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Analytic Geometry - RE Chapter1to2

analytic geometry

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2K views86 pages

Analytic Geometry - RE Chapter1to2

analytic geometry

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Sean Ray
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Revised Edition ANALYTIS oO) ia Meg wre S. DE LA _— Lea D. MADERA Ma. THERESA CHRISTINE a VALDEZ Perla S. de la Cruz Lea D. Maderal Ma. Theresa Christine C. Valdez € C & E Publishing, Inc. 201: Preface Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS 1.1 The Rectangular Coordinate System 1.2 The Distance, Midpoint, and Point of Division Formulas LINES 21 The Angle of Inclination of a Line 22 The Slope ofa Line 23 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines 24 The Angle between Two Lines 25 The General Equation of a Straight Line 2.6 Lines Parallel to the Axes 2.7__The Standard Forms of the Equation of a Line 2.8 The Directed Distance from a Line to a Point 29 The Family of Lines CIRCLES 3.1 The Definition and Equations of a Circle 3.2 The Circles Determined by Geometric Conditions 33 The Family of Circles CONIC SECTIONS 41 Types of Conic Sections 42 The Parabola 43 The Ellipse 44° The Hyperbola SIMPLIFICATION OF EQUATIONS 5.1 The Translation of Axes 5.2 The Rotation of Axes 5.3 Simplifying Second-Degree Equations 54 The Degenerate Conics and Other Graphs of Second-Degree Equations ALGEBRAIC CURVES 6.1 Types of Algebraic Curves 6.2 Properties of Algebraic Curves 63 Sketching Graphs of Equations 64 Graphs of Rational Equations 65 Graphs of Radical Equations ‘THE POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM. 7.1 The Polar Coordinates 7.2 Relations between Rectangular and Polar Coordinates 73 Polar Curves 53 53 37 58 7 78 80 99 102 117 135 141 159 160 190 213 235 239 254 262 275 275 302 305 310 329 333 349 Yr Le Bibliography Appendices AL Ad AB Aa AS About the Authors Use of Graphmatica Formulas in Analytic Geometry List of Useful Formulas Answers to Odd-numbered Exercises Index 373 375 378 380 385 399 PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS 1.1 The Rectangular Ci 1.2 The Distance, Midpoint and Point of PByas onesie CHAPTER 1 PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS Mathematics history indicates that Apollonius of Perga (c. 262-180 BC), known by his contemporaries as the “Great Geometer,” prefigured the development of analytic geometry with his series of books entitled Conics. However, it is interesting to note that its conception started from none pure mathematicians, namely, mathematician-astronomer Francois Viéte (1540-1603), mathematician-philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650), and lawyer-mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601-1665). Traditionally, algebra is treated separately from geometry. It was Viéte who developed the first systematic use of algebraic symbols and notation. This work inspired Descartes and Fermat, who dared to independently discover the concept of unifying algebra and geometry. Fermat, however, never published his findings, while Descartes’ work was published in 1637 in his book entitled La Géométrie. The concept, known today as Rectangular Coordinate System or Cartesian Coordinate System, became an important discovery. It later led to the development of a far more comprehensive theory of geometry called analytic geometry, which later gave birth to calculus. Elementary analytic geometry, the subject of this course, uses algebra (i.e, algebraic manipulations, equations, and formulas) as its main tool. Its primary goal is the investigation of interesting and useful properties of configurations involving points, straight lines, and curves. This should be differentiated from synthetic geometry, a subject taken up in the secondary level, which employs the straightedge and the compass as its basic tools. 1.1 The Rectangular Coordinate System ‘The Rectangular Coordinate Plane or the Cartesian Coordinate Plane consists of two perpendicular lines—a vertical line called the y-axis and a horizontal line called the x-axis. These ‘two lines, called the Cartesian coordinate axes, or simply coordinate axes, intersect at a point called the origin, usually designated as 0. The plane is also called a coordinate plane, or simply R? or an syr-plane. See Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1 Cartesian Coordinate Plane Itis extremely important to develop the habit of always labelling the coordinates axes, which divide the xy-plane into four quadrants, as marked in Figure 1.2. The quadrants are denoted by Ql, QUI, QUI and QIV. A convenient unit of length is chosen and is used to mark equal segments along each axis. ‘The segments marked on the right of the y-axis are positive and those on the left, negative. Similarly, the segments marked above the x-axis are positive, and those below, negative. Refer to Figure 1.2. Unless specified otherwise, the same unit of length is chosen for each coordinate axis. Quadrant Il (QUI) Quadrant I (Q1) GH G4 Quadrant I (QU), Quadrant IV (QV) Ga) Gy Figure 1.2 Four Quadranes In each quadrant, the coordinates of a point, which shall be discussed later, are represented by signed numbers. The signs indicate whether the point is on the right or left side of the y-axis, and whether it is above or below the x-axis. The coordinate is positive if the point is either on the right side of the y-axis or above the x-axis, or negative if it is on the left side of the y-axis or below the x-axis. This is explained by the fact that the directions of the point with respect to the y-axis and x-axis are being considered. The coordinates of a point in QI are both positive since the point is located on the right side of the y-axis and above the x-axis, The signs of the coordinates of a point in any of the other quadrants are determined in a similar manner. Note that the points on the axes do not belong in any of the quadrants. Each point P on the xy-plane is associated with a unique ordered pair of numbers, (x, ¥), called the coordinates, where x is the abscissa and y is the ordinate. Conversely, each ordered pair (x,y) determines a point P on the xy-plane. A point, usually represented by a capital letter, is referred to as point (x,y), or P(x,y).. Definition 1.1 Abscissa and Ordinate The x-coordinate of a point P(x, y) is called the abscissa, while the y-coordinate is called the ordinate. Consider a point P whose coordinates are (x, y). Thus, the distance of P from the y-axis is x, and that from the x-axis is y. This distance is actually a directed distance, wherein direction is important since the coordinates are signed numbers, indicating the location of the point relative to the coordinate axes. Directed distance will be discussed in the next section. See Figure 1.3, Figure 1.3 Point P(x, y) ple 1.1 Plot point W(-5, 3) on a coordinate plane. Observe that point W(-S, 3) is located in QUI. To plot W, we move to the left 5 units from the is and 3 units upward from the x-axis. Refer to Figure 1.4. Figure 1.4 Point W(-5, 3) ple 1.2 Plot the points R(-3, 0), C{4.5, 0), and U(0, -2). Also, identify the coordinates of the ints 5, T, B, and K in the given plane. VF Se | T. J af + 6B Solution If one coordinate of a point is zero, then the point lies on one of the axes and is not in any quadrant. Observe that points R, C, and U are not in any of the quadrants but are on the x-axis (R and Cand the y-axis (U). See Figure 1.5. Looking at the given plane, we find that the coordinates of points 5, T, B, and K are S(-6, 3), T(-4, 2), BCA, ~3), and K(5, 1). 7 S(-6, 3) ; “T(-4, 2) : 1 “KG, 1) C3, 0) (4.5, 0) F tu(0,-2) * *8G.-3) Figure 1.5 Points S, 7, R, B, U, C,and K . Example 1.3 Plot the points A(-2, 1), C(0, 3), E(3, -2), F{-4, -3), K(6, 2.5), and V(5, 0) on one coordinate plane, Label each point properly. Solution As in Example 1.2, we use the directed distance of each point from the y-axis and then from the x-axis to be able to plot the point. The given points are plotted on one coordinate plane, as shown in Figure 1.6. ny nd one rom own & Figure 1.6 Plotting of Points Given in Example 1.3 1.2 The Distance, Midpoint, and Point of Division Formulas This section discusses how to find the length of a line segment. We denote a line segment from a point A to a point B by AB , or simply AB, which is the notation that will be used throughout this book. We then locate the midpoint of a line segment. This point divides a line segment into two equal parts. Lastly, we divide a line segment into more than two equal parts, wherein we obtain the points of division of the line segment. 1.2.1 The Distance between Two Points We first determine the distance between any two points on the xy-plane. When the direction is important, in cases of horizontal and vertical distances, the distance is called directed distance. Note that for slant line segments, the direction is not usually considered. In cases when direction is important for slant line segments, we need to assign one direction to be positive and the opposite direction to be negative. In general, we say that a line segment is directed when one direction, say AB, is chosen as positive and its opposite direction, BA, as negative. Given any two points, we can compute for the distance between the points using the distance formula (See Theorem 1.1.). Then the concept of directed distance may be applied as necessary. ‘The directed distance tells the order of the points on the xy-plane. As a convention, if the direction is to the right or upward, the distance is positive. Ifthe direction is to the left or downward, the distance is negative. The directed distance from A to Bis denoted by the line segment AB with an arrow pointing to the right written above. In Figure 1.7, the directed distances AB and CD are positive, while BA and Dé are negative. Hence, we now call the line segments AB, BA, CD, and DC as. directed, where AB and CD have positive direction, and BA and DC have negative direction. Aliya), Bex) Ihexai (3, Ys] C(xs, ye) Figure 1.7 Directed Distance Definition 1.2 Directed Distance (a) _ The directed distance between points A(x:,y1) and B(x2, v1) is computed as follows AB =x2-x and =x x (b) _ The directed distance between points C(vs, y2) and D(xs, ys) is computed as follows: (CB=ys-y2 and DC=y2-ys In the definition, note that A and B are endpoints of a horizontal line segment; hence, they have the same ordinate. In AB, the direction is to the right and terminates at B. Thus, finding AB is done by subtracting the abscissa of A from the abscissa of B. On the other hand, to compute for CD, we subtract the ordinate of C from the ordinate of D. Example 1.4 Find the directed distance QP between P(~3, -2) and Q(4, -2), and the directed distance SR between R(5, 4) and S(5,-4). Solution First, we plot the given points (See Figure 1.8). Then we find the directed distances as follows: @ =-3-42-7 5R =4-(-4)=8 Note that QP is negative, which indicates that the direction is to the left. Since SR is positive, then the direction is upward. ney is D, ive, w Figure 1.8 The Directed Distances QP and SR Next, we find the distance between any two points. This distance does not regard the order of the points on the xy-plane. In Figure 1.9, a line segment is formed by connecting points P;(x1, 1) and P2(x2, y2). Drawing a horizontal line through P; and a vertical line through P2 results in a right triangle, where the right angle is at R(xz, y:). The length of the line segments P,R and RP, are ‘computed as x» x1 and y2 ~ ys, respectively. The hypotenuse of the right triangle is the line segment P,P, , whose length, denoted by |P,P,| , may be computed based on the Pythagorean Theorem, as follows: PP. = G2-m) + O2-ys)?, where |P.P,|= VO) +02— i? Tikva 3 — Figure 1.9 Distance between P; and P: ; Theorem 1.1 The Distance Formula The distance between points P:(x:, 1) and P,(xz,y2),or the length of the line segment joining P; and Pz, denoted by |P,P,|, is given by the formula |PrP2|=V@2— 11) +02 - i)? PPel=Vea—x¥ +01 -y2)? - or Example 1.5 Find the distance between points P,(5, ~3) and P2(-4, 1). Solution First, we plot the given points (See Figure 1.10.) P,{-4,1) | il Pi(5,-3) Figure 1.10 Distance between (4, 1) and (5, —3) Using Theorem 1.1, we have |P.P,|=v(-4-5)? + (1-(-3)) = (9)? +4? = 81416 = 97. ‘Thus, the distance between P; and P2, or the length of the line segment P1P2,is ¥97 units. . In the next example, we apply the distance formula in showing that three distinct points are collinear. Collinear points are those that lie on one line. Consider points P, (x1, yi), Pz (x2, y2), and P; (x3, ys). To show that these points are collinear, we need to do the following: (a) Identify the point located between the two other points. (Without loss of generality, we take this point to be P:. Hence, we must show that P; is between P; and Ps.) (b) Prove that the sum of the two shorter distances among the three pairs of points is equal to the longest distance, that is, |P,P;| +|P;P,|=|P,Ps| . 10 Simple plotting of the given points allows us to establish part (a) of the solution. In cases when plotting is not done, we should establish that x: < x2 < xs, OF x3 < x2 < x, to show that Py is between P; and Ps, Note that if x1 = x2 = xs, then the points form a vertical line and are, therefore, collinear. On the other hand, if either x;= x2 # x3 oF X: # x2 = xs, then the points when connected form a triangle and are, therefore, not collinear. For part (b), since Pz is between P; and Ps, then the shorter distances are |P,P,| and |P:P, while the longest distance is |P,P,|. We then need to show that |P,P,|+|P;Ps|=|P,P3| for the three given points to be collinear. This fact is explained by the Triangle Inequality, which states that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is always greater than or equal to the length of the remaining side, This means that for any triangle P,P,P,, we have |P;Pz|+|P2P3|>|P,P3| or 1P,P2| +|P2P3| =[P,Py|, which is the case when there is no triangle formed since the given points lie on aline and are, therefore, collinear. Example 1.6 Show that the points (4, 4), (0, -2), and (~2, ~5) are collinear. Solution Let Pi, Pz, and Ps be the given points (~2, -5), (0, ~2), and (4, 4), respectively. See Figure 1.11. Figure 1.11 Three Points Lying on a Line For part (a), itis clear in Figure 1.11 that P2 is between P, and Py. Also, since -2< 0 < 4, then jis between P, and P,. For part (b), we apply Theorem 1.1 to find the following lengths: [PiP|= (0-2 +(-2-C5)) =V4+9 = V8 [P.Pi|= V(a—0F + (4—2yy = 16236 = 213 [PiPl=Vl4-Cayy +45) = va6+0r = 3/13 Thus, |P,P,| +|P,P3| =|P,P3| . By (a) and (b), we have shown that, P,, and Pyare collinear. . Alternative solutions for Example 1.6 may be done using slopes and equations of lines, which will be discussed in the next chapter. Example 1.7 Show that points Pi(1, 2), Pa(- ‘Then find the area of the triangle. 4), and P3(0, 3) are the vertices of a right triangle. Solution ‘We plot the given points, as shown in Figure 1.12, and use Theorem 1.1 to find the length of each side, as follows: |P|=VeS- a) + (4-2) = 136436 = V72 = 62 [PaPs|=V(0-C8)F + B=) = 25449 = VE [P|= (0-2 +2 = VT =v To show that the three sides formed by connecting the given points form a right triangle, we F use the Pythagorean Theorem, that is, we show that |P,P,|° +|P,P,| . From the above computations, the longest side, or the hypotenuse, measures ¥74 units. We verify the Pythagorean ‘Theorem as follows: (2h Wah = (rah 74=74 ‘Thus, Py, P2, and Ps are the vertices of a right triangle. 7 2(0, 3) "Pa(d, 2) P2(-5,-4) Figure 1.12 Right Triangle P:P:P; To compute for the area of right triangle P:P2Ps, we identify the base and the height of the triangle. Since the longest side of the triangle is PzPs, then this is the hypotenuse. This means that P,P: and P,P are the base and the height of the right triangle. Since the area of a triangle is one-half of the product of the base and the height, then the area A of triangle P:P2P is FrovEva = 6 square units. 2 bch: le 1.8 A moving point P is always equidistant from the points (~2, 3) and (4, -1). Find the tion of the path of P. jon: Let the coordinates of the moving point P be denoted by (x,y). See Figure 1.13. Figure 1.13 Path of Points Equidistant from (-2, 3) and (4, -1) As stated, [PRl=[Pe. it follows that (x +27 +(y-3)? =V0r-4% +040). iplify the above equation by squaring both sides, as follows: x 44x44 y? —6y+9=x?-8x416+y? 42y41 x? 4+4x+ y? —6y+13=x? Bx + y? +2 +17 3x-2y-1=0 Hence, the path of the moving point that is always equidistant from the given points P, and P. 1e whose equation is 3x ~ 2y ~ 1 =0. This line is called the perpendicular bisector of P:P2. This ‘will be discussed again in the next chapter. . each figure on the coordinate plane provided and find the lengths of the sides of the figure ‘Triangle with vertices at A(3, 0), B(—2, 4), and C(-1, 5) drilateral with vertices at P(7, 2), Q(0, 3), R(-6.5, ~4.5), and S(5, -2) Parallelogram with vertices at T(-3, 3), U(—6, 0), V(2,—2), and W(5, 1) fe: », Yr. and Sec.: each problem. 1. Show that the points (0, 2), (~3, -1), and (~4, 3) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle. Show that the points (~5, -2), (-1, -5), (5, 3), and (1, 6) are the vertices of a rectangle. Then find the area of the rectangle. ty Sheet No. 1.4 Score: Yr, and Sec.: Professor: ‘each problem. Show that the triangle with vertices at (4, -2), (8, 2), and (-1, 3) isa right triangle. Then find the area of the triangle, ‘Show that the points (5, 6), (~4, 4), (1, -1), and (8, 1) are the vertices ofa parallelogram. each problem, 1. Find the equation involving the point (x, y), which is equidistant from (2, 1) and (-1, 4). Draw the figure described. 2. Find the point that is equidistant from (-3, 2), (5, 2), and (6, 1). Plot the points. Activity Sheet No. 1.6 ‘Name: Solve each problem. 1. Find an equation involving the point (x,y), which is 4 units from the point (0, -3). Draw the figure described. Locate the two points that are 5 units from (5, ~3) and V41 units from (~2, 6). Plot the s LA ‘numbers 1-4: Draw each figure on a coordinate plane, choosing a suitable scale as necessary. 1. Triangle with vertices at (0, ~4), (-2, 5), and (10, 7) 2. Rectangle with vertices at (-2, 7), (5, 4), (-1,-10), and (-8, -7) 3. Quadrilateral with vertices at (4, 2), (-3, 5), (-2.5, -7.25), and (2,7) 4. Right triangle with vertices at (1, 2), (4, 7), and (-9, 8) ‘numbers 5-8: Find the distance between the given points. 5. (4,2) and (5, -6) 6. (0,-5) and (7, 0) 7. (-7,3)and (4,4) 8. (-1,-3) and (4,-3) numbers 9-16: Solve each problem. 9. Draw the circle whose center is at (2, 1) and passing through (3, 8). Does this circle pass through (~3, ~4)? Through (8, 5)? Through (9, 0)? (Note: A circle passes through a point ifthe distance between that point and the center of the circle is the same as the distance between the center and any other point through which the circle passes.) 10. Draw the circle whose center is at (5, -3) and touching the x-axis at (5, 0). Does this circle pass through (3, ~1)? Through (5, ~6)? 11, The center of a circle is at (~3, ~2) and the radius is 7. Find that length of the chord that is bisected at (3, 1). 12. Show that the points (-2, 2), (5, -8), and (-9, 12) are collinear. 13. Show that the points (-~1, 3), (-3, ~2), and (4, 1) are the vertices of an isosceles triangle. 14. Show that the points (~2, -1), (8, 3), and (1, 6) are the vertices of a right triangle. Then find the area of the triangle. 15. Show that the quadrilateral whose vertices are at (-4, 2), (-3, 2), (5, 0), and (4, 4) isa rectangle. Then find the area of the rectangle. 16. What can be said about the coordinates of all the points that lie on the y-axis? On the x-axis? On the line through the origin bisecting the first and third quadrants? On the line bisecting the second and fourth quadrants? On the line parallel to the y-axis three units to the left of the axis? On the line parallel to the x-axis four units upward? rs 17 and 18: Express the given statement by an equation. Draw the figure described. 17. The point (x,) is equidistant from (0, 0) and (~4, 2) 18. The point (x, y) is 6 units from (-2,7). 27 For numbers 19 and 20: Locate the points that satisfy the given conditions. 19, Equidistant from (-5, 0) and (1,6), and ¥/26 units from (-3, 0) 20. Equidistant from (-8, 3), (-2, 5), and (4,3) For numbers 21 and 22: Answer each problem. 21. Find the two points that are 4 units from (7, 4) and ¥26 units from (2, -1). Plot the points on a coordinate plane. 22. Use the given graph to find (a) to (d). a. The coordinates of the points Q, T, and W b. The length of the line segment TU The length of the line segment VW d. The length of the line segment QS 23, It may be verified that the area of any triangle ABC where A, B and C have coordinates (1), (2, y2), and (2s, ya) assigned in counter clockwise manner respectively is equal to one-half of the determinant hi da Pe ye me 3 ¥3 1 Show that the area of the triangle in example 1.7 is 6 square units using the given formula. 24, Find the area of the triangle with vertices (6, 7), (1, -2), and (-7,-1). 25. Find the area of the triangle with vertices (0, 5), (-1, -8), and (3, -4). ‘The Midpoint of a Line Segment ‘The midpoint of a line segment is the point midway between the two endpoints of the line ent. Figure 1.14 shows P(x, y) as the midpoint of the line segment joining Pi(x,,y:) and Pa(xz,y2). ‘corresponding projections on the x-axis of the points P,, P, and Pz are My, M, and Mz, respectively. ot the Pied O| M, w My 4 +— am —> Figure 1.14 The Midpoint P(x, y) Figure 1.14 clearly shows that. om ‘we find the formula for x as follows: x=xy +d (x2—x1) OM, + 4(0M, -O,). =A tx) ula for ymay be obtained ina similar manner. m 1.2 The Midpoint Formula The coordinates of the midpoint P(x, y) of the line segment with endpoints at Pi(x,,:) P(x, y2) are given by linates qual to Xi +X, yas W+Ya | 2 and y==1> 1.9 Find the midpoint of the line segment in Example 1.5. Given points P:(5,~3) and Pa(—4, 1), and by using Theorem 1.2, the coordinates (x,y) of the ofthe line segment with endpoints at Piand Prare Wise(oaja ee eae Roszak oe Thus, the midpoint is at (4, ~1), Refer to Figure 1.15 and check if the answer is correct. Figure 1.15 Midpoint of the Line Segment Joining (5, -3) and (—4, 1) . Example 1.10 Using the midpoint formula, show that the quadrilateral with vertices at (0, 0), (-1,-3), (,-1), and (6, 2) is a parallelogram. Solution ‘One way to show that the given vertices form a parallelogram is by showing that the midpoints of the diagonals of this quadrilateral coincide. We plot the points properly and label them. as A(0, 0), B(-1, ~3), C(5, -1), and D(6, 2). The diagonals in Figure 1.16 are the line segments AC and BD. Figure 1.16 Parallelogram ABCD We solve for the coordinates of the midpoints of AC and BD, as follows: Since the midpoints of AC and BD are one and the same, then the midpoints coincide. Thus, concluded that the quadrilateral with vertices at A, B, C, and Disa parallelogram. . Another way of proving that a quadrilateral is a parallelogram given i t the lengths of the opposite sides are equal, that is, |AD]=|Bq and |A=|Dd. vertices is to show 3 Division ofa Line Segment Aline segment P,P, may be divided by a point P(x, y), either internally or within the line ent (Figure 1.17a), or externally, which is by a point on its extension through any one endpoint ire 1.17 and Figure 1.17c). The point P(x, y) in Figure 1.17a is an internal point of division. On other hand, Figure 1.17b and Figure 1.17c illustrate the external points of division, P(x, y), ugh extensions at points P, and P,, respectively. sPalxa, Ya) at the | them nts AC Figure 1.17a Internal Point of Division POY) - 2 Prbeay) = td My M: M Figure 1.17b External Point of Division through Pz ” Po(X2Y2) | Pew) Figure 1.17¢ External Point of Division through P: In each case, ifline segments P,P and PP2 satisfy PP on where P:B and PP; are directed distances, then point P is said to divide the segment P;P2 in the rat rz either internally (as in Figure 1.17a) or externally (as in Figure 1.17b and Figure 1.17¢), Using the projections of points P, P;, and P, on the x-axis, and if the division is internal as Figure 1.17a, then PP _n xo since ="), then ~—“l ="). We solve for x as follows: PP, ry xy-xk fy FAX —Xy =H —X (+r); BX, Xe PX, HX +h ‘The formula for the y-coordinate may be derived in a similar manner. In the case of external point of division, as in Figures 1.17b and 1.17¢, it is suitable consider the line segment PP, as directed. Recall that a line segment is said to be directed when it measured in a definite sense from one endpoint to the other. Suppose a line segment has endpoint Aand B. Ifone sense, say AB, is chosen as positive, then the opposite sense, BA, is negative. ‘Thus, since P;P and PP» are measured in opposite directions, then the ratio of their directe distances must be negative. 2 Theorem 1.3 Point of Division Formulas ] Ifpoint P(x, y) divides a line segment with endpoints at P,(x:, ys) and P2 (x2,2), internally | "or externally, in the ratio RP PP a 2! | ey tnx, +h ref AO%2 ang y tHe nth nth When P is the midpoint of P,P, such that r; =ry, the formulas above are reduced to the int formula. le 1.11 The line segment joining points (-5, ~4) and (3, 4) is divided into four equal parts. the point of division nearest to (3, 4). he ratio Figure 1.18 illustrates the given points. We label the points as P;(~5, -4) and P.(3, 4). Point P the line segment internally in the following ratio: P.P=3PP, AP 3 in PR Figure 1.18 Line Segment P;P2 Divided into 4 Equal Parts ‘Solving for the coordinates of the point of division, we have DE-5)+8)G) 341 4 =1 ya 4+ (BCA) _-4 +12 341 4 33 » , OCH BH B41 Notice that the point of division formula given in Theorem 1.3 uses the ratio a PEt mm where the coordinates of P are derived. However, we can use other ratios like EP ana fo Ps Ps compute tor the coordinates of P. See the alternate solution for Example 1.11 below. , then we have the equations PP _y-C4)_3 PP, 4-4) 4 Solving these equations yields the same values, which are x = 1 and y = 2. Note that this solution also works using any valid ratio reflecting the relationship between the line segments. Example 1.12 The line segment joining (3, 2) and (0, -3) is extended at each endpoint by a distance equal to one-fourth of its length. Find the endpoints of the line segment extended at (-3, 2) and those of the line segment extended at (0, ~3). Solution Let the given points be labelled as P(~3, 2) and P2(0, ~3). Refer to Figure 1.19a. Solve for the point of division, externally through Py, using LP. (0,-3) Figure 1.19a P isan External Point through Py, The coordinates of the point of division through P; are 3)+(1)(0) _ 15+0 1+(-5) ~4 and 2 CS2)+)-3) 10-3 13 5) eae ae On the other hand, the point of division through P: that y s shown in Figure 1.19b. Again, it can be nm " Fb=-sh, or BE PP; 2 Hence, the coordinates of the point of division through P2 are (DE3)+(5)(0)_3+0_ 3 =145 44 y= DO+(5)C3) _ 2-15-17 -145 ieee on also at by a (3,2) ate =—1 nae P.(0 1 for the 3 Py) Figure 1.19b P Is an External Point through P» ‘Solution for Example 1.12 PP 5 ratio to find the new endpoints, BE *2 tn endpoint 38 e: EA ec oe roe sso each problem. 1. The center of a circle is at (2, 0). If (4, -2) is a point on the circle, then find the other endpoint of the diameter passing through this point. COC Show in two ways that the quadrilateral with vertices at (-1, 5), (-5, 0), (0, -3), and (4, 2) isa parallelogram. 37 Sheet No. 1.8 Score: », Yr., and Sec: Professor: each problem. The endpoint of a diameter of a circle is (~1, 6). If the center of the circle is at (2, ~1), find the other endpoint of the diameter passing through (—1, 6). ‘Three consecutive vertices of a parallelogram are at (5, 0), (-4, 4), and (-6, -1). Find a possible fourth vertex. vity Sheet No. 1.9 : Score: >, Yr., and Sec.: Professor: each problem. 1. The line segment joining the points (~6, 1) and (7, 6) is trisected. Find the points of division. The line segment joining the points (~3, 6) and (4, ~3) is divided into two segments, one of which is two-fifths as long as the other. Find the point of division. (Note: Give two possible a ity Sheet No. 1.10 Score: Yr, and Sec.: Professor: ‘each problem. The line segment joining the points (8, 2) and (~6, -4) is divided into three equal parts. Find the point of division nearer to (-6,—4). faethe The line segment joining the points (2, ~1) and (6, 4) is divided into two segments, one of which is three times as long as the other. Find the point of division. (Note: Give two possible answers.) Sheet No. 1.11 Score: » Yr., and Sec.: Professor: each problem, The line segment joining the points (~2, 2) and (4, 0) is extended at each endpoint by a distance equal to one-fourth of its own length. Find the endpoints of the line segment extended at (-2, 2) and those of the line segment extended at (4, 0). ‘The line segment joining points A(4, 6) and B(-1, -2) is extended through A by three times its original length. Find the coordinates of the new endpoint. Sheet No. 1.12 Score: Yr, and Sec.: Professor: each problem, The line segment joining points R(1, 3) and S(4, ~2) is extended through R by two times its original length. Find the coordinates of the new endpoint. The line segment joining points A(3, 2) and B(-6, -2) is extended through A by a point P such ‘that P is four times as far from B as from A. Find the coordinates of P. a7 12 rs 1-4: Find the point midway between each pair of points. 1. (3,-5) and (-7,8) 2 (4-1) and (7, -5) 3. (F-4)and (2-4) 4 (-3, $)and(4,-4) srs 5-15: Solve each problem. 5. Show in two ways that the quadrilateral with vertices at (0, 0), (8, 6), (6,14), and (-2, 8) isa parallelogram. 6. The center of a circle is at (-3, 4). If (0, ~5) is a point on the circle, then find the other endpoint of the diameter passing through this point. 7. Three consecutive vertices of a parallelogram are at (2, 4), (5,—2), and (-2, -3). Find the fourth vertex. 8. Three vertices of a parallelogram are at (~2, 3), (-4, -2), and (2, ~4). Find the fourth vertex. (Note: There are three possible answers.) 9. The line segment joining the points (~4, 9) and (5, -4) is trisected. Find the points of division, 10. The line segment joining the points (3, ~1) and (6, 4) is divided into two segments, one of which is three times as long as the other. Find the point of division. (Note: There are two possible answers.) 11. The line segment joining the points (~1, 4) and (5, -6) is divided into two segments, one of which is three-fourths as long as the other. Find the point of division. (Note: There are two possible answers.) 12. The line segment joining points (1, ~2) and B(7, 5) is extended through A by a point P such that P is three times as far from B as from A. Find the coordinates of P. 13. The line segment joining points A(1, ~2) and B(7, 5) is extended through B by a point Q such that Q is four times as far from A as from B. Find the coordinates of Q. 14. In Figures 1.17a, 1.17b, and 1.17¢, if P=k-P,P,, show that X=X1+K(t2— x1) andy =yi + ky: -ys). 15. Solve Examples 1.11 and 1.12 using the formulas given in number 14. Peeve eta roai torr nee went 2 The Slope of a Line Beeb ate aerns trea ta ants FOr scaea macnn Muerte rer ctmea tert te ant PA p ere ote ll cent eee Pi muterCcireae coat teeta a watt Pe uae eet Bente one Gerken wget Rau eicrineesen CHAPTER 2 LINES This chapter focuses on lines—their general and standard forms, graphical representations, properties, as well as applications, Detailed discussions on concepts relevant to lines, such as tion, slope, and angle between lines, are presented. ‘The Angle of Inclination of a Line jon 2.1 Angle of Inclination ‘The angle of inclination, or simply inclination, of a line is the smallest nonnegative @ that the line makes with the x-axis on the right side of the line. It is measured in a srclockwise manner, where 0° < a< 180°, Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2 show the lines /, and /2, respectively, where the angles of jon are denoted by and 2.1 Graph of; with Inclination a Figure 2.2 Graph ofl with Inclination B The Slope of a Line The slope of a line, usually denoted by m, is the tangent of its angle of inclination. By definition, if ais the angle of inclination of a line /, then the slope of lis given by m=tana. Recall that tan a may be obtained by dividing the length of the side opposite of a by the sof the side adjacent to a in a right triangle, as marked in Figure 2.3. If we let the lengths of the side and the adjacent side be the number of units of rise and the number of units of run, ly, then we may denote the slope as ise opposite side _ rise adjacent side run” ‘Thus, the slope is often referred to as the ratio of the rise and the run of a line. Let us look further into what the slope of a line represents. In Figure 2.3, line J has an inclination of @ while passing through points P,(x,,y,)and P,(X2,¥2)- Pp | Figure 2.3 Graph of | Passing through P; (x1, ys) and Pz (xz, yz) In the figure, we see that we have formed the right triangle P:QPz, where Q has coordinates (x2, ¥;) Clearly, we can establish that maeananss. "| Note that the directed distances QP,and P,Q are y,—y,and x2 ~-x, ,tespectively. Therefore, formula for the slope of any given line passing through the two points P,(x;,yiJand P;(x2,¥2) presented in Theorem 2.1. Theorem 2.1 Slope ofa Line If P,(xy,1) and P,(x2,72) are two points on the xy-plane, then the slope m of the line passing through P; and P2 is given by m=22=Yt, or m=2=22, where x, #2. | ym noe ‘Taking into consideration lines that are parallel to any of the two coordinate axes, we hai Remark 2.1. rk 2.1 Slopes of Lines Parallel to an Axis Let P;(x;,.7,Jand P,(x2,,72) be two points on a line. | If m = x2, then the line is vertical and parallel to the y-axis. The slope of the line is not defined. | Ifys = ya, then the line is horizontal and parallel to the x-axis. The slope of the line is zero. “us look awhile As seen in Figure 2.4, Py and Pz have the same x-coordinate, which means x2 ~ x: = 0. Hence, lope of 1; is not defined. This occurs when the line is parallel to the y-axis, hence vertically cd. On the other hand, Ps and Py have the same y-coordinate, which means ys - y3 = 0. Hence, pe of /2 is 0. This happens when the line is parallel to the x-axis, hence horizontally oriented. ie —— Puy Je) Para PCr rt Ga h | | x | Fore Figure 2.4 Lines Parallel to the Axes (2 ¥2) In the next remark, we point out observations regarding the sign of the slope of diagonal or lines. k 2.2 Positive and Negative Slopes | Aline rising from left to right has a positive slope. For /s in Figure 2.5, both ys ~ ys and xe ~ xs are positive. Applying the formula for slope yields itive value for ms. The figure shows a line that rises from left to right. For ly, which falls from left it, Ya -Y7 is negative, while xs ~ x7 is positive. This implies that my is negative. h I ms <0 Py ¥7) Po(X6.¥e) Po (X59) Psxsp¥5) Figure 2.5 Slopes of Slanted Lines Example 2.1 Find the slope m and the angle of inclination @ of the line passing through points (1,~: and (6, 1). Solution We label the points as P,(1, -2) and P(6, 1). Hence, mat inclination, we have tan a = (3) - Thus, @=¢an™ () =30.96°. The solution shows that the slope m is positive, as verified in Figure 2.6, which shows line rising from left to right. Note that the slope 2 may be used to draw the line through a giv point using the fact that the slope is the ratio of the rise and the run. From P;(1, ~2), we move 5 unit to the right and 3 units upward to locate another point on the line. . For the angle P2(6, 1) 5 units to the right $3 units jupward Figure 2.6 Line Passing through the Points (1, -2) and (6, 1) In general, the slope m=— of a line may be used to draw the line passing through a given If the slope is positive, from the given point, we move b units to the right and then a units id (or b units to the left and then a units downward). On the other hand, if the slope is negative, ‘move b units to the right and then a units downward (or b units to the left and then @ units rd). Parallel and Perpendicular Lines One important use of the slope is to establish relationships between certain lines. In the ding discussions, we present particular conditions when lines are parallel or perpendicular their slopes. -m 2.2 Parallel Lines Let /; and Iz be two non-vertical lines with slopes m; and m2,respectively. The lines h, and Parallel, denoted as /;|| /2, if and only if my = mz. 2.2 Using slopes, verify that the points (1, 4), (7, 0), (5, ~3), and (~1, 1) are vertices of a To prove that the given points are vertices of a parallelogram, we need to show that the sides of the parallelogram are parallel using Theorem 2.2. We plot the given points on a plane and label them as A(1, 4), B(-1, 1), C(5, ~3), and D(7, 0), as shown in Figure 2.7. A (1,4) | a Figure 2.7 Parailelogram ABCD In the figure, the pairs of opposite sides are BA and CD, and BCand AD. The slope of each al 2 3 2 ‘These results show that the slopes of each pair of opposite sides are equal. Thus, we conclude that since mp, =mep, then BA || CD. Similarly, since mp =mc, then AD || BC. Hence, the given points are vertices of a parallelogram. Theorem 2.3 Perpendicular Lines Let /; and /2 be two intersecting, not ‘The lines /; and [are perpendicular to each other, denoted as 1 ly, if and only if m, mymy Example 2.3 Show that the parallelogram in Example 2.2 is a rectangle. In Solution me ‘To show that the parallelogram is a rectangle, we need to show that two adjacent sides are perpendicular. In the figure, BA is adjacent to AD and BC, while CD is adjacent to BC and AD. Using the then t slopes obtained in Example 2.2 and using Theorem 2.3, we have tant BA 1 BC, BA LAD, CD1 BC,and CD. AD. Thus, the parallelogram is a rectangle. 5 aa wes 2.4 The Angle between Two Lines For any two intersecting lines, two pairs of angles are formed. Two opposite angles have th same magnitude, while two adjacent angles are supplementary, that is, the sum of their magnitud is 180°, ‘above Let the two lines be /; and /; having slopes m: and ma, respectively. Let the inclination of h, and that of l2 be f, as shown in Figure 2.8, Also, let the angles between these intersecting lines be and @, where @, is the angle from |; as the initial side to /; as the terminal side, and @: is the any from Ito h. Observe that the angles are measured in a counterclockwise manner. Thus, we >. Hence, vel a s | 2 or m, Y [ Figure 2.8 Angles between Two Lines In the given derivation, we first consider how to get 6. In Figure 2.8, we have established the ng: a+ (180° - f) + = 180° sides ar G=p-a Using then take the tangent of both sides of the above equation. Using the sum and difference identity tan(f - a), we have the following: tan@, =tan(B—a) tano, = LanB=tana T+tanatang | and fare angles of inclination, then tana and tanf are slopes. Letting m: = tana and m2 = ‘we solve for @ as follows: fersecting, non-perpendicular lines with slopes m: and mz, respectively, @ isan angle from h to he, then Itis important to note that in Theorem 2. 4, m, is the slope of the terminal side and m, is the ‘of the initial side, where we label the angle sweeping from 1; to [2 in a counterclockwise ‘The angle between perpendicular lines is 90°. ‘As a convention, we designate the initial and terminal sides following a counterclockwise direction; thus, the angles are positive. In instances where the clockwise direction is taken, the angles are negative. Figure 2.9 shows that the angles between two lines have various possible values or representations, yet any two of these differ by a multiple of 180°, Hence, the angles may be expressed in the form 8+ 1180", where is as described in the derivation of the angle between two lines and n is any integer. From trigonometry, we have tané + tan{n80" =tand 1-tanétan{n80° This means that whenever we get a negative value for 6, we may add 180° to it, allowing us to have a positive value for the desired angle. Specifically, the values for n used in Figure 2.9 are ~1 for @-180°, and 1 for 6+ 180°. tan(@+ni80" So 94 180° Figure 2.9 Relationships of Angles between Two Lines Example 2.4 The points (~3, 6), (1, -5), and (7, 2) are vertices of a triangle. Find the interior angles of the triangle. Solution In Figure 2.10, we represent the given points as A(-3, 6), B(1,—5), and C(7, 2). We then take , 6, and @ as the interior angles of the triangle at A, B, and C, respectively, measured in 2 counterclockwise manner. clockwise the angles values or expressed, sger. From stohavea jor 0-180", . We then measured in AC3, 6) Figure 2.10 Triangle ABC The sides of the triangle are the line segments AB, BC, and AC. We now solve for the slope of side of the triangle, as follows: Recall the formula given in Theorem 2.4. We use the slopes obtained in that formula to find sponding interior angles, as follows: Bp -[pene|- 6, =tan L+mgginac myp ~m, tand, =| Meee |. 9, ton a [peste . Me Mac tand, COL Temgcmye * + 60.58° + 71.20° = 180°, then the angles obtained satisfy the property of triangles, that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180°. Example 2.5 The cross section of a hut is in the form of an isosceles triangle. The hut is 18 feet high and 24 feet wide at the base. Find the slope of a side of the hut and identify the angle at its tip. If the hut has a second floor that is 10 feet from the base, how wide is the second floor? Solution We first illustrate the hut on a Cartesian plane, labelling the relevant points. The base of the hut is situated on the x-axis, where the endpoints are at (12, 0) and (~12, 0). The height is 18 feet: hence, the tip of the hut is at (0, 18). These points are shown in Figure 2.11. 12,0)" : f a ‘(a2,0) © Figure 2.11 Cross Section of the Hut Described in Example 2.5 Using the points (0, 18) and (12, 0), we find that the slope of the right side of the hut is 18-0_ 3 Note that the slope of the right side is negative because the side falls from left to right. The left si has a positive slope having the same magnitude since it rises from left to right. To find the angle 3 and the terminal side be the side wit the tip, we let the initial side be the side with slope m, = slope m= 3 Thus, ‘The second floor is 10 feet above the base with one of its endpoints at (x, 10), where value of x is one-half of the width of the second floor. Note that point (x, 10) is collinear with (0, 1 and (12, 0), and any two points among collinear points form line segments having the same slo Hence, the value of x may be obtained using the slope —3., as follows: 18-103 O-x 2 =u 3 ‘Twice the value of x gives the width of the second floor of the hut. Thus, the width of second flor is 5 feet, or about 10.67 feet. ity Sheet No. 2.1 e: Score: , Yr., and Sec: Professor: Draw the line passing through the given point and having the indicated inclination or slope. 1. Passing through (4, -7) and with m = -2 a tis the slope and the inclination of the line passing through the given points. (5, 1) and (-3, -8) Draw the line passing through the given point and having the indicated inclination or slope. 1. Passing through (8, 2) and with m= 3 ‘the slope and the inclination of the line passing through the given points, (G,5) and (2, -6) (9,3) and (24) 2, ¥r., and Sec.: each problem. Illustrate and label relevant points. Using slopes, show that the points (8, -2), (24) and (6, 5) lie on the same line. Using slopes, show that the poi o Score: Yr, and Sec: Professor: each problem. Illustrate and label relevant points, ‘Show that the line segment having endpoints at (1, 4) and (7, 1) is perpendicular to the line segment having endpoints at (~5, ~8) and (~2, -2). 4 10-foot-long ladder is leaning against a vertical wall with the top of the ladder 8 feet from the ground. What is the slope of the ladder? How far is the foot of the ladder from the wall? Can a 6-foot-tall man walk under the ladder 1 foot from the wall? Justify your answer. Score: e, Yr. and Sec.: Professor: ch problem. fllustrate and label relevant points. Using slopes, show that the points (7, 2), (6-2), (#5) yand (3-3) forma rectangle. A soccer game is being televised by a certain TV station. A camera is situated 10 meters away from the longer side of the soccer field and 7 meters from the middle part. If the field is 100 ‘meters long and 64 meters wide, through what angle must the camera sweep to cover all the Yr,andSec.:___—séPrrofessor: problem. Find the acute angle between /; and lz such that l; passes through (5, -2) and (3, 2), while la passes through (~1, 0) and (1, 8). Find the interior angles of a triangle whose vertices are at (4, 12), (-5, 7), and (1, 1). Illustrate the problem. ‘The bottom of a 50-foot-long swimming pool is an inclined plane. If the pool is 8 feet deep on ‘one end and 2 feet deep on the other end, what is the inclination of the bottom of the pool? Illustrate the problem. A 5 21 ibers 1-10: Draw the line passing through the given point and having the indicated inclination (5,5); 0=45° (-8,-2); 6=60" 1 (3): 6=120 1. (-5,-10); 6=100° . (9,1); @=150° 11-15: Find the slope and the inclination of the line passing through the given points. 11. (-4,5) and (1,2) 12. (3,7) and (9, 1) 13. (3,0) and (0,4) 14. (20) and (0,-4) 16-30: Solve each problem. ‘16. Show using slopes that the points (~6, ~7), (3, 5), and (12, 17) lie on the same line. 7. Show using slopes that the points (0, -9), (4, 1), and (8, 11) lie on the same line. 18. Show using slopes that the points (2, ~3), (6, -1), and (6, -11) are vertices of a right triangle. ‘19. Show using slopes that the points (~1, 1), (4, -8), and (22, 2) are vertices of a right triangle. 20. Show using slopes that the points (~7, 2), (~3, -3), (2, 1), and (-2, 6) form a rectangle. 21. Show using slopes that the points (4, 1), (3, 5), (8, 13), and (1, 9) form a parallelogram. 22, Show that the connected midpoints of the sides of the quadrilateral having vertices at (-3, 2), (1,-3), (5, 2), and (2, 4) form a parallelogram, 23. Find the slope of line / if the angle from I; to /2 is 45° and the slope of l2 is -2. 24, Find the acute and obtuse angles between line /; passing through the points (1, 8) a (6, 2), and line /z passing through the points (~1, -3) and (2, 11). 25. An inclined plank will be used to unload barrels from a truck. If one end of the plank placed at the truck's rear door 4 feet above the ground, while the other end exten 8 feet horizontally on the ground, what is the inclination of the plank? 26. The cross section of a hut, 20 feet wide at its base, is an isosceles triangle. If the slope aside is 1.75 and a second floor is 9 feet above the ground floor, what is the width of the second floor? What is the angle at the tip of the hut? 27. Find the interior angles of the triangle with vertices at A(3, 2), B(4, 5), and C(-1, -1). 28, Find the interior angles of the triangle whose sides are on the lines x+y-5=0 x-y-5=0,and 5x+y-1=0. 29. A swimming competition is being covered by a designated photographer. The camera placed 15 feet away from the longer side and 10 feet away from the middle part of swimming pool having a length of 164 feet. Through what angle must the camera swe to cover all the action in the pool? 30. Consider the given figure, where point 0 is the origin and the values represent lengths feet. a. Find the slope of line segments 48, DE ,and FC. b. Find the angle between line segments BC and FC. c Bek 16 ‘The General Equation of a Straight Line jon 2.3 Line A first-degree equation is graphically represented by a straight line. Conversely, every it line may be represented by an equation of the first degree. A first-degree equation in x and y contains a term in x and/or in y, and a constant term. It be written in the form Ax + By + C= 0, where A, B, and C are constants such that A and B cannot zero, This is called the general form of the equation of a line. Form of the Equation of a Line The general form of the equation of a line is Ax + By + C= 0, where A, B, and Care real +r constants such that A and B cannot be both zero. An example of an equation of a line is 2x -Sy-10=0, where A = 2, B = -5, and C= -10, as in Figure 2.12. Sketching the line may involve getting two points that satisfy the given . Letting x = 0 gives y = -2, while letting y = 0 gives x = 5. The points generated are (0, -2) 0). part of Figure 2.12 Graph of the Line 2x - Sy-10=0 Lines may be parallel to a coordinate axis or may be in a slant orientation. Depending on the ofa line, this orientation may be easily identified. The succeeding sections discuss the graph corresponding to their equations and how the lines are oriented relative to the coordinate 2.6 Lines Parallel to the Axes So Equation of a Line Parallel to a Coordinate Axis the Consider a line that passes through the point P(x, 91). Th (a) Ifthe ine is parallel to the x-axis, then its equation is y = ys. (b) Ifthe line is parallel to the y-axis, then its equation is x= x:. a poi Figure 2.13 illustrates the two lines described above, where /; is the line parallel to the y-axis and fz is the line parallel to the x-axis. 7 h Pas, ¥4) yan xen poe ody Figure 2.13 Lines Parallel to the Coordinate Axes, 2, the li Consider the general form Ax + By + C = 0. If B = 0, then the equation represents a li parallel to the y-axis, which is a vertical line. If A = 0, then the equation represents a line parallel the x-axis, which is a horizontal line. If C= 0, then the line passes through the origin. Sin) thee Example 2.6 Draw each line. @) (b) (© @ Solution Each line is analyzed and drawn using the properties of horizontal lines, vertical lines, lines passing through the origin. The graphs are presented in Figure 2.14. (a) Thelinex= 2 is parallel to the y-axis and the abscissa of all the points on the line is 2. (b) Inthe equation y - 3 = 0, adding 3 to both sides yields y = 3. This represents a line parallel the x-axis. The ordinate of all the points on the line is 3. ee ame Solving for x in 3x + 5 = 0 gives us x =>. This represents a line parallel to the y-axis, with all 3 the points on the line having a common abscissa of -. ‘The line 2x ~ 7y = 0 passes through the origin and may be drawn by identifying another point on the line. For instance, if we let x = 7 rou (2) , we get y = 1. Thus, the line also passes through the Figure 2.14 Graphs ofx=2,y-3= 0, 3x+5=0, and 2x-7y=0 . 2.7 Find the equation of the line parallel to the x-axis and passing through (~3, 4). Then line. ents a lit ‘parallel Since the line is parallel to the x-axis, we have a horizontal line passing through (~3, 4), equation is y = 4, Figure 2.15 illustrates the given line. I lines, 2. e parallel Figure 2.15 Graph ofy=4 Example 2.8 Find the equation of the line parallel to the x-axis and passing through (3, 0). Solution Since the line is parallel to the x-axis, we have a horizontal line passing through (3, 0) Incidentally, this line has the equation y = 0, which is the x-axis. 2.7. The Standard Forms of the Equation of a Line A line may be determined if certain properties of the line are provided. For instance, if are given two points that define a line or any two points at which a line passes through, then we derive the equation of that line. This section deals with the different standard forms of the equatis ofa line, Each form is named based on the given properties of lines. Given below is a list of the standard forms of the equation of a line, followed by a detail discussion on each form. Standard Forms of the Equation of a Line (a) Slope-Intercept Form: y=mx+b, where mis the slope and b is the y-intercept (b) _Point-Slope Form: y-yy=m(x—x,), where m is the slope and P;(x:,y1) is a point on the line (©) __ Intercept Form: Ee Zen, a where a is the x-intercept and b is the y-intercept 2.7.1 The Slope-Intercept Form (SIF) The Slope-Intercept Form (SIF) of the equation of a line is obtained when the slope and y-intercept of the line are given, as illustrated in Figure 2.16. The equation of the line containing point (x, y), and having a slope of m and a y-intercept of b, or passing through (0, b), may be obtai using the formula for slope, as follows: yob x-0 yamx+b stance, if Figure 2.16 Line with Slope m and y-intercept b le 2.9 Write the equation of each line given the y-intercept and the slope. The slope is ~3 and the y-intercept is 3. The slope is 2 and the y-intercept is ~2. Since m = -3 and b= 3, theny =~3x +3, Since m= and b=-2,theny=2y-2. ‘The general forms of the equations in (a) and (b) are 3x + y - 3 = 0 and 2x - Sy - 10 =0, Wvely. A line that is expressed in the general form Ax + By+C=0 may be reduced to the slope- t form by simply solving the equation for y. The resulting coefficient of x is the slope and the plope and tis the y-intercept. containing, y be obtai . le 2.10 Express the line 4x~3y-12=0in the slope-intercept form. Then sketch the line. 4x4. Thus, the slope of the line Solving for y in the equation 4x —3y ~12=0 results in 5 and the y-intercept is 4. Figure 2.17 shows the line. Figure 2.17 Graph of 4x-3y—12=0 Ina previous section, it was shown that two lines are parallel if their slopes are equal. Als. two lines are perpendicular if the slope of one line is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the oth line. A simpler way of determining whether two lines are parallel or perpendicular is by sim, examining the coefficients of the variables of the equations, Using the slope-intercept form, it is easy to show that the lines Ax + By +C,=Oand Ax + By +C2=0 4 - Hence, the lines are parallel. On the other hand, the slopes of the lines Ax + By + Ci =Oand Br-Ay+G@=0 have the same slope, are -4 and: 3, respectively. Hence, the lines are perpendicular. ‘Thus, if a line is to be parallel to a given line, then the coefficients of x and y in the requit equation should be the same as those in the equation of the given line, On the other hand, ifa line tobe perpendicular to a given line, then the required equation may be found by interchanging coefficients of x and y, and changing the sign of one of them. In both instances, the unknown const ‘may be determined using some given additional information. a Remark 2.3 Equations of Pairs of Parallel lines and Perpendicular Lines ‘Two lines written in the general form are parallel if the coefficients of x and y are the: same for both lines or are a multiple of the other, For parallel lines. ‘Ax+ By+C, =0 and Ax+By+C; =0, the common slope is 4. | ‘Two lines written in the general form are perpendicular if the coefficients of x and y in one line are interchanged in the other line, with one of the signs changed. For perpendicular lines Ax+By+C, =0 and Bx-Ay+C,=0, [* slopes are -4 and Z, respectively. ple 2.11 Write the equation of the line passing through the point (~2, 5) and parallel to the line 3x-4y=25. perpendicular to the line 3x—4y=25. Since the line is parallel to 3x~4y =25, then the equation has the form 3x - 4y = ki, where 4 constant. Solving for k; using the point (~2, 5) through which the line passes, we get ka =3(-2) - 4(5) =-26. the required equation is 3x - 4y = -26. Since the line is perpendicular to 3x-4y=25, then the equation has the form 4x +3y = ke, ‘eis a constant. Solving for ke using the point (2, 5) through which the line passes, we get ka = 4(-2) + 3(5) =7. the required equation Is 4x +3y = 7. Figure 2.18 shows the three lines given in the problem. Figure 2.18 Graphs of the lines 3x —4y =~26, 3x —4y =25 and 4x + 3) =7 The Point-Slope Form (PSF) The Point-Slope Form (PSF) of the equation of a line is obtained when a point on the line and are provided, as shown in Figure 2.19. The equation of the line passirig through point )) and having a slope of m is obtained as follows: vay xn, Y-I1=M(K—X1) m=: Pile ys) Figure 2.19 Line with Slope m=2—%4 ah Example 2.12 Determine an equation of each line with the given properties. Then sketch the line. 2.13 F (2) _ Passing through the point (4, 5) and having a slope of 4 In this ¢ (b) Having an angle of inclination of arctan + and passing though the point ( 4, g the slop: Solution fa) Let x: = 4, yi = 5, and m = 4. Substituting these in the point-slope form of the equation of 2 =y{ line gives the following: (b) If m = tana, where is the inclination of the line, then m= form of the equation of a line gives the following: xe 203, 913 8x-6y +23=0 Figure 2.20 illustrates the given lines. finding ti line. ation of Figure 2.20 Graphs of 4x —y 11 = 0 and 8x —6y + 23=0 le 2.13 Find an equation of the line passing through the points (8, 3) and (1, -6). In this problem, two points on the line are given, instead of a single point. This allows us to the slope of the line using the formula presented in a previous section in the chapter. Thus, ma22=W _ 6-3 et e any of the two given points and use the point-slope form to obtain the desired equation, 2.4 Two-Point Form of the Line | We sometimes call the standard form of the equation of the line passing through any two points P;(x:,,y:) and P2(x2, y2) as the Two-Point Form, given by | 2.14 In a certain laboratory experiment, it was found out that the temperature (in degrees ‘was linearly related to the electrical resistance (in ohms) of a metal alloy wire having fixed Results showed that at a temperature of 30°C, the electrical resistance of the alloy is and ata temperature of 120°C, itis 0.032 ohm. If temperature and electrical resistance ai by T and R, respectively, with R dependent on T, find the electrical resistance of the wire 150°C. At what temperature is the electrical resistance 0.018 ohm? Since the relationship between T and R is linear, and R is dependent on 7, we can relate them ing the slope, as follows: 0.032-0.020__ 1 120-30 7500 We then use the point-slope form to find the necessary equation, as follows: 1 R-0.020=——(T -30) 7500" ) a 7 +0016 7500 If T= 150°C, then R = 0.036 ohm. Also, the temperature of the wire when R = 0.018 ohm i 15°C. 2.7.3 The Intercept Form (IF) ‘The Intercept Form (IF) of the equation of a line is obtained when both the x- and intercepts of the line are given, as shown in Figure 2.21. In the figure, the line passes through (a, b Using the slope-intercept form gives the equation beak. a and (0, b). Hence, the slope of the line is m= x Simplifying, the equation of the line whose x-intercept is a and whose y-intercept is b is given by way ot, ab Figure 2.21 Line with x-intercept a and y-intercept b Example 2.15 Write the general form of the equation of the line having an x-intercept of ~3, ay-intercept of 2. ‘Then find the area of the triangle enclosed by this line and the coordinate the des: Illustrate the problem. Solution 3. Using the intercept form, we have the following: 5 Note that a= Figure 2.22 illustrates the triangle identified in the problem. Clearly, the height of the leis 3 and the base is 3. Thus, using the formula for finding the area of a triangle, we have ef?) k 2 square unit. Py x- and ugh (a, quation on by Figure 2.22 Graph ofx- 5y +3 =0 Forming a Triangle . of Area 9 square unit 10 2.16 Find the equation of the line passing through the point (6, -8) and having spt that is twice the y-intercept. Since the line has an x-intercept that is twice the y-intercept, then a = 2b. Therefore, clear that b cannot be zero, since the equation is not defined and the relationship between ts is not valid. We now solve for b using the point (6, -8), as follows: 6-8 a1 2b b b t of -3 dinate desired equation is x+2y Yr. and Sec.: an equation of the line with the given properties. m=2andb=3 m= 5 and passing through (4, 2) Passing through (3, 4) and (7, -1) a=6andb=10 ss each equation in the slope-intercept form and intercept-form. Then sketch the line. 9x-15y-3=0 Sheet No, 2.8 Score: Yr. and Sec.: Professor: the general form of the equation of the line with the given properties, m=~-3andb=4 m= 3 and passing through (1, 7) Passing through (5, ~2) and (6, 3) a=Sandb=5 each equation in the slope-intercept form and intercept-form. Then sketch the line, Sx+8y-40=0 om Sheet No. 2.9 Score: Yr. and Sec.: Professor: ‘h problem. Consider the line 2x - 3y = 0. Find the equation of each of the two lines passing through (7, ~3), one of which is parallel, while the other is perpendicular to the given line. Sketch the resulting lines. Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment whose endpoints are at (2,-1) and (8, 2). ‘The total cost of manufacturing a certain product consists of a weekly overhead of 120 thousand pesos and a manufacturing cost of 1.2 thousand pesos per unit of the product. 2 If x units are produced per week and y pesos is the total weekly cost, write a linear ‘equation relating x and y. ‘5. Find the total cost if 100 units of the product will be manufactured. Score: Profess each problem. Find the general form of the equation of the line whose y-intercept is three times the x-intercept, and passing through (1, 6). Find the general form of the equations of the lines passing through (~1, 3) and parallel to the diagonals of the rectangle with vertices at (1, 4), (5,1), (10, 3), and (6, 8). The total cost of manufacturing a certain product consists of a weekly overhead of 300 thousand pesos and a manufacturing cost of 2 thousand pesos per unit of the product. a. If x units are produced per week and y pesos is the total weekly cost, write a linear equation relating x and y. b. Find the cost of manufacturing 1000 units of this product. 8 2.2 imbers 1-20: Find an equation of the line with the given properties. and and 4 3. m=-3andb=* m=-3andb== 4m + and b=9 3 5. m=2 and b=+ 5 2 6. Passing through (11, 0) and m=2 7. Passing through (1,-1) and m =~ 8. Passing through (5,3) and m=3 9, Passing through (2,3) andm= i 10. Passing through (6,2) and m ‘11. Passing through (—7,2) and (3,-6) 12. Passing through (4,4) and (10,1) 113, Passing through (1,3) and (4,5) 14. Passing through (32) and (24) 15, Passing through (-5, 9) and (~2, 3) 16. a=7 and b=4 17. a=2 and b=8 18. 21-25: Express the given equation in the indicated form. 21.3x+2y =6 ; slope-intercept form 22.5x—-6y =15; slope-intercept form 2x+7y = 14; intercept form 6x-7y = 28 ; intercept form 2x SAY 21; general form For numbers 26-35: Give the equation of the line described in each problem. For numbers 36-45: Solve each problem. 26. Passing through (3, 5) and parallel to the x-axis 27. Passing through (~2, 7) and parallel to the x-axis, 28. Passing through (4, 1) and parallel to the y-axis =0, 29, Passing through (8, —2) and parallel to the y-axis, letthe 30, Passing through (1, ~3) and parallel to 5x+2y =10 R.res 31, Passing through (0, 4) and parallel to 3x-2y =8 32, Passing through ( 23) and parallel to x-y =5 33, Passing through (4,—3) and perpendicular to x—3y =12 34. Passing through (~5, 6) and perpendicular to ~4x +5y =15 35, Passing through (- : 3) and perpendicular to x- y=5 36, Find the equation of the diameter of a circle whose endpoints are at (6, 11) and (3,~1). 37. Find the equation of the chord of a circle whose endpoints are at (-5,~1) and (28). 38, The height of a triangle is the length of the a line segment from a vertex which perpendicular to the side opposite this vertex. Identify the general form of the equati of the line segments that represent the heights of the triangle with vertices at A(—4, 1 B(2, 8), and C(5, -5). 39. Find the equations of the diagonals of the rectangle with vertices at (1, 4), (7, 0), (5,-% and (-1, 1). In} 40. Find the perpendicular bisector of the line segment whose endpoints are at (3, and (-1,~2). equ 41, Find the perpendicular bisector of the line segment whose endpoints are at (-2, and (5, 8). 42. Find the equation of the line passing through (3, -3) and whose x-intercept is one+ of the y-intercept. 43. Find the equation of the line passing through (8, 2) and whose intercepts are the same. 44, Find the equation of the line passing through (1, 3) and whose x-intercept is the negat ofthe y-intercept. 45, Find the equation of the line passing through (1, 2) and whose y-intercept is 2 more the x-intercept. ‘The Directed Distance from a Line to a Point Itis sometimes important to determine the distance of a point from a given line. To find the endicular distance d from the line Ax + By + C = 0 to the point P(x:, y1), we consider the line + By + D = 0 containing the point P(x;, yi) and parallel to Ax + By + C= 0. Also, we need the line ~ Ay = 0, which is perpendicular to the two other given lines and passing through the origin. We let the intersections of Bx - Ay = 0 with the lines Ax + By + C= 0 and Ax + By + D = 0 be the points R, respectively. We observe that the distance between Q and R is precisely the value of d. Hence, in deri formula for the directed distance from a line toa point, we find the distance between Q and R. is a directed distance since the value of d may be either positive or negative depending on the ion of the point relative to the line. The distance is positive when the point is above the line or ive ifthe point is below the line. The value of dis zero when the point lies on the line. PO) Figure 2.23 Directed Distance from a Line to a Point In Figure 2.23, we have the following system of linear equations: bre at (34 Ax+By+C=0 (i) A+ By+ wo Bx-Ay=0 Gi) equations (i) and (iii), we find that the coordinates of ie are AC ‘equations (ii) and (iii), we find that the coordinates “ a are the same. Fe coll in the distance formula to find |QR|, we the negat AC ota malt ‘(adeay pm) 2 more Note that the line Ax-+By+D=0 contains P(x, v1), allowing us to substitute the values of the coordinates in the equation of the line. Hence, we have Ax, +By, +D=0, or Ax, + By, =-D. This expression for -D is then substituted in the equation obtained for |QR|. Hence, ou point o on 44+ Bi +e | line. T: Va? +B? fine 3x Since d =|QR|, then the directed distance from the line Ax + By + C= 0 to the point P(x:, y1) is given by. Ax, + By, +C ant direc tV 4? +B where the sign of the denominator follows the sign of B. If B is zero, then we use the sign of A. i ay=9 Definition 2.4 Directed Distance from a Line to a Point The directed distance d from the line Ax + By + C= 0 to the point P(x:,y1) is We Axy + By, +C VA? +B? where the sign of the denominator follows the sign of B. Again, the sign of d indicates the location of the point with respect to the line. The point li above the line if d is positive, lies below the line if d is negative, or lies on the line if d is zero. Example 2.17 Find the distance from the line 5x—4y=8 to the point (4,2). Solution 5(4)- 204i s*+(-4F a which gives a distance of approximately 3.12 units. The negative sign in the resulting dista indicates that the point is below the line, as shown in Figure 2.24. The distance from the line 5x-4y=8 to the point (4, -2) is d bech Figure 2.24 Directed Distance between 5x - 4y - 8 = O and (4, -2) sple 2.18 How far apart are the parallel lines 3x + 4y = 9 and 3x + 4y = 217 n Since the given lines are parallel, then we can get the distance between the lines by choosing point on one of the lines. Note that the same distance may be obtained using any other point on line. To find the answer, we first identify a point on any of the two lines, say the point (3, 0) on Jine 3x + 4y = 9. Hence, its distance d from the other line 3x + 4y = 21 is given by gu 33+ MO)=21 12 5 Bl direction is not needed for the distance between two parallel lines, the distance between s given 4y=9 and 3x+ 4y=21is units We may solve for the distances dy and dz of each of the parallel lines Ax + By + C; = 0 and By+ C2 =0 froma point P(x;,y1) using the formulas Axy + By, +Cy Axy + By +C; dy = 1 Fn Ft and dp =. 2. 2A? 4 BP eee the absolute value of the difference of d: and dp gives the distance d between the two given e point li as follows: . d=|d, ~

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