State of stress in 3D

Consist of three unequal principal stresses acting in three mutually

perpendicular directions at a point (triaxial state of stress)

If two out of three stresses are equal state o f stress is known as cylindrical
If all three principal stresses are equal state of stress is known as
hydrostatic (or spherical)

Resolving 3D state of stress on an oblique plane

Let oblique plane (abc) with area A is such that
No shear stress is acting on that and hence
Stress is the principal normal stress acting
in direction S

Component of the along each of the axes are Sx, Sy and Sz

Force balance in x, y and z directions

All forces must balance to meet the conditions for static equilibrium (i.e.,F=0)

Fx S x A Al xAl yx Am zx An
Fy S y A Am yAm xy Al zy An
Fz S z A An zAn xz Al yz Am

F
F
F

( x ) Al yx Am zx An 0

xy Al ( y ) Am zy An 0

xz Al yz Am ( z ) An 0

( x )
yx
zx l 0

(
)

xy
y
zy

m 0
xz
( z ) n 0
yz

Principal stresses in 3D
( x )
yx
zx

xy
y
zy

xz
( z )
yz

The solution of the determinant of the matrix

yields a cubic equation in terms of

( x )

( y )

yz

yz

xy
xy
( z )
xz

xy ( y )
xz
0
xz
yz
( z )
yz

3 ( x y z ) 2 ( x y y z x z xy2 yz2 xz2 )

( x y z 2 xy yz xz x yz2 y xz2 z xy2 ) 0
The three roots of this cubic equation represent the principal stresses
1, 2 and 3

Direction of principal stresses

The directions in which the principal stresses act are determined by
simultaneously solving for l, m, and n
and using the relationship l2+m2+n2 = 1

( x )l yx m zx n 0

xy l ( y )m zy n 0
xz l yz m ( z )n 0

Invariants of the stress tensor

3 ( x y z ) 2 ( x y y z x z xy2 yz2 xz2 )
( x y z 2 xy yz xz x yz2 y xz2 z xy2 ) 0

I1 ( x y z )

I 2 ( x y y z x z xy2 yz2 xz2 )

I 3 ( x y z 2 xy yz xz x yz2 y xz2 z xy2 )
Whenever stress transformed from one coordinate system to another these
three quantities remain constant

Invariants of the stress tensor

I1 tr ( )

11 12 11 13 22 23
I2

12 22 13 33 23 33
I 3 det( )
I1 is related to hydrostatic component
I2 related to the deviatoric component

General- triaxial state of stress

Plane normal and Principal stress are not in the same direction
Stress S consist of both normal and shear components

S 2 n2 s2
Stress S resolved in three directions

S S S S
2

2
x

2
y

2
z

S 2 S x2 S y2 S z2

Orthogonal components of total stress S

by taking summation of forces in three directions

S x x l yx m zx n
S y xy l y m zy n
S z xz L yz m z n

Normal stress n on the oblique plane

Components of Sx, Sy and Sz in the direction of the normal

n S xl S y m S z n

n xl 2 y m2 z n2 2 xy lm 2 yz mn 2 zxnl
Shear stress on the oblique plane

S
2
s

2
n

Since plastic deformation involves shearing stresses

It is important to identify maximum shear stresses and planes on which they are acting
We know max occur on a plane halfway between two principal planes

(1 2 ) l m (1 3 ) l n ( 2 3 ) m n
2

2 2

2 2

l, m, n are direction cosines between the normal to the oblique plane and the
principal axes
1, 2 and 3 are principal stresses

max

1 3
2

Mohrs circle in 3D
Three 2-D Mohrs circles are
required corresponding to the x-y,
x-z, and y-z faces of the elemental
cubic element.

Mohrs circle in 3D for various state of stress

http://bama.ua.edu/~mweaver/courses/MechBeh/N03.pdf

Strain

Understanding strain
Displacement of points may result from
Rigid-body translation
Rotation and/or
Deformation
Deformation of a solid may consist of
Dilation change in Volume
Distortion Change in shape

Translation

Rotation

Pure shear deformation

Displacement
Let a point Q in a solid body having coordinate
x, y, z
is displaced to Q by deformation and
movement to x+u, y+v, z+w
Components of displacement are u, v, w

Displacement of Q can be expressed by a vector

uQ = f(u,v,w)

Solid can be considered to contain large number of particles

If displacement vector (uQ ) is same for all the particles in a body - no strain
If uQ varies from particle to particle
or uQ is a function of distance ui = f(xi)

Deformation

1 D linear strain
The amount of displacement is a function of x.
Point B moves further than point A.
AA' u
BB ' u

u
dx
x

Strain in direction x can be defined as

ex

L A' B' AB

L
AB

dx

u
dx dx
u
x

x
dx

Generalization to 3D
y

u exx x exy y exz z

v e yx x e yy y e yz z

u= exy

ui eij x j

w ezx x ezy y ezz z

v=eyx
x
Pure shear angular distortion

Normal strain

u
x
v
e yy
y
w
ezz
z

exx

Shear components

u u
exy

y y
v v
e yx

x x

Shear distortion of y axis

in the x direction

Shear distortion of x axis

in the y direction

Strain in 3D
The displacement strain is defined by nine strain components:

exx, exy, exz, eyy, eyx, eyz, ezz, ezx, ezy

The strains on the negative faces are equal -- to satisfy the
requirements for equilibrium
Notation is similar to stress; subscripts
reversed:
eij: i= direction of displacement
j = plane on which strain acts
Tension positive
Compression - negative

3D displacement matrix
exx

exy

eij e yx

e yy

ezx

ezy

u
x
exz
v
e yz
x
ezz w
x

u
y
v
y
w
y

u
z
v
z
w
z

Displacement components exy, eyx, . In general produ e oth

shear strain and rigid body rotation

 exy e yx 2 xy Rotation 0

xy

exy = eyx

exy = - eyx

eyx = 0

We are interested only in strain

Therefore, we have to break displacement tensor into strain (symmetric) and
rotational (antisymmetric) components

Comparison of pure shear and simple shear

Contraction and expansion on perpendicular primary axes same
No Rotation

Decomposition of strain
eij ij ij
1
1 ui u j
ij (eij e ji )

2
2 x j xi

Symmetric (Shear)

1
1 ui u j

ij (eij e ji )
2
2 x j xi

Anti-Symmetric
(Rotation)

exx

eij e yx
ezx

Displacement matrix

Strain tensor

Rotation tensor

xx

ij yx
zx

xx

ij yx
zx

xy
yy
zy

xy
yy
zy

exy
e yy
ezy

exz

e yz
ezz

exx

xz
1

yz exy e yx
2

zz 1
e e
2 xz zx

xz
1

yz exy e yx
2

zz 1
e e
2 xz zx

1
exy exy 1 exz ezx
2
2

1
eyz ezy
e yy
2

eyz ezy
ezz

1
exy exy 1 exz ezx
2
2

1
eyz ezy
0
2

eyz ezy
0

Transformation of strain
Equations similar to as written for stress

n xl 2 y m2 z n2 2 xy lm 2 yz mn 2 zxnl
Replace by and
by /2

n xxl 2 yy m2 zz n2 xy lm yz mn zxnl
We can also define a coordinate system where there will
be no shear strains. These will be principal axes

3 ( xx yy zz ) 2 xx yy yy zz xx zz

1 2
xy yz2 xz2
4

1
1

xx yy zz xy yz xz xx yz2 yy xz2 zz xy2 0

4
4

3 I1 2 I 2 I 3 0

Eq. for principal shearing strain

Hydrostatic component (Volume change)

Volume dx dy dz
Volume of strain element
(1 xx )(1 yy )(1 zz )dx dy dz
Volume strain is

(1 xx )(1 yy )(1 zz )dx dy dz dx dy dz

dx dy dz
(1 xx )(1 yy )(1 zz ) 1

Neglecting product of strain i.e. xx yy

xx yy zz
First Invariant of strain tensor

Hydrostatic component (Volume change)

Hydrostatic component of strain can be expressed as mean strain

mean

xx yy zz
3

Deviatoric component (Shape change)

To obtain deviatoric component of strain - responsible for shape change
Subtract mean strain from normal strain components of total strain

xx mean
xy
xz

'ij yx
yy mean
yz
zx

zy
zz
mean

Mohrs ir le of strain

Strain Measurement
Measurement of stress is usually based on strain measurement

Strain can be measured using a strain gage (bonded wire resistance gage) loop
of fine wire bonded to the surface of the studied body.
When an object is deformed, the wires in the strain gate are strained which
changes their electrical resistance, which is proportional to strain.

Strain gauges make only direct readings of linear strain. Shear strain must be
determined indirectly

Elastic stress strain relations

Relating stress and strain with properties of the material
is called constitutive equation

Elasticity
Important because most engineering design is done in the elastic
region. (Remember, plastic deformation generally constitutes
failure.)
Macroscopically, most polycrystalline materials are elastically
isotropic.
Microscopically, elastic behavior is inherently anisotropic for
individual grains.
Polycrystalline materials can be anisotropic if they exhibit strong
crystallographic textures.

Elasticity
Derived from atomic bonding
forces originating from long
range attractive forces which
draw atoms together until short
range repulsive forces become
large enough to balance them
out.
As such, elastic properties are
an aggregate effect of individual
deformations of interatomic
bonds.

Bulk Elastic Behavior

Applied force is transmitted by the network of bonds constituting the
material.

Thus, elastic behavior depends quantitatively on the magnitude of the

interatomic forces.
Elastic properties do not depend on microstructure of the material.

Bonds form when atoms either share (e.g., covalent and metallic bonds)
or transfer (e.g., ionic bonds) electrons between atoms.
This occurs to achieve a minimum in potential energy for the system
corresponding to a stable electron configuration.

Bond type and bond energy

You gs

odulus of diffe e t

ate ial type

You gs

odulus of diffe e t

ate ial type

For isotropic solid elastic stress is linearly related to strain

y ea s of odulus of elasti ity Hookes law

Poisso s atio
A tensile stress along the z axis causes the material to stretch along the
z axis and to contract along the x and y axes.
Lateral strain is a constant fraction of strain I the longitudinal
di e tio , k ow as Poisso s atio.

lateral strain
Poisson's ratio,
longitudin al strain

x y z

z
E

Roo

Te pe atu e Poisso s Ratio fo Sele ted Solids

Stress strain relations (3D state of stress)

Consider a unit cube subjected to normal stresses and shear stresses
For small elastic stresses and isotropic materials, we can assume that on x,
y and z planes;
Normal stresses does not induce shear strain and,
Shear stress does not induce normal strain

By superposition of the components of strain in x, y and z directions

1
xx x ( y z )
E
1
yy y ( x z )
E
1
zz z ( x y )
E

Shearing stress acting on unit cube produce shearing strain

xy G xy

yz G yz

G is modulus of elasticity in shear or

Modulus of rigidity

xz G xz

Bulk Modulus (K)

Bulk Modulus (K), also known as the volumetric elastic modulus
Ratio of the hydrostatic pressure to the dilation that it produce

Hydrostatic pressure

p 1
K

Compressibility

1
x ( y z )
E
1
yy y ( x z )
E
1
zz z ( x y )
E

xx

Summation of the
equations give

1 2
xx yy zz
x y z
E

1 2
3 m

E
m

E
K

3(1 2 )

Other relationships
E,

E, G

K,

La s constant

K, G

Elastic Strain energy

Elastic deformation is stored as elastic strain energy
Energy expended by the action of external forces in deforming an elastic body

Energy is equal to force distance

During elastic deformation it is area under load-deformation curve

1
U F
2

For a an elemental cube subjected to tensile stress along x axis

Elastic strain energy is given by

1
1
dU Fdu ( x A)( x dx)
2
2
1
dU ( x x )( Adx )
2
Volume
Strain energy per unit volume U0

1 x2 1 2
1
U 0 ( x x )
x E
2 E 2
2
Similarly, strain energy per unit volume of an element
subjected to pure shear
2

1 xy

1 2
1
U 0 ( xy xy )
xy G
2 G 2
2

Elastic Strain energy for 3D stress distribution

1
U 0 ( x x y y z z xy xy yz yz xz xz )
2
In terms of stress and elastic constant
Su stituti g the e . of Hookes law fo the st ai

1 2
1 2
2
2
U 0 ( x y z ) ( x y y z x z )
( xy xz2 yz2 )
E
2G
2
or, in terms of strains and elastic constant

1
1
U 0 (2 ) G( x2 y2 z2 ) G( xy2 xz2 yz2 )
2
2

Derivative of Uo with respect to any strain component give the

corresponding stress component

Anisotropy of Elastic behavior

Distance between atoms vary as a function of crystallographic
directions
Therefore, Forces between atoms are directional
Since force varies with direction, elastic constants will also vary
In general, to relate every stress component to every strain
component we need two new elastic constants

C Stiffness
S Compliance

Fourth rank tensor quantities

ij Cijkl kl or ij Sijkl kl
Expansion of above equations will give
9 equations, each with 9 components
Total 81 constants

Similarly for compliance

Symmetry of stress and stain tensor lead to only 36 independent components

We often replace the indices with matrix (contracted) notation for simplicity

Stiffness and compliance matrices are also symmetric about the main diagonal

Independent component reduce to 21 (30/2+6)

Can be reduced further if crystal symmetry is considered !!!

For example [100] is same as [010], [001], [ 1 00] and so on

Example - Anisotropy in Cubic crystal

[001]

[010]

[100]
x

Elastic response of the body if stress in [100] direction

Will be similar if instead it is applied in [010] or [001] directions
Distance between atoms is same

Similarly for shear stress

C12 C23 C13

C11 C22 C33

Example - Anisotropy in Cubic crystal

Relationship between
compliance and stiffness for cubic crystal

S11 S12
C11
S11 S12 S11 2S12
S12
C12
S11 S12 S11 2S12
1
C44
S 44
Modulus of elasticity in any direction of cubic crystal

1
1 2 2

S11 2S11 S12 S 44 l m m 2 n 2 l 2 n 2

E
2

l, m, n direction cosines between (hkl)[100], (hkl)[010], (hkl)[001] respectively

Isotropic solids
Elastic constants for isotropic solid

1
S11
E

S12

1
S 44
G

S44 2S11 S12

C11 2G
C12
1
C44 (C11 C12 )
2

Theory of plasticity
Deals with the behavior of materials at strains where
Hookes la is not alid

Theory elastic v/s palstic

Mathematical formulation of theory of plasticity is more complex
Plastic deformation is not reversible
Elastic deformation only depend on initial and final state

whereas plastic deformation depends on loading path

Stress is not linearly dependent on strain

Typical Stress-strain curve for ductile material

Strain hardening

Necking

Elastic limit
Slope = E
Bauschinger effect
b < a

Strain hardening
The stress-strain curve (i.e., flow curve) in the region of uniform
plastic deformation does not increase proportionally with
strain. The material is said to work harden ( or Strain harden)
An empirical mathematical relationship was advanced by
Holloman in 1945 to describe the shape of the engineering
stress-strain curve

K n
he e is the t ue st ess, is t ue st ai , K is a strength
oeffi ie t e ual to the t ue st ess at = . , a d n is the
strain-hardening exponent.
Thus, n is slope of a log- log plot of e sus

Idealized flow curve

Rigid perfectly plastic zero elastic strain, no strain hardening (in
highly cold worked material)
Perfectly plastic with elastic region
Elastic -linear plastic - more realistic

Yield Criteria for ductile metals

Mathematical relationship to predict the condition at which
plastic yielding starts

Under uniaxial loading (tension) yielding starts at Yield point

Need to define condition of combined stresses particular
combination of principal stresses

Requirements for an Yield Criteria

Yield criteria are empirical in nature

They should fulfill condition that pure hydrostatic pressure does not cause
yieldi g. Stress deviator does
Yield criteria should not dependent on choice of axes an invariant function
Therefore yield criteria must be some function of the invariants of the
stress deviator

Yield during uniaxial deformation

Lets sta t ith uniaxial tensile test
Plastic deformation or yield takes place through shearing process
How this shear yield stress related to yield stress measured during uniaxial tensile test
2
F

11 F / A
22 0
33 0

22 = 33 = 0

12

Looking from direction 3

2

22
11

Maximum
shear stresses?

11

Yield during uniaxial deformation

Thus yield occur when

11
2

yield 2 yield

Angle of maximum shear?

45o to principal direction

Yield under hydrostatic stress

Under the condition of hydrostatic stress when all principal stresses are equal

11 22 33 p

p is hydrostatic pressure

Moh s i le ollapse to a poi t

No shear stress
Any yield criterion must not allow yielding under hydrostatic stress/pressure

Yield criteria

Yield strength
max

max

1
2

Yield strength

Tresca (Maximum shear stress) criterion

Yielding occurs when the difference between the maximum and minimum
normal stresses reaches a critical value, the yield strength

max

max min 1 3 ys
(Uniaxial tensile test 2 3 0)

1 3
2

max

1 3
2

ys
2

Von Mises (Distortion energy) criterion

Yielding occurs when the second invariant of the stress deviator, J2, exceeds
a critical value

J 2 k 2 constant

Gives a new cubic equation that has three new invariants

The second invariant (sum of principal minors) gives J2

'3 J1 '2 J 2 ' J 3

We know

J2 I2 m

1
( x y ) 2 ( y z ) 2 ( z x ) 2 6( xy2 yz2 xz2
6

In terms of principal stresses

1
J 2 ( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2 k 2
6

von Mises (Distortion energy) criterion

Under uniaxial stress condition
Under uniaxial deformation condition
Yield occur when
1 = y (yield stress) and
2 = 3 = 0

1
( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2
6
1
( y ) 2 ( y ) 2
6

J2

y2
3

k2

This is the condition for yielding

k represents yield stress in pure shear (torsion)

Therefore von Mises criterion becomes

1
( 1 2 ) 2 ( 2 3 ) 2 ( 3 1 ) 2
2

1/ 2

3k 2 y

Yielding occurs when J2 equals or exceed tensile yield strength

For general case

1
y
( x y ) 2 ( y z ) 2 ( z x ) 2 6( xy2 yz2 xz2
2

1/ 2

For biaxial plane stress condition (2 = 0) von Mises yield

1 3
2
1

This is an equation of ellipse

Major semi axis =

2 y

Minor semi axis =

2
y
3

2
3

2
y

ite io

e o e

Comparison of Von Mises and Tresca Criteria

Comparison of Von Mises and Tresca Criteria

[111]

Pure shear

2 = -

1 =

We introduce complex concepts long before they are ready

to master them, deny their need for play, subject them to
uniform curricula and assessment, and transform their
world from one that is three-dimensional and experimental
to one that is dominated by two-dimensional virtual reality.
Then we label and drug the children who do not fit in.
Sharna Olfman,
Clinical psychologist and associate professor of psychology
at Pittsburgs Point Park College, and
the author of Pathogenic trends in early childhood
education.

Plastic deformation of single

crystal

Material failure
When external forces are applied
By deformation change in shape
By cleavage / fracture break in two parts

Material failure

Cleavage

Material failure

Work done in cleavage

Max. stress required to cleave

Shear

2x
m sin
b
m

2x
x
m sin
G G
b
d

G b
m
2 d

Difference due to defects

Instructions for Mid-term exams

Sit according to Roll No.

Bring your own Calculator, Pen, Pencil, Eraser, Scale, Sharpener,
Compass or Geometry box etc.
Submit your formula sheet one day in advance to me with your name
and roll no. on the sheet. It will be provided to you during exam.
DO not bring your mobile

Slip through dislocation motion

We know now that,
Experientially observed stress to deform a material is much
lower than theoretical strength calculated
The reason is that when slip takes place not all atoms of a layer
take part in slip in one go
Presence of dislocation in material make this a step wise process
Now we have to understand the stress required to move a
dislocation only

Dislocation motion
Two motions of dislocations

Conservative (Glide)
Edge Dislocation move on a plane defined by dislocation line and its
Burgers ve tor
No such condition for screw dislocation
A dislocation that can move is called glissile
A dislocation that can not move is called sessile

Non - conservative (Climb)

Dislocation move out of the glide plane due addition or deletion of
vacancies

Glide of many dislocations leads to slip

Force required to move a dislocation

Peierls-Nabarro force

Frictional force that must be overcome to move a dislocation

P N

2d
G exp

(
1

)
b

For large interplanar spacing (d)

A d s all Burgers ve tor
the friction force will be small
This is the reason slip occur readily on
closed-packed planes (large d)
in close packed direction (small b)

Force required to move a dislocation

Peierls-Nabarro force
However, experimentally observed values are still lower than the values
calculated by previous relationship and the reason is that
The distortion of atoms from their position due to presence of dislocation extend
over a larger area
Therefore the relationship can be written as

P N

2w
G exp

(
1

)
b

Width of dislocation

Critical resolved shear stress for slip

Extent of slip in single crystal depends on
Magnitude of the shear stress
Geometry of the crystal structure and
Orientation of the active slip planes with respect to shear stresses

Slip begins when the shear stress on the slip plane in the slip
direction reaches a threshold value called critical resolved
shear stress
Proposed by Schmidt

Cylindrical single crystal

The angle between normal to slip plane and tensile axis is

The angle which slip direction makes with the tensile axis is
The area of the slip plane inclined to the angle will be A/cos
Component of axial load acting in the slip plane in the slip direction is Pcos

Resolved shear stress is given by

RSS

P cos P

cos cos
A / cos A
Schmidt factor

Shear stress is a maximum when ==45o

For = 90o = 90o R = 0

Critical resolved shear stress for slip

Example

Example

Slip will occur for that slip system for which coscos (Schmidt factor) will be
maximum

CRSS of active Slips systems

Slips systems in FCC

Closed packed planes and closed packed directions

Slips systems in HCP

Slips systems in BCC

Slip in single crystal

Taking help of stereographic projection

Slip by dislocation movement

Strain due to single dislocation

Not enough

Dislocation sources

Frank-Read Source

Deformation by
twinning

Mechanical behavior of materials by Courtney pg. 103

Strengthening mechanism
Putting obstacles in the path of dislocations

Dislocation pile up

Pile up

Pile up

Dislocation point defect interaction

Dislocation point defect interaction

Line tension of dislocation

Increasing strength of crystals- 1st strategy

Perfect crystal no defects

To increase strength eliminating all the defects is a good idea !!

Increasing strength of crystals- 2nd strategy

Strengthening from grain boundaries

Hall-Petch Relationship

Grain boundary and deformation

Single crystal can deform on a single slip system
(given by Schmidt factor)
Individual grains in polycrystal experience
constraint due to continuity which need to be
maintained between two grains
Multiple slip systems are active due to
constraint
How many active slip systems are required??
Five independent slip systems are required - in absence of that ductility will come down

Continuity requirement
Deformation is not homogenous mores strain near grain boundary and less strain in the
centre of the grain

Two types of dislocations are required

Statistically stored dislocations required for
the deformation as in single crystal
Geometrically necessary dislocations
generated as a result of non-uniform strain in
the crystal

Strengthening from Grain boundaries

One can attempt to get stress-strain curve of polycrystal from stressstrain curve of single crystal

sin cos

M is an orientation factor which varies from one grain to another

inverse of Schmidt factor

For polycrystal an average M can be estimated it is 3.1 for fcc lattice

G.I. Taylor using compatibility condition assume that all grains undergo same
deformation equal to overall deformation i.e. equi-strain condition

Energy required to deform a polycrystal must be equal to sum of the

increments of work performed on each of the n slip systems
n

d i d i
i 1

Assumingthat critical shear stressis same on each slip system

n

i 1
d

M and

d i

d
d
M2
d
d

Grain boundary strengthening

Hall-Petch relation
12

0 i kD

Grain diameter
Yield stress

Friction stress

Locking parameter

Based on dislocation pile-up A source of dislocation within a grain sends

dislocations to pile-up
The stress at leading end of pile-up should exceed some critical shear stress to
continue slip past grain boundary barrier

Interaction of
Dislocation and solid solution atoms

Yield point phenomenon

Yield point elongation - Metals, particularly low-carbon steel , show a localised heterogeneous
transition from elastic to plastic deformation.

The load after the upper yield point

suddenly drop to approximately constant
value (lower yield point) and then rises
with further strain.
The elongation which occurs at constant
load is called the yield-point elongation,
which are heterogeneous deformation.
Lder bands or stretcher strains are formed
at approximately 45o to the tensile axis
during yield point elongation and
propagate over the specimen.

Note: The yield point phenomenon has also been observed in other metals
such as Fe, Ti, Mo, Cd, Zn, Al alloys

The upper and lower yield point

The upper yield point is associated with small amounts of interstitial or

substitutional impurities.
The solute atoms (C or N) in low carbon steel, lock the dislocations, raise the initial yield stress (Upper yield point)
When the dislocation is pulled free from the solute atoms, slip can occur
at lower stress - The lower yield point
The magnitude of the yield-point effect depends on interaction energy,
concentration of solute atoms

Luder bands affect surface finish of the formed component (sheet metal work on car bodies)
Prompted development of IF (interstitial free) steels.

Strain ageing
Strain ageing is a phenomenon in which the strength of a metal
increased with lose in ductility after being heated at relatively low
temperature after cold-working.
Reloading at X and straining to Y does not
produce yield point.
After this point if the specimen is reloading
after ageing (RT or ageing temp) the Yield
point will reappear at a higher value.
This reappearance of the yield point is due to
the diffusion of C and N atoms to anchor the
dislocations N has more strain ageing effect in
iron than C due to a higher solubility and
diffusion coefficient
Strain ageing should be eliminated in deep drawing steel since it leads to surface marking or
stretcher strains .
The amount of C and N should be lowered by adding elements such as Al, V, Ti, B
to form carbides or nitrides

Dynamic strain ageing

Strain ageing is also associated with serrated stress-strain curves or
repeated yielding, due to high speed of diffusion of solute atoms to catch
and lock dislocations.
This dynamic strain ageing is also called Portevin-LeChatelier effect

Solid solution strnegthening

Interactions between solute atoms and

dislocations
Solute atoms can interact with
dislocations by the following mechanisms:
1) Elastic interaction
2) Modulus interaction
3) Stacking-fault interaction
4) Electrical interaction
5) Short-range order interaction
6) Long-range order interaction

Particle or precipitation hardening

Interactions between precipitates and

dislocations
A potent hardening mechanism
More effective than solute atoms
Used in large number of alloy systems to impart strength

Strengthening depends on
Particle size

Particle volume fraction

Particle shape
Nature of the interface between the particle and the matrix

Structure of particle

Precipitation sequence

I stage coherent ppt. (small particles, small inter-particle spacing)

II stage Semi-coherent ppt.
III stage Incoherent ppt. (large particles, large inter-particle spacing)

Nature of Particle

Two ways of dislocation particle interaction

Shearing or Bowing?
Depends on

Example
Small/soft coherent particles with small inter-particle spacing

4(1 f )r
3f

Bowing stresses will be very high

Because of coherency easy to shear though it

After shearing
A new interface is created between particle and matrix
Which give rise to strengthening due to

Dislocation interaction with coherent interface

coherency strain

Modulus hardening coherent ppt.

After shearing of coherent ppt.

Large incoherent ppt.

bowing instead of shearing
Orowon Looping

Work or strain hardening

Strength and dislocation density

Work hardening theories

Several theories, all focused on dislocation interaction

mechanisms.
Taylor (1934) first recognized that work hardening is due to
dislocation interactions.
Seeger & Friedel: Dislocation pileups at obstacles such as
Lomer-Cottrell locks. Explains stage II hardening well.
Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf: Mesh length theory based on dislocation
cells. Comprehensive

Taylors theory
Moving dislocations interact with each other elastically and get
trapped.

Trapped dislocations give rise to internal stresses that increase

the stress necessary for deformation.
Only considered edge dislocations and assumed uniform
distribution.
Spacing between dislocations, L = -0.5
The effe ti e i ter al stress, , aused y these i tera tio s is
the stress necessary to force two dislocations past each other

Cold working
Cold worked structure contains dislocation ~ 1011 mm-2, while
annealed structure possesses ~104 to 106 mm-2.

Dislocations in cell walls.

As the defor atio pro eeds, the high
density dislocations tangles to form the
cell walls
.
A out % of e ergy i put i old ork
process is stored in the lattice

Strain hardening or cold work

Strain hardening or cold working is used to harden alloys that do not
respond to heat treatment.
The rate of strain hardening is lower in HCP
than in cubic metals

Annealing after cold working

Annealing of the cold worked structure at high temperature softens
the metal and reverts it to a strain-free condition.
A eali g restores the du tility to a
strain hardened.
A

eali g a

e di ided i to three disti t pro esses;

1) Recovery
2) Recrystallisation
3) Grain growth

etal that has ee se erely

Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain growth

Recovery
: the restoration of the physical properties of
the coldworked metal without any observable change in
microstructure.
Strength is not affected
.
Recrystallisation
: the cold-worked structure is replaced by a
new set of strain-free grains.
Hardness and strength decrease but ductility
increases.

Grain growth
: occurs at higher temperature where some of
the recrystallised fine grains start to grow
rapidly. Grain growth is inhibited by second
phase particles to pin the grain boundaries

Fiber strengthening - composite material

Martensite strengthening

Crystallographic texture
describes the orientations in 3D space of
thousands or millions of individual grains

Orientation
The orientation of the crystal lattice is defined with respect to some reference
frame
A frame is selected in reference to processing or sample geometry
For example
For rolled sheet Rolling direction (RD), Transverse direction (TD) and normal
direction (ND)

Texture representation
Graphical representation
Pole figure based on stereographic projection
Inverse pole figure
Orientation distribution function (ODF) based on Euler angles

ND
Euler angle (1 2)

{h k l} <u v w>
TD

RD

Euler angles - rotations

Orientation distribution function (ODF)

Pole figure
The Pole Figure plots the orientation of a given plane normal (pole)
with respect to the sample reference frame.
If the grains are randomly oriented, then we should expect to see the poles
distributed evenly over the pole figure. More often the grains are not
randomly oriented, but tend towards particular orientations depending on
the alloy composition and process history. This is called the "preferred"
orientation, or crystallographic texture of the alloy. In this case the poles
will be concentrated within certain areas of the pole figure.

[001]

Inverse pole figure

The sample direction relative to crystal directions is plotted

Concept of using X-ray to measure texture

In the case of a polycrystalline sample, the intensity recorded at a certain
sample orientation is proportional to the volume fraction of crystallites with
their lattice planes in reflection geometry

Mechanical anisotropy
Earring phenomenon during deep drawing
Cold rolled

Weak cube texture

After annealing

Strong cube texture

Electrical steel
Goss {110}<001> developed by abnormal grain growth, during secondary
recrystallization
The ,100. directions are easy to magnetize whereas magnetization in
the <111> direction is difficult
Essential for the material used to make core of transformers

Fracture

Cracking
Separation or fragmentation of an object
under stress

Fracture proceeds via two processes:

Crack initiation
Crack propagation

Types of fracture
Brittle / fast fracture
Structural elements fail with little or no plastic deformation; often
without warning
Separation normal to tensile stress
Usually observed in BCC and HCP materials

Ductile fracture
Appreciable plastic deformation occurs prior to and during the
fracture process
In a tensile test pronounced necking before fracture
Cup and cone fracture

Classification
Fracture are classified with respect to
Crystallographic mode of fracture
Appearance of fracture
Strain to fracture

Behavior described

Terms used

Crystallographic mode

Shear

Cleavage

Appearance of fracture

Fibrous

Granular

Strain to fracture

Ductile

Brittle

Fracture mode depends on

Material Crystal structure, alloying
Temperature High temperature (>0.3Tm ) or low temperature
State of stress Plane stress of plane strain
Rate of loading Strain rate
Environment Hydrogen embrittlement

Theoretical cohesive strength

For full derivation refer Dieter Pg. 244-245

Why
Defects
Engineering material typically have fracture stresses that are
10 to 1000 times lower than the theoretical value
Theoretical fracture stress can be achieved in tiny, defect
free metallic whiskers

Defect act as stress concentrator

Stress distribution around flaws

Griffith Theory of brittle fracture

Griffith offered an explanation for the discrepancy between observed and
theoretical cohesive strength
Applicable only to perfectly brittle material like glass

Griffith proposed that a brittle material contain large number of fine cracks
Which produce a stress concentration
Its magnitude is closer to cohesive strength in localized region
Overall stress is much lower than the local stress

Griffith Theory of brittle fracture

Griffith criterion states that A crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic strain
energy is at least equal to the energy required to create the new crack surface

Griffith Theory of brittle fracture

Thickness of the plate is negligible plane stress condition

An elliptical crack of length 2c is present inside the plate

or c at the edge

Decrease in elastic strain energy per

unit of plate thickness due to
formation of crack

UE

c 2 2

Surface energy (increase) due to presence of crack is

U s 4c s

Total change in potential energy due to formation of crack is

U U s U E
According to Griffith criterion - the crack will propagate under a constant
applied stress if an incremental increase in crack length produces no change in
total energy of the system
dU
d
c 2 2

0 4c s
dc
dc
E
2 c 2
4 s
0
E

Stress required to
propagate a crack in a
brittle material as a
function of the size of the
microcrack

1/ 2

2 E s

F
c

Griffith Theory of brittle fracture

For a thick plate (plane strain condition)
1/ 2

2 E s

F
(1 ) c

Griffiths equation shows strong dependence of facture strength on crack

length
Satisfactorily predicts fracture strength of perfect brittle material
However, fails to predict in case of metal; even brittle metal
The reason; Metals that fail in a completely brittle fashion undergo some
plastic deformation prior to fracture

For metals
Considering plastic deformation at the root of the crack

Plastic deformation at the root of the crack result in

blunting or increase in radius of the crack tip
Increase the fracture strength of the material

For metals

2 E ( s p )

F
c

1/ 2

E p

1/ 2

p 102 102 J/m 2

s 1 2 J/m 2

For elaborate treatment and fascinating stories associated with fracture read following
http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/materials-scienceand-engineering/3-11-mechanics-of-materialsfall-1999/modules/frac.pdf

http://www.fracturemechanics.org/fm/index.h
tml

Strain energy release rate

Irwin replaced hard to measure p term with strain energy
release rate (G)

EG c
c

c 2
E

The parameter G represents the rate of transfer of energy from the elastic
stress field in the cracked structure or sample to the crack extension
process

Critical strain energy release rate

Critical value of G which makes the crack propagate to fracture is Gc
The critical energy release rate, Gc, is determined experimentally
if the energy release rate is lower than the critical energy release rate
(G < Gc ) the crack is stable.
Conversely, if G > Gc, the crack propagates.
In the case when the energy release rate is equal to the critical energy
release rate (G = Gc), a metastable equilibrium is obtained.

Stress Intensity factor

Alternate approach to strain energy release rate
Deals with stress state at the tip of a sharp crack

Kc is a material parameter known as the fracture toughness

The fracture toughness as measured by Kc or Gc is essentially a measure of
the extent of plastic deformation associated with crack extension

Critical Stress intensity factor

3 modes of loading

Values of Critical stress intensity factor

Grain boundary precipitates

The upper and lower yield point

Common fracture mode

Brittle transgranular fracture

Along crystallographic planes - through the grains
Ha e faceted features ith ri er arki gs

Rock

Brittle Intergranular fracture

Granular appearance of fracture surface bring out the shape and size of individual grains
Crack propagation along grain boundaries
Due to second phase particles at GBs
High temperature fracture GBs are weaker than grain interior

Rock

Mix mode Intergranular /Transgranular fracture

Failure by shear rupture

Ductile failure

Due to microvoid coalescence

Gi e characteristic appeara ce of di ples

Void formation due to presence of second phase particles

Typical cup a d co e appeara ce of fractured te sile sa ple

Ductile failure

[Fig. 10.37, Courtney]

Ductile failure

Ductile failure

Ductile failure

Ductile to brittle transition

Ductile to brittle transition

Fatigue

Fatigue failure

Sudden fracture of a component after a cyclic loading in elastic regime

Damage accumulate due to repeated application of load which is well below
yield point

Fatigue failure
Failure process involve
1. Crack Initiation at the stress concentration site (surface or just below surface)
2. Crack Growth
3. Catastrophic fracture
Features of failure surface
Clamshells concentric about crack
initiation site.
Clamshell region contain even smaller
concentric beach marks or striations
(microscopic)
Ductile or brittle fracture region - when
the crack may become large enough to
satisfy the energy or stress intensity
criteria for rapid propagation

Crack initiation

Shear flow along slip planes due to

stress concentration at flaws present in
the material

Slip processes generates repeated

intrusion and extrusion which result in
crack initiation

Crack growth
Stage I
After initiation crack grow along the slip plane.
Fracture surface is usually featureless.
Rate of crack propagation is low

Stage II Crack turns to propagate transversely to the

principal normal stress.
Fracture surface shows striations (typical feature of
fatigue failure)

Stage III
The fatigue crack becomes large
Kc of the material is exceeded which leads to final
fracture

Formation of striations (stage II of crack growth)

Striations represents crack arrest
and growth in steps
Crack propagation rate is high in
this stage

Cyclic loading
In reality
Stress cycle are more
complex and unpredictable
Thus fatigue properties are to
be treated statistically

S-N curve

Statistical in nature
Required large number of tests at different
mean stress or stress amplitude

Endurance limit failure will not occur if stress

amplitude is below this limit irrespective of
number of cycles.
In alumnium it does not exist

Empirical method of quantifying fatigue

process

S-N curve

S-N curve

S-N curve

Crack growth rate Paris Law

It is important to know the crack growth rate i.e. a part can be replaced
in time

It is observed that crack growth rate can be correlated with cyclic

variation in stress intensity factor K Y a

K K max K min Y a
da
AK p
dN

Paris law

Alloy

Steel

10-11

Al

10-12

Ni

3.3

410-12

Ti

10-11

da/dN Fatigue crack growth rate per cycle

A and p are constants that depend on material, environment and test conditions

Crack growth rate Paris Law

Creep and Superplasticity

Creep

This example studies viscoplastic creep in

solder joints under thermal loading using the
Anand viscoplasticity model, which is suitable
for large, isotropic, viscoplastic deformations in
combination with small elastic deformations.
[Comsol]

Gas turbine engines

Creep
Material subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated temperature (>0.4
0.5 Tm ) will creep i.e. exhibit time dependant deformation

At high temperatures metallurgical changes that may occur

Equilibrium vacancy concentration
Addition slip system active
Grain boundary start taking part in deformation
Metallurgical stability of material is compromised

Recrystallization

Ageing

Oxidation

Phenomenological description of Creep

On application of a constant stress

Instantaneous strain at time t=0

Creep behavior at constant load

Stage I Transient or Primary creep strain rate decreases with time and strain
Strain hardening!!
Stage II Secondary or Steady state creep strain hardening is balanced by softening
processes?
Stage III Tertiary creep - Creep rate accelerated

Difference between
constant load and constant stress creep rate

Steady state creep rate (Dorn Eq.)

Qc

II ss A exp

RT
m'

A a d are material constant

Qc is the creep activation energy

Can vary with stress and temperature

For temperatures T > 0.5Tm Qc is equal to the activation energy of self-diffusion

Activation energy of creep

Creep mechanisms
Depends on deformation conditions
Temperature and
Applied stress
Which in turn decides deformation process
Dislocation glide
Dislocation climb
Diffusional flow

A. Dislocation glide
At low T and/or high stresses
Dislocation glide helped by thermal activation

E0 is the activation energy required by dislocation to move from one lattice position to another
Thermal activation reduces this barrier by E

B. Diffusional flow creep mechanisms

I. Nabarro Herring Creep
High T and lower stresses

Only diffusional mass transfer

Atom mass flows from compressive side to tensile side
Vacancy flux flows from tensile side to compressive side

Diffusion of atoms lead to change in shape

I. Nabarro Herring (NH) Creep

DL

NH ANH 2

d kT
Atomic volume

bring change in activation energy of vacancy formation

d size of crystalor grain size in polycrystal
D L Activation energy of self diffusion

NH creep is more important in ceramics than in metals.

B. Diffusional flow creep mechanisms

II. Coble Creep
Mass transfer occur by diffusion along grain boundaries in a polycrystalline
Diffusional area is proportional to d
( - effective GB thickness)

Dgb '
C ANH 3

d kT
Coble creep is more sensitive to grain size than NH creep
Coble creep will dominate in fine grained material

Coble creep

In general, both creep processes operate in parallel

Anyone can dominate depending upon grain size.
Coarse grain NH dominates
Fine grain Coble creep dominates
NH

Coble

Accommodation process

During diffusional creep, to prevent the formation of internal voids or cracks

additional mass transfer occur at GBs in form of grain boundary sliding (GBS)

Creep involving dislocation and diffusion

1. Solute drag creep
Solute drag creep is observed in metallic alloys exhibiting increase in
creep rate during transient creep
Effect due to interaction of solute with dislocations
At low temperature solute atoms are immobile
At high te perature solute ato s are o ile ut a t as drag o
dislocation motion
Value of for solute drag reep is a out 0.3

SD

Dsol 3
~ 2
b c0

Dsol

SD ASD 2

b kT G

1. Solute drag creep

Portevin-Le Chatelier effect - Serrated flow

Dislocation velocity increases with applied stress

At suffi ie tly high stress dislo atio
reak-a ay fro solute
After reak a ay , stress a d elo ity drops a d,
If solute diffusio is rapid e ough solute a
at h-up a d lead to
increase in stress again
Results in serrated flow

Creep involving dislocation and diffusion

2. Dislocation climb-glide creep
Dislocation climb on a parallel plane when encounter a obstacle
Glide and climb are sequential processes
Creep rate will be decided by the slower of the two

General phenomenological constitutive equation

Independent processes
NH and coble creep operate independently

Diff NH C
Controlling parameters
ANH , AC and grain size (d)

Net creep rate is approximately equal to

the greater of the two

Diff NH

d>dc

Diff C

d<dc

Independent processes
Both Diffusional and dislocation creep are
operating - independent

m'

Diff Dis K1 K 2

Sequential processes
Grain boundary sliding (slower) occurs sequentially to NH and/or coble creep
Dislocation glide and climb (slower) are also sequential processes
Net creep rate is lesser of the two

The net effective creep rate

when parallel (independent) creep processes occur approx. greater of the two
when sequential creep processes occur lesser of the individual creep processes

Deformation mechanism maps

Graphical way of representing dominant deformation mechanism at
stress-temperature combination
Can be used to estimate creep rate

Grain size 32m

With contours of equal strain (creep) rate

Effect of grain size on Creep

Alternate
To bring grain size
effect

Material aspect - Superalloys

Important class of material for creep applications
Ni based, Co based Fe based
ohere t
precipitate
Ni3 (Al, Ti)
in Ni (fcc)
matrix
provide
particle
strengthening
and creep
resistance

Estimate of creep life

Q

RT

A m ' exp
ln

Q
g ( )
RT

Let, time to rupture is tr - it depends on stress

and temperature
Assuming tr to be inversely proportional to
steady state strain rate
t k /
r

Q
RT
Q
T [ln t r ln k g ( )]
R
LM T [ln t r C ]
ln t r ln k g ( )

LM Larson
Miller parameter

Superplasticity
Superplasticity is a phenomenon in which certain materials subjected to high
temperature (>0.5Tm ) demonstrate remarkably high strains to failure (as high
as 5000%) at strain rates typically on the order of 10-3 s-1 .
Important industrial application is superplastic forming take advantage of this
phenomenon to form complex shapes that cannot normally be obtained by
forging, extrusion, or other metalworking processes

Superplasticity
General Requirements for a material to exhibit superplasticity
Microstructure Equiaxed grain morphology with grain size less
than 10 m and having predominantly high angle grain
boundaries
Deformation conditions Deformation temperature above 0.5 Tm
and strain rate around 10-3 s-1
High strain rate sensitivity - more than 0.3

Strain rate sensitivity

The ability of a material to deform superplastically is related to its resistance to
necking during deformation. This resistance is defined by the strain rate sensitivity
exponent, m.
Vale of m should be more than 0.4

K '

m ( m' )

Typical experimental observations

Elongation to failure increase with increase in m
Maximum value of m is 1

Superplasticity is observed at the strain rate

range of 10-4 to 10-2 s-1

m is also showing maximum value at this range

Rock

Deformation Mechanism during superplasticity

Grain boundary sliding (GBS) is the primary deformation mechanism
accommodated by either diffusion or dislocation activity

Our own work on superplasticity