68 = 1060/7000 x 4.5 = 0.68 Btuh as, 1060 Btu/h is latent heat water vaporization.
Constant of 13.5 ft/lb dry air @ 70F, 50% RH = Specific volume of moist air
Heat Loss by Conduction

The different ways to calculate heat loss are: k values, C values, U values and "R" values.
1) k = Thermal Conductivity: Thermal conductivity means the rate of heat transfer through one inch
of a homogeneous material expressed in Btu-in/h.ft.F or Btu-ft/h. ft.F. Materials with lower
kvalues are better insulators.
Q=kxAxT/t
Where:
k = is thermal conductivity - see tables - (Btu-in/h ft F) or (Btu-ft/h ft F).
A = is the concerning rea, ft
T = average temperature difference across the material, (F)
t = thickness of a wall or some material (in)
Example:
Calculate the heat loss through a 3 thick insulation board that has an area of 2 ft and has a k-value of
0.25. Assume the average temperature difference across the material is 70F.
Q = k-value x A x T / t
Q = 0.25 (k) x 2 (ft) x 70F ( T)
3 (in)
Q = 35 / 3 = 11.66 Btu/h
Most good insulating materials have a kvalue of approximately 0.25 or less, and rigid foam insulations have
been developed with k factors as low as 0.12 to 0.15.

2) Specific Heat: is defined as the amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 gram of a substance
1C in temperature, or, the amount of energy needed to raise one pound of a substance 1F in
temperature.
Q = m x Cp. (To Ti)
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Where:
Q = Heat energy needed (Joules) (Btu),
m = Mass of a substance (Kg) (lb),
Cp = Specific heat of air (see tables), 0.24 Btu/lbF (1.01 Kcal/KgC)
(To Ti ) = Dry Bulb temperature of air change (C) (F)
Substances with higher specific heats require more heat energy to lower temperature than do
substances with a low specific heat.
Example:
Using metric units and imperial units, how much energy is required to heat 350 grams (0.77 pounds) of
gold from 10C (50F) to 50C (122F)?
Mass = 350g = 0.35 Kg = 0.77 lb
Specific heat of gold (see tables) = 0.129 J/(g.C) = 129 J/(Kg.C) x 0.000239 = 0.0308 Btu/(lb.F).
Q = m x Cp. (To Ti)
Metric Units:
Q = (0.35 Kg) (129 J/(Kg.C) (50C - 10C)
Q = 1806 J (1.71 Btu)
Q = m x Cp. (To Ti)
Imperial Units:
Q = (0.77 lb) (0.0308 Btu/(lb.F) (122F - 50F) =
Q = 1.71 Btu
OBS:
A greater means a smaller airflow rate (Kg/m) (CFM) for a given supply mass flow rate.
Greater the cooling load or sensible heat, Q Sensible, higher will be the airflow rate (Kg/m) (CFM).
3) C = Thermal Conductance: Thermal conductance is a specific factor is a heat transfer factor per
inch of thickness. The lower the C value, the better the insulator and the lower is the heat
loss.
The overall C value must not be additive because two insulating materials with a C-value of 0.5
each, the result will be 1.0.
4) U = Overall Coefficient of Heat Transmission: The U value is the rate of heat flow passing
through a square foot of a material per hour of each degree Fahrenheit difference in
temperature expressed in Btu/h. ft.F.
The U value is the inverse of the R value, (U = 1/R) since the lower the U factor, the
lower is the heat loss.
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5) R = Thermal Resistance: The thermal resistance R value is a measure to retard heat flow. By
definition, thermal resistance is the reciprocal of a heat transfer coefficient.
In other words, the R value is the inverse of the k value (R = 1/k), the C value (R = 1/C) and
the U value (U = 1/R).
Example:
Calculate the heat loss through a 100 ft wall with an inside temperature of 65F and an outside
temperature of 35F. The wall is composed of 2" thickness bricks having a k factor of 0.80. The
insulation is also 2" thickness having a C factor of 0.16.
Solution:
The U value is found as follows:
R total = 1/k + 1/C =
R total = 2/0.80 + 1/0.16 =
R total = 8.75, Then:
U = 1/8.75 = 0.114 Btu/h ft F
Once the U factor is known, the heat loss can be calculated by the basic heat transfer equation:
Q = A x U x (Ti To)
Q = 0.114 (Btu/h ft F) x 100 (ft) x [65 (F) - 35 (F)]
Q = 0.114 x 100 x 30
Q = 342 Btu/h
Basic Calculations of Overall Coefficient of Heat Transmission - U
The basic equation to calculate the Overall Coefficient of Heat Transmission (U) is:
U = 1/R Total
Or
U=

1
Ri + R1 + R2 + . . .Ro

Where:
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Ri = the resistance of a "boundary layer" of air on the inside surface;

R1, R2 = the resistance of each component of the walls, according to thickness of the component;
Ro = the resistance of the "air boundary layer" on the outside surface of the wall.
Example:
Determine the U value and the heat loss through a 100 ft wall with a 70 F temperature difference for a
layered wall. The construction is composed of plywood 0.75-inch thick (U = 1.25, expanded polystyrene
2-inches thick (U = 4.00) and hardboard 2-inches thick (U = 0.18).
Solution:
Inside air is assumed as Ri = 0.68
Plywood, 0.75-inch thick - (R1 = 0.75 X 1.25 = 0.94)
Expanded polystyrene, 2-inches thick - (R2 = 2" X 4.00 = 8.00)
Hardboard, 0.25-inch thick - (R3 = 0.18)
Outside air at 15 mph wind velocity is assumed as Ro = 0.17.
U=

1
Ri + R1 + R2 + R3 + Ro

U=

1
0.68 + 0.94 + 8.0 + 0.18 + 0.17

U=

1
9.97

U=

0.10 Btu/h ft F

The heat loss Q for a 100 ft of wall with a 70 F temperature difference will be:
Q=AxUxT=
Q = 100 x 0.10 x 70 =
Q = 700 Btu/h
HVAC Heating Loss Calculations
The heat loss is divided into two groups:
1) The conductive heat losses through the building walls, floor, ceiling, glass, or other surfaces;
2) The convective infiltration losses through cracks and openings, or heat required to warm outdoor
air used for ventilation.
The heat loss is determined by the basic equation:
Q = A x U x (To Ti) = A x U x T
Where:
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Q = Total hourly rate of heat loss through walls, roof, glass, etc (Btu/h);
U = Overall heat-transfer coefficient of walls, roof, ceiling, floor, or glass (Btu/h.ft.F);
A = Net area of walls, roof, ceiling, floor, or glass (ft);
Ti = Inside design temperature (F);
To = Outside design temperature (F).
T = To Ti (F)
Net Area (A):
The net area of each building section is determined from drawings or measurements considering the areas
of the four walls, floor, and ceiling, doors and windows. We will also need to determine the volume of the
building to estimate the rate of infiltration into the building measured in air changes per hour (ACH).
Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer (U):
The U-value measures how well a building component (wall, roof or a window), keeps heat inside a
building. It is an indicator of how easy it is to keep the inside of the building cold. A house built with low Uvalue building components will use less energy and thus using less energy is good for the environment.
The inside design temperature is traditionally taken as 65F. The temperature difference between the
inside and outside of the building is the primary cause of heat loss in the winter months.
Outside Design Temperature (To):
The winter month heating load conditions are based on annual percentiles of 99.6 and 99%, which
suggests that the outdoor temperature is equal to or lower than design data 0.4% and 1% of the time
respectively. Then, commonly the outside design temperature (To) is 4F.
Example:
What is the value of the heat loss for a 10 ft building with a single glass [U-value of 1.13] with an inside
temperature of 70F and an outside temperature of 0:
Q = A (10) x U (1.13) x T (70 - 0) = 791 Btu/hr
Calculate the heat loss through each of the components separately and then add their heat losses together
to get the total amount.
Q (wall) =Q (framed area) +Q (windows) +Q (door)
Heat Conduction and Thermal Resistance:
The heat conducted through a plane wall is:
Qw =

k x A (t1 - t2)
L

[Btu/h]

Where:
k = Thermal conductivity of the wall material, Btu-in/h ft F
A = Area of the wall, ft
t1, t2 = Temperature difference of the wall, F
L = Wall thickness, inches
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The same equation in terms of thermal resistance is:

Qw =

A (To - Ti)
R

= A x U (To Ti) - Btu/h

Heat Loss due Air Changes and Ventilation:

To calculate this, you need to know how many times per hour the entire air in the building space is lost to
outside referred to as air changes per hour or ACH. The infiltration can be considered to be 0.15 to 0.5
ACH at winter design conditions.
1) Ventilation rate based on Air Change method:
V = ACH x A x H / 60
Where:
V = Ventilation air (CFM) (m/h);
ACH = Air changes per hour (ACH) 0.15 to 0.5 CFM/ft
A = Area of the space (ft) (m);
H = Height of the room (ft) (m).
2) Ventilation rate based on Crack method:
V=IxA
Where:
V = Ventilation air (CFM) (m/h);
I = Infiltration rate usually 0.15 CFM/ft
A = Area of cracks/openings (ft) (m);
3) Ventilation rate based on Occupancy method:
V = N x 20
Where:
V = Ventilation air, (CFM) (m/h);
N = Number of people in space - usually 1 person per 100 ft office;
20 = Recommended ventilation rate is 20 CFM/person (34 m/h) - (ASHRAE 62 standard for IAQ).
Typical concrete frames:
For a typical 2 x 4 concrete frame wall with polystyrene insulation and drywall, there are five thermal
resistance layers due to convection and radiation.
Ri = 6.0 Btu/h ft F - then, 1/Ri = 1/6.0 Btu/h ft F
Ro = 1.63 Btu/h ft F - then, 1/Ro = 1/1.63 Btu/h ft F
So, the thermal resistance equation is:
R = Ri + R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + Ro
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Practical Example:
A building, 35.0 ft wide, 73.0 ft long and 8.0 ft high, is constructed with concrete 4 inches thick and
polystyrene insulation 2 inches thick on each side. The building has a total of 4 windows east, 16
windows north measuring 2.5 ft by 4 ft. Roof and ceiling are frame construction. The conditions are:
Inside: (Ti)
Dry bulb temperature = 80 F
Relative Humidity = 50%
Outside: (To)
Dry bulb temperature = 95 F
Dew Point = 75 F DP (dew point)
Ventilation:
Supply air = 65 F - Dry bulb temperature.
Air Handling Unit (AHU) = Assume 4,000 CFM per AHU
Others:
Average electrical usage = 1.0 watts/ft
Human activity per person = 180 Btu/h
Infiltration rate, assume = 20 CFM
Air density (air) = 0.075 lb/ft, at 80F, sea level.
The Thermal Conductivities k, the Thermal Resistances R, and the Overall Heat Transfer
Coefficient U are shown in table below.
Material

k (Btu-in/ h ft F)

Siding
Polystyrene wall side 1 (2.0 in)
Polystyrene wall side 2 (2.0 in)
Concrete (4.0 in)
Drywall
Pine 2 x 4
Insulation
Sheathing (0.5 in)
Glass
Framed roof and ceiling

R (Btu/h ft F)

U (Btu/h ft F)

1.0
0.17
0.17
10.0
0.45
0.8
0.28
0.8
1.13
0.23

Considering that for a typical 2 x 4 concrete frame wall:

Ri = 1/Ri = 1/6.0 Btu/h ft F
Ro = 1/Ro = 1/1.63 Btu/h ft F
The thermal resistance of a 4-inches concrete wall with 2-inches insulation is:
Rtotal = Ri + R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + Ro =
Rtotal =

1.0
6.0

1
+ 2.0 + 4.0 + 0.45 +
0.17
0.17
10

1
1.63

R = 26.0 Btu/h ft F
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1) Sensible Loads:
The heat conducted through the wall area minus the windows area is:
Qwindows = A(To Ti) = [(Abuilding Awindows) x (To Ti)] =
R
R
East wall - Qw = [(8.0 x 35.0) - 4(2.5x4.0)] x (95 - 80) / 26 = 138 Btu/h
North wall - Qw = [(8.0 x 73.0) - 16(2.5x4.0)] x (95 - 80) / 26 = 245 Btu/h
Qwindows = 383 Btu/h
There are 20 windows, 10 ft each, the total glass area is 200 ft, considering that glass U = 1.13, the
heat conducted through the glass is given by equation:
Qwindows = A x U x (To Ti)
Qwindows = 200 x 1.13 (95 - 80) = 3390 Btu/h
The infiltration of outside air through cracks around windows and doors, a leakage rate of 20 CFM
assumed. The resulting sensible or infiltration heat gain inside is:
Qinfiltration = 1.08 x CFM (To Ti)
Qinfiltration = 1.08 (20) (95 - 80) = 330 Btu/h
For the medium size building considered here, the reference for average electrical usage is 1.0 watts/ft.
The heat gain from electrical appliances and lights is:
Remember:
1 Watt = 1 Watt-Hour = 0.000948 (Btu/s) x 60 x 60 = 3.412 Btu/h
Qlight = 3.412 x A
Qlight = 3.412 x (35.0 ft x 73.0 ft) = 8717 Btu/h
The sensible heat according to estimated for light activity is 200 Btu/h per person. For twenty people in
the building, this gives a heat gain of:
Qoccupancy = 20 (200) = 4000 Btu/h
The heat conducted through the frame ceiling is:
Qceiling = A x U x (To Ti) =
Qceiling = (35.0 x 73) x 0.23 x (95 80) = 8815 Btu/h
Adding all the heat gains the total Qsensible load is:
Qsensible = 383 + 3390 + 8717 + 330 + 4000 + 8815 =
Qsensible = 25635 Btu/h
2) Latent Loads:
For light activity, people produce a latent gain of about 180 Btu/h per person, so for twenty persons:
Qlatent light = 20 (180) = 3600 Btu/h
Kitchen appliances add latent heat to the building as estimated below:
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Dishwater = 420 Btu/h

Gas Oven = 1200 Btu/h
Coffee maker = 2 x 1540 = 3080 Btu/h
Qkitchen = 4700 Btu/h
The infiltration humidity load is determined by:
Qlatent = 4840 x CFM (Wo Wi) =
Using the online WebPsych can be found that 80oF/50% RH at sea level the air contains:
Inside: (Wi)
Dry bulb temperature = 80 F
Relative Humidity = 50%
Wi = 76.8 gr/lb
Since there are 7,000 grains of moisture per pound so we have:
Wi = 76.76 = approximately 0.011 lb of moisture/lb of air or pounds of moisture per pound of air.
7000
Outside: (Wo)
Dry bulb temperature = 95 F
Dew Point = 75 F
Wo = 131.81 gr/lb
Using the same considerations above:
Wo = 131.81 = approximately 0.019 lb of moisture/lb of air or pounds of moisture per pound of air.
7000
Since that a leakage rate of 20 CFM is assumed, the resulting latent heat gain inside is:
Qlatent = 4840 x CFM (Wo Wi) =
Qlatent = 4840 x 20 (0.019 0.011) = 774 Btu/h
Adding all the heat gains the total Qlatent load is:
Qlatent = 3600 + 4700 + 774 = 9074 Btu/h
Calculate the Refrigeration Load:
RL = CFH x air (Ho Hi) =

First find Hi and Ho using the online WebPsych, as below:

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Entering with the values:

Inside: (Ti)
Dry bulb temperature = 80 F
Relative Humidity = 50%
Hi = 31.2 Btu/h
Outside: (To)
Dry bulb temperature = 95 F
Dew Point = 75 F
Ho = 43.5 Btu/h

Second find the ventilation flow:

Qsensible = 1.08 x CFM (To Ti) =

Therefore,
CFM = Qsensible
1.08 (To Ti)
CFM = 25635 = 1582
1.08 (15)
CFH = 1582 x 60 = 94920 ft/hr
The Refrigeration Load is:
RL = CFH x air (Ho Hi) =
RL = 94920 x 0.075 (43.5 31.2) = 87564 Btu/h
The Total Heat Loads is:
Qtotal = 4.5 x CFM x (Ho Hi) [Btu/h]
Qtotal = 4.5 x 1582 x (43.5 31.2) = 87564 Btu/h (= RL)
Considering the Total Heat Load (or Refrigeration Load) as Sensible Heat Load, the air conditioning loads
are the Sensible Heat Loads + Latent Heat Loads as explained above, then:
Qload = Qsensible + QLatent =
Qload = 87564 + 9074 = 96638 Btu/h
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Calculating in Tons of Refrigeration:

TR = 96638 = 8.0 tons
12000
The equipment size is based on the tons of cooling required, and a typical system produces 400 CFM/ ton
of air conditioning:
Since, 1 ton of cooling = 12000 Btu/h = 400 CFM/ton, as explained above:
CFM(equipment) = 96638 x 400 = 3221 CFM
12000
The system assumes 4000 CFM per Air Handling Unit (AHU), then:
TR = 4000 CFM = 10 tons = 1 Unit
400 CFM/ton
kW = 10 TR x 3.517 = ~35 kW
Obs.:
An air handler, or air handling unit (abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to condition and circulate air
as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning system. Air handlers usually connect to ductwork that
distributes the conditioned air through the building and returns it to the AHU.

Cooling Load Concepts:

Design cooling loads take into account all the loads experienced by a building under a specific set of
assumed conditions. The assumptions for cooling loads are as follows:
a. Weather conditions are selected from a long-term statistical database, representative of the location
of the building. ASHRAE has tabulated such data.
b. The solar loads on the building are assumed on a clear day in the month for calculations.
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c. The building occupancy is assumed to be at full design capacity.

d. The ventilation rates are assumed on air changes or maximum occupancy expected.
e. All building equipment and appliances are considered to be operating.
f. Lights and appliances are considered for a typical day of design occupancy.
g. Latent as well as sensible loads are considered.
CLTD/SCL/CLF METHOD OF LOAD CALCULATION
CLTD is a theoretical temperature difference for combined effects of inside and outside air temperature
difference, daily temperature range, solar radiation and heat storage. It is affected by orientation, month,
day, hour, latitude, etc.
CLTD factors are used for adjustment to conductive heat gains from walls, roof, floor and glass.
SCL factors are used for adjustment of heat gains from glass.
CLF - radiant energy that enters the conditioned space at a particular time does not become a part of the
cooling load instantly, calculated as functions of solar time and orientation and are available in the form of
tables in ASHRAE Handbooks.
CLF factors are used for adjustment to heat gains from internal loads such as lights, occupancy and
power appliances.
Basic Equations:
The basic conduction equation for heat gain is Q = U x A x T.
Where:
Q = Heat gain in Btu/hr
U = Thermal Transmittance for roof in Btu/h.ft.F
A = Area of in ft
T = Temperature difference in F
The heat gain is converted to cooling load using the functions (sol-air temperature) for light, medium and
heavy thermal characteristics. The equation is modified as:
Q = U * A * (CLTD) =
Where:
Q = Cooling load, Btu/hr
U = Coefficient of heat transfer roof or wall or glass, Btu/hr.ft.F
A = Area of roof, ft
CLTD = Cooling load temperature difference F from tables in AHSRAE Fundamentals Handbook.
CLTD

Corrected

ASHRAE Method:

The ASHRAE tables provide hourly CLTD values for one typical set of conditions. Outdoor maximum
temperature of 95F with mean temperature of 85C and daily range of 21F, the equation is adjusted to
correction factors, then:
Q = U x A x CLTD

Corrected

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The typical equation for Roofs and Walls are:

CLTD

Corrected

= CLTD + (78 TR) +(TM 85)

Where:

(78 TR) = Indoor design temperature correction

(TM 85) = Outdoor design temperature correction
TR = Indoor room temperature
TM = Mean outdoor temperature = Tmax (Daily Range)
2
EXAMPLE:
Estimate the cooling load using the Cooling Load Temperature Difference / Solar Cooling Load/ Cooling
Load Factor (CLTD/SCL/CLF) method.
Given:
Type of building = Office
Working = 8 hrs of working - 9.00 to 17.00 hrs
Room Length x Width = 16 ft x 16 ft
Room Height = 15 ft
Window area = 20 % of the wall area
Roof/Walls: U= 0.2 Btu/h.ft. F
Windows: U= 0.55 Btu/h.ft.F
Occupancy = 2 persons per room
Design Conditions:
Indoor design Dry-bulb = 78 F
Outdoor design dry-bulb = 90 F(max)
Outdoor design wet-bulb = 75 F
Daily Range = 20 F
Room Considerations Roof and Walls:
Room area is (16 x 15) = 240 ft
Window area for each wall is (16 x 15 x 0.2) = 48 ft
Net area for each wall is 240 ft - 48 ft (window) =192 ft
Calculation of Room CLTD Correction:
CLTD = CLTD + (78 TR) +(TM 85) =
C

TR = Indoor design temperature = 78F

TM = Outdoor design dry bulb temperature - (Daily range /2) = 90 - (20 / 2) = 90 -10 = 80
Therefore:
CLTD = CLTD + (78 - 78) + (80 - 85) = (CLTD 5)
C

Calculation of Heat Load due to Conduction from 9.00 to 17.00:

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Time of
Day
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00

PDHonline Course M378

CLTD*

CLTDc = (CLTD 5)

Q = U * A * CLTDc

9
9
9
10
10
11
12
14
15

4
4
4
5
5
6
7
9
10

154
154
154
192
192
230
269
346
384

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*CLTD = from tables in AHSRAE Fundamentals Handbook

2

U = 0.2 Btu/h.ft .F
A = 192 ft

Calculation of Radiation Load through the Windows from 9.00 to 17.00:

Q (Btu/hr) = U (Btu/hft F) x A (ft) x CLTDc
U = 0.55 Btu/h.ft F
Q (Btu/hr) = A x SC x SCL =
A = Glass area = 48 ft
SC = Shading Coefficient (ASHRAE Table 19-05F31.48)
SCL = Solar Cooling Load Factor (ASHRAE Table 36-89F26.41)
Time of
Day
9.00
10.00
11.00
12.00
13.00
14.00
15.00
16.00
17.00

SCL

SC

Q = A x SC x SCL

27
30
33
34
35
34
32
29
29

0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72

933
1037
1140
1175
1210
1175
1106
1002
1002

Calculation of Internal Load for People:

Q sensible (Btu/hr) = N (number of people) x SHG (Btu/hr) x CLF
Q latent (Btu/hr) = N (number of people) x LHG (Btu/hr)
SHG = Sensible heat gain
LHG = Latent heat gain
N = 2 persons per room
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Practical Review:
Example:
Calculate the U-values and the Heat Loss through the various components with the following data:
Given:

Dry-bulb temperature = 70F

Outside Temperature = 22 F
Dew point for the cooled air = 50F
Relative humidity = 40%

1) Horizontal Roof - Roof area = 1200 ft:

Built-up roofing, 0.375" thick - Rb1 = 0.33 Btu/h.ft.F;

3" extruded polystyrene insulation smooth skin surface Rb2 =15 Btu/h.ft.F;
3/4" plywood panels deck - Rb3 = 0.93 Btu/h.ft.F
Non reflective air space (Tmean = 50F, DT = 10F) (air space 3.5) - Rb4 = 0.93 Btu/h.ft.F;
0.5" gypsum board Rb5 = 0.45 Btu/h.ft.F;
0.5" acoustical ceiling tile Rb6 = 1.25 Btu/h.ft.F.
2) Walls Walls area = 1000 ft:

4" common face brick, density: 130 lb/ft 3 Rw1 = 0.56 Btu/h.ft.F
0.5" air space, 50F mean and 10F temperature difference Rw2 = 2.54 Btu/h.ft.F
0.5" nail-base sheathing with bright aluminum foil to air space - Rw3 = 1.06 Btu/h.ft.F
3.5glass fiber batt insulation(3.5) Rw4 = 12.98 Btu/h.ft.F
0.5" gypsum board Rw5 = 0.45 Btu/h.ft.F

And,
Outside air film (15 mph) Ri = 0.17
Inside air film (vertical surface) - Ro = 0.68
Also,

Windows clear glass, double pane with 0.5" air space, area 210 ft, U-value = 0.64 Btu/h.ft.F;
Door, 1 3/4" solid core with metal, area 24 ft, U-value = 0.26 Btu/h.ft.F.
Assume infiltration - Air change = 0.6 for building volume = 12000 ft.
Assume ten people in the building, 20 CFM per person.

Using the webpsy/linric for dry-bulb temperature 70F and relative humidity 40% is found:
Wb = 55.76 F wb
Hi = 23.60 Btu/lb
Dp = 44.60 F dp
Wi = 43.66 gr/lb / 7000 = 0.0062 lb/lb dry air
Using the webpsy/linric for dry-bulb temperature 70F and dew point 50F for cooled air is found:

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Wb = 58,18 F wb
RH = 49,02 % RH
Ho = 25,15 Btu/lb
Wo = 53.62 gr/lb / 7000 = 0.0076 lb/lb dry air

1) Determination of the Roof (U-Value) R:

Solution:

Outside air film (15 mph) Rbi = 0.17

Built up Roofing (0.375") - 1/C = 1/3 - Rb1= 0.33
3" Extruded Polystyrene Insulation (smooth surface) x/k = 3/0.2 - Rb2 = 15.00
3/4" plywood deck - 1/1.07 - Rb3= 0.93
Non reflective air space (Tmean = 50F, DT = 10F) (air space 3.5) - Rb4 = 0.93
0.5" gypsum board - 1/2.22 - Rb5 = 0.45
0.5" acoustical tile - 1/0.8 Rb6 = 1.25
Inside air film (vertical surface) - Rbo = 0.68

Total (U-Value) - Rtot = 19.74

1/Rtot = 1/19.74 = 0.0506 Btu/h.ft.F
2) Determination of the Walls (U-Value) R:
Solution:

Outside air film Rwi = 0.17

4" Common Face Brick Rw1 = 0.56
0.5" air space (Tmean = 50F, DT = 10F) Rw2 = 2.54
0.5" nail - base sheathing w/ aluminum foil Rw3 = 1.06
3.5" glass fiber batt insulation Rw4 = 12.98
0.5" gypsum board Rw5 = 0.45
Inside air film (For a vertical surface) Rwo = 0.68

Total (U-Value) - Rtot = 18.44

1/Rtot = 1/18.44 = 0.054 Btu/h.ft.F
3) Determination of Heat Loss through the roof - area of 1200 ft:
Ti = 70F, To = 22F, A = 1200 ft
Q = Uvalue x Aroof x (Ti - To) =
Qroof = 0.0508 x 1200 x (48) = 2926.08 Btu/h
4) Determination of Heat Loss through the walls - area of 1000 ft:
Ti = 70F, To = 22F, A = 1000 ft
Qwall = Uvalue x Awall x (Ti - To) =
Qwall = 0.054 x 1000 x (70 - 22) = 2592 Btu/h
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5) Determination of Heat Loss - windows clear glass, double pane, 0.5" air space:
Solution:
Window area = 210 ft, U-value = 0.64 Btu/h.ft.F, Ti = 70F To = 22F
Qwindow = U x A x (Ti - To) =
Qwindow = 0.64 x 210 x (48) = 6451.20 Btu/h
6) Determination of Heat Loss - door, 1 3/4" solid core with metal:
Solution:
Door Area = 24 ft, U-value = 0.26 Btu/h.ft.F, Ti = 70F To = 22F
Qdoor = U x A x (Ti - To) =
Qdoor = 0.26 * 24 * (48) = 299.52 Btu/h
7) Determination of heat loss by infiltration - Air change = 0.6, Building Volume: 12000 ft:
a) Sensible Heat Loss:
Qs = 1.08 x VCFM x (Ti - To) =
VCFM = (0.6*12000) / 60 = 120 CFM
Qsensible-inf. = 1.08 * 120 * 48 = 6220.80 Btu/h
b) Latent Heat Loss:
Qlatent-inf. = 4840 x VCFM x (Wo - Wi) =
Qlatent = 4840 x 120 x (0.0076 0.0062) = 813.12 Btu/h
8) Determination of Heat Loss by Ventilation - ten people, 20 CFM per person:
VCFM = 10 persons x 20 CFM = 200 CFM
Qsensible-vent. = 1.08 * VCFM * (Ti - To) =
Qsensible-vent = 1.08 * 200 * 48 = 10368 Btu/h.
Qlatent-vent. = 4840 * VCFM * (Wi - Wo) =
Qlatent-vent = 4840 x 200 x (0.0076 0.0062) = 1355.20 Btu/h
9) Total Heat Loss through the Building:
Qroof = 2926.08 Btu/h
Qwall = 2592 Btu/h
Qwindow = 6451.20 Btu/h
Qdoor = 299.52 Btu/h
Qsensible-inf. = 6220.80 Btu/h
Qlatent-inf = 813.12 Btu/h
Qsensible-vent = 10368 Btu/h
Qlatent-vent = 1355.20 Btu/h
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Total Heat Loss = 31026 Btu/h

Since, 1 ton = 12,000 Btu/h:
Therefore, 31026/12,000 = 2.56 tons - select a 3.0 ton Air Handling Unit (AHU) for heating.
Sizing Ducts:
Air speed in a duct can be expressed as:
v=Q/A=
Where:
v = Air velocity (m/s)
Q = Air volume (m3/s)
A = Cross section of duct (m2)
The Velocity Method:
Proper air flow velocities for the application considering the environment are selected. Sizes of ducts are
then given by the continuity equation like:
A=q/v
Where:
A = Duct cross sectional area (m2)
q = Air flow rate (m3/s)
v = Air speed (m/s)
Imperial units:
Ai = 144 qi / vi =
Where:
A = Duct cross sectional area (in)
qi = Air flow rate (CFM)
vi = Air speed (FPM)
Imperial Units:
The velocity of air in a ventilation duct can also be expressed:
vi = qi / Ai = 576 qi / ( di2) = 144 qi / (ai bi) =
Where:
vi = Air velocity (FPM)
qi = Air flow (CFM)
Ai = Area of duct (ft)
di = Diameter of duct (inches)
ai = Width of duct (inches)
bi = Width of duct (inches)
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SI units:
vm = qm / Am = 4 qm / ( dm2) = qm / (am bm) =
Where:
vm = Air velocity (m/s)
qm = Air flow (m3/s)
Am = Area of duct (m2)
dm = Diameter of duct (m)
am = Width of duct (m)
bm = Width of duct (m)
Pressure loss in ducts can be expressed as:
Dpt = dpf + dps + dpc =
Where:
Dpt = Total pressure loss in system psi (Pa, N/m2)
dpf = Major pressure loss in ducts due to friction psi (Pa, N/m2)
dps = Minor pressure loss in fittings, bends etc. psi (Pa, N/m2)
dpc = Minor pressure loss in components as filters, heaters etc. psi (Pa, N/m2)
Pressure loss in ducts due to friction can be expressed as:
Dpf = R l
Where:
R = Duct friction resistance per unit length - psi/ duct ft (Pa, N/m2 per m duct)
l = Length of duct inches (m)
Duct friction resistance per unit length can be expressed as:
R = / Dh ( v2 / 2) =
Where:
R = Pressure loss psi (Pa, N/m2)
= Friction coefficient
Dh = Hydraulic diameter inches (m)
A proper velocity will depend on the application and the environment. The table below indicate commonly
used velocity limits:
Type of Duct
Main ducts
Main branch
ducts
Branch ducts

Comfort Systems
m/s
FPM
4-7
780 - 1380

Industrial Systems
m/s
FPM
8 - 12
1575 - 2360

High Speed Systems

m/s
FPM
10 - 18
1670 - 3540

3-5

590 - 985

5-8

985 - 1575

6 - 12

1180 - 2360

1-3

200 - 590

3-5

590 - 985

5-8

985 - 1575

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Obs.:
Be aware that high velocities close to outlets and inlets may generate unacceptable noise. Maximum air
velocity in the ducts should be kept below certain limits to avoid unacceptable generation of noise.

The values from the table below can be used to rough sizing of ducts in comfort, industrial and high speed
ventilation systems. Commonly, the accepted duct velocities can be found in the table below:
Velocity - v
Service
Air intake from outside
Heater connection to fan
Main supply ducts
Branch supply ducts
Supply registers and grilles
Low level supply registers
Main extract ducts
Branch extract ducts

Public buildings
(m/s)
2.5 - 4.5
3.5 - 4.5
5.0 - 8.0
2.5 - 3.0
1.2 - 2.3
0.8 - 1.2
4.5 - 8.0
2.5 - 3.0

FPM
500 - 900
700 - 900
1000 - 1500
500 - 600
250 - 450
150 - 250
900 - 1500
500 - 600

Industrial plant
(m/s)
5-6
5-7
6 - 12
4.5 - 9
1.5 - 2.5

FPM
1000 - 1200
1000 - 1400
1200 - 2400
900 - 1800
350 - 500

6 - 12
4.5 - 9

1200 - 2400
900 - 1800

Temperature loss in ducts:

The heat loss from a duct can be expressed as:
H = A k (To + Ti) / (2 - Tr) = (a)
Where:
H = Heat loss Btu (W)
A = Area of duct walls sq. inches (m2)
Ti = Initial temperature in duct - F (oC)
To = Final temperature in duct - F (oC)
k = Heat Transfer Coefficient = (5.68 W/m2 K for sheet metal ducts, 2.3 W/m2 K for insulated ducts)
k = Heat Transfer Coefficient = (1.0 Btu/h.ft.F - for sheet metal ducts, 0.4 Btu/h.ft.F for insulated ducts)
Tr = Surrounding room temperature - F (oC)
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The heat loss in the air flow can be expressed as:

H = q cP (To - Ti) = (b)
Where:
q = Mass of air flowing lb/s (kg/s)
cP = Specific heat capacity of air Btu/lb. F (kJ/kg K)
Formulae (a) and (b) can be combined to:
H = A k (To + Ti) / 2 - Tr) = q Cp (To - Ti) = (c)
Air Ducts Friction Loss Diagram:

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Example: Friction Loss in Air Duct:

The friction loss in a 20 inches duct with air flow 4000 CFM can be estimated to approximately 0.23
inches water per 100 feet duct as shown in the diagram below. The air velocity can be estimated to
approximately 1850 FPM.
The diagram is based on standard air 0.075 lb/ft in clean round galvanized metal ducts.
Obs.:
1 inch water = 248.8 N/m (Pa) = 0.0361 lb/in (psi) = 25.4 kg/m = 0.0739 in mercury
1 ft/min (CFM) = 1.7 m/h = 0.47 l/s
1 ft/min (FPM) = 0.00508 m/s
Chillers and Air Handling Unit (AHU):
Chillers provide cooling of the chilled water which is then used in the air cooling coils for air conditioning,
while AH Units provide cooling by direct expansion of the refrigerant in the air cooling coils.
In general AH Units are used for relatively small capacity systems and chillers are used for relatively
large capacity systems. Typically an AHU system is not used for systems larger than 100 ton capacity.
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Further variations of applications are as follows:

Typically chillers are package units on one skid, with the water piping system being external to the unit.
The package unit includes the compressor, condenser, evaporator and associated components.
AH Units are available in following major categories, based on the type of the compressor and packaged
or split design:
Reciprocating or scroll compressor package units (condenser, compressor & evaporator are on the
same skid).
Reciprocating or scroll compressor split systems (condenser, compressor, evaporator are located at
separate locations - many systems have the condenser + compressor on the same skid as condensing
unit, and the evaporator is located separately)
The condenser for both AH Units and chillers can be air cooled or water cooled for relatively smaller
sizes. For the larger units the condenser is typically water cooled.
Chiller & AH Unit Sizing Rules:
AH Unit Type Reciprocating or Scroll:
Capacity range for package units 0.5 to 150 Tons
Capacity range for split units 1 to 70 Tons
Power 0.9 to 1.3 KW / Ton
Min Capacity Turndown capability depends on number of cylinders
Chiller Type Reciprocating:
Capacity range 15 to 100 Tons
Power 0.9 to 1.3 KW / Ton
Min Capacity Turndown capability depends on number of cylinders
Chiller Type Scroll:
Capacity range 10 to 150 Tons
Power 0.9 to 1.3 KW / Ton
Min Capacity Turndown capability depends on number of cylinders
Chiller Type Rotary Screw:
Capacity range 70 to 500 Ton
Power 1 to 1.5 KW / Ton
Min Capacity Turndown capability 25%
Chiller Type Centrifugal:
Capacity range 200 Ton to 2000 Ton
Power 0.5 to 0.85 KW / Ton
Min Capacity Turndown capability 10%
Chiller Type Absorption:
Capacity range 100 Ton to 2000 Ton
Heat 12000 Btuh/Ton (gas/oil), 12000 18000 Btuh/Ton (steam/hot water).
Min Capacity Turndown capability 10%

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Obs.:
The air cooling coil in AH Units and the chilled water heat exchanger in chillers are also called an
"Evaporator" since evaporations of the liquid refrigerant occurs in these components.
Centrifugal compressor chillers (used for medium to large capacity applications);
Screw compressor chillers (used for medium capacity applications);
Reciprocating compressor chillers (used for small to medium capacity applications);
Scroll compressor chillers (used for small to medium capacity applications);
Refrigerants:
In general the most common refrigerants used in the industry belong to the following three categories:

CFC - These are the Chloro Fluoro Carbon refrigerants, such as R11, R12, R113, R114, identified
as the most harmful to Ozone layer by the Montreal Protocol, and were phased out in 2000.

The R12 is used commonly in the older cars for air conditioning.

HCFC - These are the Hydro Chloro Fluoro Carbon refrigerants, such as R22, R123, etc, identified
as slightly harmful to the Ozone layer by Montreal Protocol, and will be phased out by 2030.

The R22 refrigerant is commonly used in most reciprocating type of compressors, while R123 is
used in centrifugal chillers as a temporary replacement for R11.

HFC - These are the Hydro Fluoro Carbon refrigerants, such as R134a, that do not harm the
Ozone layer, and are being used in the newer machines to replace the CFC and HCFC.

The R134a is now commonly used to replace either R12 and R500, and in all new cars air
conditioning systems.

Refrigerant Analysis:
A periodic refrigerant analysis is important to detect and control contaminants in the refrigerant, which can
result in degradation / failure of the various components, and cause inefficient operation of the unit.
Refrigerants should be tested for the following contaminants:

Moisture, Acid; Particulate/solids, Organic matter sludge, wax, tars, Non-condensable gases.

Moisture
Moisture is one of the primary causes of contamination-related problems in a refrigeration system which
may cause damages to the chiller or AH Unit.

Ice formation in evaporator, expansion valve or orifice.

Degradation of lubricating oil due to hydrolysis.
Acid formation due to hydrolysis of refrigerant in the presence of moisture and high temperature.
Corrosion of metals.
Copper plating

The acceptable levels of moisture in new or reclaimed refrigerants are given in ARI 700. These levels are
generally more demanding than what is typically feasible and acceptable in an operating system.

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Refrigerant

R11
R12
R22
R113
R114
R134a
R500

Allowable
Moisture Level
per ARI 700
(ppm by wt)
20
10
10
20
10
10
10

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Normal Operating Moisture

Levels (ppm by wt) (Ref.
ASHRAE)
0 30 (Centrifugal Chillers)
0 25 (Centrifugal Chillers)
0 56 (Recip.& Screw Chillers)
0 - 30* (similar to R11)
0 - 25* (similar to R12)
0 25* (similar to R12)
0 25* (similar to R12)

* R113, R114, R134a, R500 data are not available in ASHRAE.

There is extensive research going on to identify new refrigerants that can be used to replace the CFC and
HCFC refrigerants. Currently R134a is the most commonly used new refrigerant.
Rules of Thumb for Calculation.
Property
Heat Capacity
Density
Latent Heat
Thermal Cond.

Viscosity

Units

Water

Air

KJ/kg C

4.2

1.0

Btu/lb F

1.0

0.239

kg/m3

1000

1.29@STP (1 bar, 0C)

lb/ft3

62.29

0.075@STP (14.696 psia, 0F)

KJ/kg

1200 - 2100

Btu/lb

516 - 903

W/m C

0.55 - 0.70

0.025 - 0.05

Btu/h ft F

0.32 - 0.40

0.014 - 0.029

1.8 @ 0 C

0.02 - 0.05

cP

0.57 @ 50 C
0.28 @ 100 C
0.14 @ 200 C

Prandtl Number

1 - 15

0.7

REFERENCES:
ASHRAE: The American Society of Heating Air Conditioning and Refrigeration
2001 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
1997 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals
ASHRAE Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Manual
NIST Standard Reference Database 69: NIST Chemistry WebBook.
University of Arkansas School of Architecture
Cooling Load Calculations and Principles, A. Bhatia, CEDengineering.com
Refrigerants Temperature/Pressure Table for common refrigerants

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Links:
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/sizing-ducts-d_207.html
www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-psychrometrics-properties-t_8.html
www.linric.com/webpsy.htm
http://www.flycarpet.net/en/download.asp
http://www.trane.com
http://www.refron.com/InfoCenter/Home.asp
http://www.chemicalogic.com/moistairtab/default.htm
http://www.epa.gov/ozone/title6/index.html
http://www.smacna.org/

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