Rapid Visual Screening

of Buildings for Potential

Seismic Hazards: A Handbook
Third Edition
FEMA P-154 / January 2015

FEMA P-154

THIRD EDITION
Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential
Seismic Hazards: A Handbook

Prepared by
APPLIED TECHNOLOGY COUNCIL
201 Redwood Shores Parkway, Suite 240
Redwood City, California 94065
www.ATCouncil.org
Prepared for
FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY
Michael Mahoney, Project Officer
Mai Tong, Task Monitor
Erin Walsh, Task Monitor
John Gillengerten, Technical Monitor
Washington, D.C.

ATC MANAGEMENT AND OVERSIGHT

Christopher Rojahn (Program Executive)
Jon A. Heintz (Program Manager)
Ayse Hortacsu (Project Manager)
Thomas McLane (Project Manager)
PROJECT REVIEW PANEL
Charles Scawthorn (Chair)
Timothy Brown
Melvyn Green
Laura Kelly
Stephanie King
John Osteraas
Steven Sweeney
Christine Theodoropoulos

PROJECT TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

Bret Lizundia (Project Technical Director)
Michael Griffin
William T. Holmes
Brian Kehoe
Keith Porter
Barry Welliver
PROJECT WORKING GROUP
Sarah Durphy
Charles A. Kircher
Nicolas Luco
Kenneth Rukstales

January 2015

Notice
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not
necessarily reflect the views of the Applied Technology Council (ATC), the Department of
Homeland Security (DHS), or the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA).
Additionally, neither ATC, DHS, FEMA, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty,
expressed or implied, nor assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of any information, product, or process included in this publication.
Users of information from this publication assume all liability arising from such use.

Preface

In 2011, the Applied Technology Council (ATC), with funding from the
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) under Task Order
Contract HSFEHQ-08-D-0726, commenced a series of projects (ATC-71-4,
ATC-71-5, and ATC-71-6) to update the FEMA 154 Report, Rapid Visual
Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards: A Handbook (FEMA,
2002a). The purpose of FEMA 154, which was developed by ATC under
contract to FEMA (ATC-21 Project) and published in 1988, was to provide a
methodology to evaluate the seismic safety of a large inventory of buildings
quickly and inexpensively, with minimum access to the buildings, and
determine those buildings that require a more detailed examination. In 2002,
FEMA 154 was updated to create a Second Edition, based on (1) experience
from the widespread use of FEMA 154 by federal, state, and municipal
agencies and others; (2) new knowledge about the performance of buildings
during damaging earthquakes; (3) new knowledge about seismic hazards; and
(4) other then-new seismic evaluation and performance prediction tools, such
as the FEMA 310 report, Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of Buildings A Prestandard (FEMA, 1998). Both the original FEMA 154 Handbook and
the Second Edition were accompanied by a Supporting Documentation report
(FEMA 155), which described the technical basis for the scoring system and
other guidance provided in FEMA 154.
Since the publication of the second edition of FEMA 154, there have been
several initiatives that have advanced the state-of-the-art in rapid visual
screening of buildings for seismic risk. One of these was the development of
the FEMA P-154 Rapid Observation of Vulnerability and Estimation of Risk
(ROVER) software for use on smart phones (FEMA, 2014), which enables
users to document and transmit data gathered in the field. The rapid visual
screening application of FEMA P-154 ROVER is based on the second
edition of FEMA 154 and incorporates several improvements made possible
by the electronic calculation capability of the device (e.g., site-specific
determinations of the seismic shaking hazard). In addition, users in Oregon
and Utah have suggested modifications to the FEMA 154 screening process
in the course of performing extensive seismic screenings of schools and other
buildings.

FEMA P-154

Preface

iii

The objective of the Third Edition remains the same as its predecessors: to
identify, inventory, and screen buildings that are potentially hazardous.
Although some sections of the text remained unchanged from the Second
Edition, the Third Edition incorporates several major enhancements,
including:
Update of the Data Collection Form, and the addition of an optional
more detailed page to the form,
Update of the Basic Scores and Score Modifiers,
Update of the ground motion definitions,
Preparation of additional reference guides,
Inclusion of additional building types that are prevalent,
Inclusion of additional considerations, such as nonstructural hazards,
existing retrofits, building additions, and adjacency,
Addition of an optional electronic scoring methodology, and
Additional information on how to run an effective screening program.
The technical basis for the rapid visual screening procedure is documented in
the FEMA P-155 report, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential
Seismic Hazards: Supporting Documentation, (FEMA, 2015), which was
also updated to the Third Edition. Note that per FEMAs current report
numbering system, the third editions of FEMA 154 and FEMA 155 are now
referred to as FEMA P-154 and FEMA P-155, respectively.
ATC is indebted to the leadership of Bret Lizundia, Project Technical
Director, and to the members of the ATC-71-4, ATC-71-5, and ATC-71-6
Project Teams for their efforts in developing this updated Handbook. The
Project Technical Committee, consisting of Michael Griffin, William
Holmes, Brian Kehoe, Keith Porter, and Barry Welliver, managed and
performed the technical development efforts. Updated scores were
developed by Charles Kircher. Sarah Durphy, as a Project Working Group
member, provided special assistance in the development of the updated
Handbook. Andrew Bishop, Brian Kehoe, and Scott Hiner prepared the
illustrations for the report. Nicolas Luco and Kenneth Rukstales prepared the
seismicity maps in the document. The Project Review Panel, consisting of
Charles Scawthorn (chair), Timothy Brown, Melvyn Green, Laura Kelly,
Stephanie King, John Osteraas, Steven Sweeney, and Christine
Theodoropoulos, provided technical review, advice, and consultation at key
stages of the work. A workshop of invited experts was convened to obtain
feedback on the updated Handbook, and input from this group was

iv

Preface

FEMA P-154

instrumental in shaping the final methodology and report. The names and
affiliations of all who contributed to this report are provided in the list of
Project Participants.
ATC also gratefully acknowledges Michael Mahoney (FEMA Project
Officer), Mai Tong (FEMA Task Monitor), Erin Walsh (FEMA Task
Monitor), and John Gillengerten (FEMA Technical Monitor) for their input
and guidance in the preparation of this document. Ayse Hortacsu and
Thomas McLane managed the project and Amber Houchen and Peter N.
Mork provided report production services.
Jon A. Heintz
ATC Director of Projects

FEMA P-154

Christopher Rojahn
ATC Executive Director

Preface

Table of Contents

Preface........................................................................................................... iii

List of Figures............................................................................................. xiii

List of Tables ..............................................................................................xxv

1.

Introduction ...................................................................................... 1-1

1.1 Summary of Rapid Visual Screening ....................................... 1-1

1.2 Screening Procedure Purpose, Overview, and Target

Audience................................................................................... 1-5

1.3 Role of FEMA 154 in the Spectrum of Seismic Evaluation

Tools......................................................................................... 1-8

1.4 History of FEMA 154............................................................. 1-11

1.5 Third Edition Updates to FEMA 154 ..................................... 1-12

1.6 Rapid Visual Screening Procedures ....................................... 1-14

1.7 Optional Electronic Scoring ................................................... 1-14

1.8 Using ROVER to Perform RVS ............................................. 1-14

1.9 Uses of RVS Survey Results .................................................. 1-15

1.10 Advantages and Limitations of the RVS Method................... 1-16

1.10.1 Advantages ................................................................ 1-16

1.10.2 Limitations ................................................................ 1-16

1.11 Companion FEMA P-155 Report ........................................... 1-17

1.12 Organization of This Handbook ............................................. 1-17

2.

Planning and Managing a Successful Rapid Visual Screening

Program ............................................................................................ 2-1

2.1 Planning and Implementing an RVS Program ......................... 2-1

2.2 Selecting the RVS Program Manager and the Supervising

Engineer ................................................................................... 2-2

2.3 Defining the Scope of the RVS Program ................................. 2-4

2.3.1 Determining Resources Needed for the RVS

Program ....................................................................... 2-4

2.3.2 Deciding Which Buildings to Screen .......................... 2-6

2.3.3 Combining Level 1 and Level 2 Screening ................. 2-7

2.3.4 D
etermining Screeners ................................................ 2-8

2.3.5 Extent of Pre-Field Data Collection ............................ 2-9

2.3.6 E
lectronic Scoring ....................................................... 2-9

2.3.7 Updating Existing Second Edition Screening

Programs.................................................................... 2-10

2.4 Budget Development and Cost Estimation............................. 2-11

2.5 Pre-Field Planning .................................................................. 2-12

2.6 Selection and Optional Modification of the Data Collection

Form ....................................................................................... 2-14

2.6.1 Determination of Seismicity Region ......................... 2-14

2.6.2 Optional Modification of the Data Collection

Form .......................................................................... 2-15

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vii

2.6.3

2.7
2.8

2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
3.

viii

Determination of Key Seismic Code Adoption

Dates ..........................................................................2-17

2.6.4 Determination of Cut-Off Score ................................2-21

Qualifications and Training for Screeners ..............................2-22

Acquisition and Review of Pre-Field Building Data ..............2-23

2.8.1 A
ssessors Files .........................................................2-23
2.8.2 Building Department Files .........................................2-24

2.8.3 Sanborn Maps and Parcel Maps ................................2-24

2.8.4 Municipal Databases ..................................................2-29

2.8.5 Previous Studies ........................................................2-29
2.8.6 S
oil Information .........................................................2-29
2.8.7 Using Resources from the Internet and Other

Available Tools..........................................................2-31

Review of Construction Documents .......................................2-32

Field Screening of Buildings ..................................................2-32

Quality Assurance ...................................................................2-33

Filing the Field Data in the Record-Keeping System .............2-34

Completing the Level 1 Data Collection Form...............................3-1

3.1 Introduction...............................................................................3-1

3.2 Building Identification Information ..........................................3-3

3.2.1 Building Identification .................................................3-3

3.2.2 Latitude and Longitude and Site Seismicity ................3-4

3.2.3 S
creener Identification .................................................3-4

3.3 B
uilding Characteristics............................................................3-4

3.3.1 Number of Stories ........................................................3-5

3.3.2 Year Built and Code Year............................................3-5

3.3.3 Total Floor Area ..........................................................3-6

3.3.4 Buildings with Additions or Multiple Parts .................3-6

3.4 Photographing the Building ......................................................3-7

3.5 Sketching the Building .............................................................3-9

3.6 B
uilding Occupancy ...............................................................3-10

3.6.1 Occupancy Classes ....................................................3-10

3.6.2 Additional Designations ............................................3-11

3.7 Soil Type.................................................................................3-12

3.8 Geologic Hazards....................................................................3-12

3.9 Adjacency ...............................................................................3-13

3.10 Irregularities............................................................................3-15

3.10.1 Vertical Irregularities .................................................3-16

3.10.2 Plan Irregularities ......................................................3-22

3.11 Exterior Falling Hazards.........................................................3-28

3.12 Damage and Deterioration ......................................................3-30

3.13 Comments Section ..................................................................3-32

3.14 Identifying the FEMA Building Type and Documenting the

Related Basic Score ................................................................3-32

3.14.1 FEMA Building Types Considered and Basic

Scores.........................................................................3-34

3.14.2 Identifying the FEMA Building Type .......................3-45

3.14.3 Interior Inspections ....................................................3-48

3.14.4 Screening Buildings with More Than One FEMA

Building Type ............................................................3-51

3.14.5 Screening Buildings with Additions..........................3-51

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FEMA P-154

3.15 Score Modifiers ...................................................................... 3-53

3.15.1 Vertical Irregularity ................................................... 3-54

3.15.2 Plan Irregularity......................................................... 3-55

3.15.3 Pre-Code.................................................................... 3-55

3.15.4 Post-Benchmark ........................................................ 3-55

3.15.5 Soil Type ................................................................... 3-55

3.15.6 Minimum Score, SMIN ................................................ 3-56

3.16 Determining the Final Level 1 Score...................................... 3-56

3.17 Documenting the Extent of Review ....................................... 3-57

3.18 Documenting the Level 2 Screening Results.......................... 3-57

3.19 Documenting Other Hazards .................................................. 3-57

3.20 Determining the Action Required .......................................... 3-59

3.20.1 Detailed Structural Evaluation .................................. 3-59

3.20.2 Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation ............................ 3-60

4.

5.

Completing the Optional Level 2 Data Collection Form .............. 4-1

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 4-1

4.2 Building Information and Adjusted Baseline Score for

Level 2...................................................................................... 4-3

4.3 Reviewing the Level 2 Statements and Recording Score

Modifiers .................................................................................. 4-3

4.3.1 Vertical Irregularities .................................................. 4-3

4.3.2 P
lan Irregularities ........................................................ 4-9
4.3.3 R
edundancy ............................................................... 4-11
4.3.4 P
ounding.................................................................... 4-11
4.3.5 Consideration of Building Additions ........................ 4-13

4.3.6 Building Type Specific Statements ........................... 4-16

4.3.7 R
etrofits..................................................................... 4-17
4.4 Determining the Final Level 2 Score...................................... 4-19

4.5 Other Observable Conditions ................................................. 4-19

4.5.1 Damage and Deterioration......................................... 4-19

4.5.2 O
ther Conditions ....................................................... 4-20
4.6 Observable Nonstructural Hazards ......................................... 4-20
4.7 C
omments............................................................................... 4-22

4.8 Transferring the Level 2 Results to the Level 1 Form ............ 4-22

Using the RVS Procedure Results................................................... 5-1

5.1 Using the RVS Procedure Results............................................ 5-1

5.2 I nterpretation of RVS Score ..................................................... 5-2

5.3 Selection of RVS Cut-Off Score .............................................. 5-2

5.4 Prior Uses of the RVS Procedure ............................................. 5-4

5.5 RVS and Seismic Advocacy..................................................... 5-8

5.5.1 O
verview ..................................................................... 5-8

5.5.2 Audience Types ........................................................... 5-9

5.5.3 RVS Program Types.................................................... 5-9

5.5.4 Use of RVS Inventories in Advocating Seismic

Safety......................................................................... 5-11

5.5.5 Using RVS Results in Advocating for Seismic

Safety......................................................................... 5-11

5.5.6 Additional FEMA Tools for Supporting Mitigation

Programs.................................................................... 5-12

5.6 Other Possible Uses of the RVS Procedure............................ 5-13

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Table of Contents

ix

5.6.1

Using RVS Scores as a Basis for Hazardous

Building Mitigation Programs ...................................5-13

5.6.2 Using RVS Data in Community Building Inventory

Development ..............................................................5-14

5.6.3 Using RVS Data to Plan Postearthquake BuildingSafety-Evaluation ......................................................5-15

5.6.4 Resources Needed for the Various Uses of the RVS

Procedure ...................................................................5-15

6.

Optional Electronic Scoring ............................................................6-1

6.1 Introduction...............................................................................6-1

6.2 Changes from and Comparisons with the Paper Forms ............6-1

6.3 Concepts in Electronic Scoring.................................................6-1

6.3.1 S
ite-Specific Seismicity ...............................................6-3

6.3.2 Soil Type Effects .........................................................6-3

6.4 How to Implement the Optional Electronic Scoring

Approach ..................................................................................6-3

6.4.1 General Electronic Scoring Approach .........................6-4

6.4.2 Refined Electronic Scoring Approach for Soil Types

C and D........................................................................6-6

6.5 Comparisons between Electronic Scoring and Paper-Based

Scoring......................................................................................6-7

7.

Example Rapid Visual Screening Programs ..................................7-1

7.1 I ntroduction...............................................................................7-1

7.2 RVS Program Scenario A: Level 1 Screening in Anyplace,

USA ..........................................................................................7-1

7.2.1 Step 1: Defining the Scope of the Program .................7-1

7.2.2 Step 2: Budget and Cost Estimation ............................7-2

7.2.3 Step 3: Pre-Field Planning ...........................................7-2

7.2.4 Step 4: Selection and Review of the Data Collection

Form.............................................................................7-5

7.2.5 Step 5: Acquisition and Review of Pre-Field Data ......7-6

7.2.6 Step 6: Review of Construction Documents................7-9

7.2.7 Step 7: Training for Screeners .....................................7-9

7.2.8 Step 8: Field Screening of Buildings .........................7-10

7.2.9 Step 9: Review by the Supervising Engineer.............7-20

7.2.10 Step 10: Transferring the RVS Field Data to the

Electronic Building RVS Database............................7-22

7.3 RVS Program Scenario B: Level 1 and Level 2 Screenings

of K-12 School Buildings in Any State, USA ........................7-24

7.3.1 Step 1: Budget and Cost Estimation ..........................7-24

7.3.2 Step 2: Selection of Building Subset .........................7-26

7.3.3 Step 3: Pre-Field Planning .........................................7-26

7.3.4 Step 4: Selection and Review of the Data Collection

Form...........................................................................7-27

7.3.5 Step 5: Qualifications and Training of Screeners ......7-27

7.3.6 Step 6: Acquisition and Review of Pre-Field Data ....7-27

7.3.7 Step 7: Field Screening of Buildings .........................7-28

7.3.8 Step 8: Review by the Supervising Engineer.............7-37

7.3.9 Step 9: Report to State Legislature ............................7-37

7.3.10 Example Level 1 and Level 2 Screening Using

Electronic Scoring .....................................................7-40

Table of Contents

FEMA P-154

Appendix A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions.................................... A-1

Appendix B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides ..................B-1

B.1 Level 1 and Level 2 Forms for Very High, High, Moderately

High, Moderate, and Low Seismicity .......................................B-1

B.2 Quick Reference Guide ..........................................................B-12

B.3 Level 1 Building Addition Reference Guide ..........................B-13

B.4 Level 1 Pounding Reference Guide........................................B-14

B.5 Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide ....................................B-15

B.6 Plan Irregularity Reference Guide..........................................B-17

B.7 Level 2 Building Addition Reference Guide ..........................B-18

Appendix C: Review of Design and Construction Drawings ................ C-1

Appendix D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age ............. D-1

D.1 I ntroduction ............................................................................. D-1

D.2 What to Look For and How to Find It..................................... D-1

D.3 Identification of Building Age ................................................ D-2

D.4 Identification of FEMA Building Type................................... D-2

D.5 Characteristics of Exposed Construction Materials............... D-16

Appendix E: Characteristics and Earthquake Performance of FEMA

Building Types Used in RVS ...........................................................E-1

E.1 Introduction ..............................................................................E-1

E.2 Wood Frame (W1, W1A, W2) .................................................E-1

E.2.1 Characteristics .............................................................E-1

E.2.2 Typical Earthquake Damage .......................................E-5

E.2.3 Common Retrofit Techniques .....................................E-8

E.3 Steel Frames (S1, S2) ...............................................................E-9

E.3.1 Characteristics .............................................................E-9

E.3.2 Typical Earthquake Damage .....................................E-12

E.3.3 Common Retrofit Techniques ...................................E-13

E.4 Light Metal (S3) .....................................................................E-14

E.4.1 Characteristics ...........................................................E-14

E.4.2 Typical Earthquake Damage .....................................E-17

E.5 Steel Frame with Concrete Shear Wall (S4)...........................E-17

E.5.1 Characteristics ...........................................................E-17

E.5.2 Typical Earthquake Damage .....................................E-17

E.5.3 Common Retrofit Techniques ...................................E-19

E.6 Steel Frame with Unreinforced Masonry Infill (S5) ..............E-19

E.6.1 Characteristics ...........................................................E-19

E.6.2 Typical Earthquake Damage .....................................E-22

E.6.3 Common Retrofit Techniques ...................................E-23

E.7 Concrete Moment-Resisting Frame (C1) ...............................E-23

E.7.1 Characteristics ...........................................................E-23

E.7.2 Typical Earthquake Damage .....................................E-27

E.7.3 Common Retrofit Techniques ...................................E-28

E.8 Concrete Shear Wall (C2) ......................................................E-28

E.8.1 Characteristics ...........................................................E-28

E.8.2 Typical Types of Earthquake Damage ......................E-30

E.8.3 Common Retrofit Techniques ...................................E-31

E.9 Concrete Frame with Unreinforced Masonry Infill (C3)........E-31

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xi

E.10

E.11

E.12

E.13

E.14

E.9.1 Characteristics .......................................................... E-31

E.9.2 Typical Earthquake Damage..................................... E-33

E.9.3 Common Retrofit Techniques................................... E-33

Tilt-up Structures (PC1) ........................................................ E-33

E.10.1 Characteristics .......................................................... E-33

E.10.2 Typical Earthquake Damage..................................... E-35

E-10.3 Common Retrofit Techniques................................... E-36

Precast Concrete Frame (PC2)............................................... E-37

E.11.1 Characteristics .......................................................... E-37

E.11.2 Typical Earthquake Damage..................................... E-41

E.11.3 Common Retrofit Techniques................................... E-42

Reinforced Masonry (RM1 and RM2)................................... E-43

E.12.1 Characteristics .......................................................... E-43

E.12.2 Typical Earthquake Damage..................................... E-44

E.12.3 Common Retrofit Techniques................................... E-44

Unreinforced Masonry (URM) .............................................. E-45

E.13.1 Characteristics .......................................................... E-45

E.13.2 Typical Earthquake Damage..................................... E-51

E.13.3 Common Retrofit Techniques................................... E-53

Manufactured Housing (MH) ................................................ E-54

E.14.1 Characteristics .......................................................... E-54

E.14.2 Typical Earthquake Damage..................................... E-56

E.14.3 Common Retrofit Techniques................................... E-56

Appendix F: Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration ......... F-1

F.1 Introduction...............................................................................F-1

F.2 Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Wood ........................................................................................F-1

F.3 Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of Steel ....F-3

F.4 Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Concrete....................................................................................F-4

F.5 Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Reinforced Masonry .................................................................F-7

F.6 Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Unreinforced Masonry..............................................................F-7

Appendix G: Earthquakes and How Buildings Resist Them ................G-1

G.1 The Nature of Earthquakes ...................................................... G-1

G.2 Seismicity of the United States ................................................ G-3

G.3 Earthquake Effects ................................................................... G-5

G.4 How Buildings Resist Earthquakes........................................ G-10

Glossary, Abbreviations, and Symbols ....................................................H-1

Illustration Credits..................................................................................... I-1

References ...................................................................................................J-1

Project Participants...................................................................................K-1

xii

Table of Contents

FEMA P-154

List of Figures

Figure 1-1

RVS Level 1 Data Collection Form for High seismicity

region ................................................................................. 1-2

Figure 1-2

RVS Level 2 Optional Data Collection Form for High

seismicity region ................................................................ 1-3

Figure 1-3

Map showing Very High, High, Moderately High, Moderate,

and Low seismicity regions in the United States ............... 1-7

Figure 2-1

Rapid visual screening implementation sequence ............. 2-3

Figure 2-2

Input tool for determining site-specific seismicity using

the USGS online tool ....................................................... 2-15

Figure 2-3

Output summary report from USGS online tool for

determining site-specific seismicity................................. 2-16

Figure 2-4

Sanborn map and corresponding aerial photograph of a

city block.......................................................................... 2-25

Figure 2-5

Key to Sanborn map symbols .......................................... 2-26

Figure 2-6

Detailed key to Sanborn map symbols............................. 2-27

Figure 2-7

Example of property details from City of Calabasas

municipal database ........................................................... 2-28

Figure 2-8

VS30 map of Alaska from USGS website showing soil

type .................................................................................. 2-31

Figure 3-1

Level 1 Data Collection Form (High seismicity)............... 3-2

Figure 3-2

Building Identification Information portion of Level 1

Data Collection Form......................................................... 3-3

Figure 3-3

Building Characteristics portion of the Level 1 Data

Collection Form ................................................................. 3-5

Figure 3-4

Photograph and Sketch portions of the Level 1 Data

Collection Form ................................................................. 3-7

Figure 3-5

Sample sketches and photos............................................... 3-8

Figure 3-6

Occupancy portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form................................................................................. 3-10

Figure 3-7

Soil Type portion of the Level 1 Data Collection ............ 3-12

FEMA P-154

List of Figures

xiii

xiv

Figure 3-8

Geologic Hazards portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form .................................................................................3-12

Figure 3-9

Building with potential landslide hazard..........................3-13

Figure 3-10

Adjacency portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form. ................................................................................3-13

Figure 3-11

Definition of separation gap between adjacent

buildings ...........................................................................3-14

Figure 3-12

Schematic illustration of floors not aligning vertically ....3-14

Figure 3-13

Schematic illustration of buildings of different height .....3-15

Figure 3-14

Schematic illustration of end buildings ............................3-15

Figure 3-15

Irregularity portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form .................................................................................3-16

Figure 3-16

Illustration of a building on a sloping site........................3-17

Figure 3-17

Schematic illustration of a W1 building with cripple

wall...................................................................................3-18

Figure 3-18

Schematic illustration of a W1 building with occupied

space over a garage ..........................................................3-18

Figure 3-19

Schematic illustration of building with a soft-story condition

where parking requirements result in large openings.......3-18

Figure 3-20

Illustration of a building with a soft ground story due to large

openings and narrow piers................................................3-19

Figure 3-21

Illustration of a building with a soft ground story due to

tall piers ............................................................................3-19

Figure 3-22

Illustration of a building with out-of-plane setback at the

third story .........................................................................3-20

Figure 3-23

Illustration of a building with out-of-plane setback where

the upper floors cantilever out over the smaller ground

story footprint ...................................................................3-21

Figure 3-24

Illustration of a building with an in-plane setback ...........3-22

Figure 3-25

Schematic illustrations of buildings with short columns

due to: (a) irregular wall openings, (b) deep spandrels,

and (c) infill walls ............................................................3-23

Figure 3-26

Schematic illustration of a split level irregularity ............3-23

List of Figures

FEMA P-154

Figure 3-27

Building with multiple vertical irregularities: setbacks

and a soft first story ......................................................... 3-24

Figure 3-28

Illustration of a building without a plan irregularity ........ 3-24

Figure 3-29

Illustration of a building with the torsion plan irregularity

due to the C-shaped configuration of walls at the ground

floor.................................................................................. 3-25

Figure 3-30

Illustration of a corner building with the torsion plan

irregularity due to L-shaped configuration of walls at the

ground floor due to windows on two sides (visible in

figure) and solid walls on two sides (hidden in the

figure) .............................................................................. 3-25

Figure 3-31

Building with a plan irregularity (non-parallel systems)

due to its triangular footprint ........................................... 3-26

Figure 3-32

Plan views of various building configurations showing

reentrant corners and large diaphragm openings; arrows

indicate possible areas of damage .................................... 3-26

Figure 3-33

Building with a plan irregularity with two wings

meeting at right angles ..................................................... 3-26

Figure 3-34

Illustration of a building with a reentrant corner plan

irregularity ....................................................................... 3-27

Figure 3-35

Schematic illustration of large diaphragm openings ........ 3-27

Figure 3-36

Schematic illustration of a building with beams that do

not align with columns ..................................................... 3-28

Figure 3-37

Illustration of a building with parapets and other potential

falling hazards, including canopy over loading dock and

water tank on roof ............................................................ 3-28

Figure 3-38

Exterior Falling Hazards portion of the Level 1 Data

Collection Form ............................................................... 3-29

Figure 3-39

FEMA Building Type and Basic Score portion of the

Level 1 Data Collection Form for High seismicity .......... 3-35

Figure 3-40

Typical frame structure .................................................... 3-47

Figure 3-41

Typical bearing wall structure ......................................... 3-47

Figure 3-42

Interior view showing fire-proofed columns and beams,

which indicate a steel building (S1, S2, or S4) ................ 3-49

Figure 3-43

Interior view showing concrete columns and girders with

no identifiable shear walls, which indicate a concrete

moment frame (C1) .......................................................... 3-50

FEMA P-154

List of Figures

xv

xvi

Figure 3-44

Illustration of a horizontal addition ..................................3-52

Figure 3-45

Illustration of a vertical addition ......................................3-52

Figure 3-46

Scoring Matrix portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form for High seismicity .................................................3-54

Figure 3-47

Extent of Review portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form .................................................................................3-57

Figure 3-48

Level 2 screening results portion of the Level 1 Data

Collection Form ...............................................................3-58

Figure 3-49

Other Hazards portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form .................................................................................3-58

Figure 3-50

Action Required portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form .................................................................................3-59

Figure 4-1

Optional Level 2 Data Collection Form .............................4-2

Figure 4-2

Portion of the Level 2 form for recording building name

and calculating adjusted baseline score ..............................4-3

Figure 4-3

Portion of the Level 2 High seismicity Data Collection

Form for adjusting the baseline score ................................4-4

Figure 4-4

Illustration of a building with a ground floor story height that

is twice the height of the stories above ..............................4-6

Figure 4-5

Illustration of a building with a ground floor story height that

is 1.5 times the height of the stories above.........................4-7

Figure 4-6

Illustration of a building with short piers ...........................4-8

Figure 4-7

Illustration of a building with piers that are less than one half

as deep as the spandrels......................................................4-8

Figure 4-8

Illustration of a building with a reentrant corner ..............4-10

Figure 4-9

Rigid wall, flexible diaphragm building with short wall at

small reentrant corner .......................................................4-11

Figure 4-10

Illustration of floors not aligning vertically .....................4-12

Figure 4-11

Illustration of a building that is two or more stories taller

than the adjacent building ................................................4-13

Figure 4-12

Illustration of end buildings .............................................4-13

Figure 4-13

Illustration of a URM building with a gable end wall ......4-17

Figure 4-14

Portion of the Level 2 form for nonstructural hazards .....4-20

List of Figures

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-1

Property information at example site in citys geographic

information system ............................................................ 7-4

Figure 7-2

USGS web page showing SS and S1 values for MCER

ground motions .................................................................. 7-5

Figure 7-3

Customized Level 1 Data Collection Form for Anyplace,

USA ................................................................................... 7-7

Figure 7-4

Partially completed Building Identification portion of the

Data Collection Form for a sample site for use by the

screener ............................................................................ 7-10

Figure 7-5

Exterior view of 3703 Roxbury Street. ............................ 7-12

Figure 7-6

Close-up view of 3703 Roxbury Street exterior showing

perimeter braced steel framing......................................... 7-12

Figure 7-7

Completed Data Collection Form for Example 1, 3703

Roxbury Street. ................................................................ 7-14

Figure 7-8

Exterior view of 3711 Roxbury Street. ............................ 7-15

Figure 7-9

Close-up view of 3711 Roxbury Street building showing

exterior infill frame construction. .................................... 7-16

Figure 7-10

Completed form for 3711 Roxbury Street ....................... 7-18

Figure 7-11

Exterior view of 5020 Ebony Drive. ................................ 7-19

Figure 7-12

Completed Data Collection form for 5020 Ebony

Drive ................................................................................ 7-21

Figure 7-13

Exterior view of 1450 Addison Avenue .......................... 7-22

Figure 7-14

Completed Data Collection Form for 1450 Addison

Avenue ............................................................................. 7-23

Figure 7-15

Exterior view of modern reinforced brick masonry

building at Roosevelt Elementary School ........................ 7-29

Figure 7-16

Completed Level 1 Data Collection Form for the main

building at Roosevelt Elementary School ........................ 7-30

Figure 7-17

Completed Level 2 Data Collection Form for the main

building at Roosevelt Elementary School ........................ 7-31

Figure 7-18

Photo of exterior of Washington Middle School ............. 7-32

Figure 7-19

Completed Level 1 Data Collection Form for the main

building (original plus addition) at Washington Middle

School .............................................................................. 7-34

FEMA P-154

List of Figures

xvii

xviii

Figure 7-20

Completed Level 2 Data Collection Form for the main

building (original plus addition) at Washington Middle
School...............................................................................7-35

Figure 7-21

Exterior view portable classrooms at New City High

School...............................................................................7-36

Figure 7-22

Completed Level 1 Data Collection Form for portable

classrooms at New City High School ...............................7-38

Figure 7-23

Completed Level 2 Data Collection Form for portable

classrooms at New City High School ...............................7-39

Figure A-1

Very High, High, Moderately High, Moderate, and Low

seismicity regions in the United States ............................. A-2

Figure A-2

Seismicity regions in California, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, and

Washington ....................................................................... A-3

Figure A-3

Seismicity regions in Arizona, Montana, Utah, and

Wyoming ........................................................................... A-4

Figure A-4

Seismicity regions in Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico,

Oklahoma, and Texas........................................................ A-5

Figure A-5

Seismicity regions in Iowa, Michigan, Nebraska, North

Dakota, Minnesota, South Dakota, and Wisconsin ........... A-6

Figure A-6

Seismicity regions in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri,

and Ohio ............................................................................ A-7

Figure A-7

Seismicity regions in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana,

Mississippi, and Tennessee ............................................... A-8

Figure A-8

Seismicity regions in Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts,

New Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, and
Vermont............................................................................. A-9

Figure A-9

Seismicity regions in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey,

Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia ..................... A-10

Figure A-10

Seismicity regions in Georgia, North Carolina, South

Carolina, and Florida....................................................... A-11

Figure A-11

Seismicity regions in Alaska and Hawaii ........................ A-12

Figure A-12

Seismicity regions in U.S. Territories. ............................ A-13

Figure C-1

Representative construction drawing of a floor plan for an S1

building ............................................................................. C-3

Figure C-2

Representative construction drawing of a floor plan for a

C2 building ........................................................................ C-4

List of Figures

FEMA P-154

Figure D-1

Photos showing basic construction in steel-frame buildings

and reinforced concrete-frame buildings .......................... D-8

Figure D-2

Building with exterior columns covered with a faade

material ........................................................................... D-13

Figure D-3

Detail of the column faade of Figure D-2 ..................... D-13

Figure D-4

Building with both shear walls (in the short direction) and

frames (in the long direction).......................................... D-14

Figure D-5

Regular, full-height joints in a buildings wall indicate a

concrete tilt-up ................................................................ D-14

Figure D-6

Reinforced masonry wall showing no course of header

bricks (a row of visible brick ends)................................. D-15

Figure D-7

Reinforced masonry building with exterior wall of concrete

masonry units, or concrete blocks................................... D-15

Figure D-8

A 1970s renovated faade hides a URM bearing wall

structure .......................................................................... D-16

Figure D-9

A concrete shear wall structure with a 1960s renovated

faade .............................................................................. D-17

Figure D-10

URM wall showing header courses (identified by arrows)

and two washer plates indicating wall anchors............... D-17

Figure D-11

Drawing of two types of masonry pattern showing header

bricks (shown with stipples) ........................................... D-18

Figure D-12

Diagram of common reinforced masonry construction .. D-18

Figure D-13

Brick veneer panels......................................................... D-19

Figure D-14

Hollow clay tile wall with punctured tile........................ D-19

Figure D-15

Sheet metal siding with masonry pattern ........................ D-20

Figure D-16

Asphalt siding with brick pattern .................................... D-20

Figure D-17

Pre-1940 cast-in-place concrete with formwork

pattern ............................................................................. D-21

Figure E-1

Single family residence ......................................................E-2

Figure E-2

Multi-unit, multistory residential wood frame structure

with plan areas on each floor of greater than 3,000

square feet ..........................................................................E-2

Figure E-3

Larger wood framed structure, typically with room-width

spans ..................................................................................E-2

FEMA P-154

List of Figures

xix

xx

Figure E-4

Drawing of wood stud frame construction ........................ E-3

Figure E-5

Stud wall, wood framed house .......................................... E-4

Figure E-6

Drawing of timber pole framed house............................... E-4

Figure E-7

Timber pole framed house................................................. E-5

Figure E-8

House off its foundation, 1983 Coalinga earthquake ........ E-6

Figure E-9

Failed cripple stud wall, 1992 Big Bear earthquake ......... E-7

Figure E-10

Seismic strengthening of a cripple wall, with plywood

sheathing ........................................................................... E-8

Figure E-11

Drawing of steel moment-resisting frame building ......... E-10

Figure E-12

Braced frame configurations ........................................... E-11

Figure E-13

Braced steel frame, with chevron and diagonal braces. .. E-11

Figure E-14

Chevron bracing in steel building under construction..... E-12

Figure E-15

Retrofit of a concrete parking structure using exterior

X-braced steel frames ...................................................... E-14

Figure E-16

Use of a braced frame to rehabilitate an unreinforced

masonry building ............................................................. E-15

Figure E-17

Drawing of light metal construction................................ E-15

Figure E-18

Prefabricated metal building ........................................... E-16

Figure E-19

Drawing of steel frame with interior concrete shear

walls ................................................................................ E-18

Figure E-20

Concrete shear wall on building exterior ........................ E-18

Figure E-21

Close-up of exterior shear wall damage during a major

earthquake ....................................................................... E-19

Figure E-22

Drawing of steel frame with URM infill ......................... E-20

Figure E-23

Example of steel frame with URM infill walls (S5) ....... E-21

Figure E-24

Drawing of concrete moment-resisting frame

building. .......................................................................... E-24

Figure E-25

Extreme example of ductility in concrete, 1994

Northridge earthquake..................................................... E-25

Figure E-26

Example of ductile reinforced concrete column, 1994

Northridge earthquake; horizontal ties would need to be

closer for greater demands .............................................. E-26

List of Figures

FEMA P-154

Figure E-27

Concrete moment-resisting frame building (C1) with

exposed concrete, deep beams, wide columns (and with
architectural window framing)......................................... E-26

Figure E-28

Locations of failures at beam-to-column joints in

nonductile frames, 1994 Northridge earthquake..............E-27

Figure E-29

Drawing of concrete shear wall building .........................E-29

Figure E-30

Tall concrete shear wall building: walls connected by

damaged spandrel beams .................................................E-30

Figure E-31

Shear wall damage, 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake ..........E-31

Figure E-32

Concrete frame with URM infill......................................E-32

Figure E-33

C3 building and detail showing concrete frame with

URM infill (left wall), and face brick (right wall) ...........E-32

Figure E-34

Drawing of tilt-up construction typical of the western

United States ....................................................................E-34

Figure E-35

Tilt-up industrial building, 1970s ....................................E-35

Figure E-36

Tilt-up industrial building, mid to late 1980s ..................E-35

Figure E-37

Tilt-up construction anchorage failure .............................E-36

Figure E-38

Result of failure of the roof beam anchorage to the wall

in tilt-up building .............................................................E-37

Figure E-39

Newly installed anchorage of roof beam to wall in

tilt-up building .................................................................E-38

Figure E-40

Drawing of precast concrete frame building ....................E-39

Figure E-41

Typical precast column cover on a steel or concrete

moment frame ..................................................................E-40

Figure E-42

Exposed precast double-Tee sections and

overlapping beams are indicative of precast frames ........E-40

Figure E-43

Example of precast double T section during

installation........................................................................E-41

Figure E-44

Precast structural cross; installation joints are at sections

where bending is minimum during high seismic

demand .............................................................................E-42

Figure E-45

Modern reinforced brick masonry ...................................E-43

Figure E-46

Drawing of unreinforced masonry bearing wall

building, two-story ...........................................................E-46

FEMA P-154

List of Figures

xxi

xxii

Figure E-47

Drawing of unreinforced masonry bearing wall

building, four-story ......................................................... E-47

Figure E-48

Drawing of unreinforced masonry bearing wall

building, six-story ........................................................... E-48

Figure E-49

East Coast URM bearing wall building........................... E-49

Figure E-50

West Coast URM bearing wall building ......................... E-49

Figure E-51

Drawings of typical window head features in URM

bearing wall buildings ..................................................... E-50

Figure E-52

Parapet failure leaving an uneven roof line, due to

inadequate anchorage, 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake ..... E-51

Figure E-53

Damaged URM building, 1992 Big Bear earthquake ..... E-52

Figure E-54

Two existing anchors above three new wall anchors at

floor line using decorative washer plates ........................ E-53

Figure F-1

Wood decay in cripple wall ................................................F-2

Figure F-2

Damaged wood post. ..........................................................F-2

Figure F-3

Rotted timber column.........................................................F-3

Figure F-4

Corroded steel fasteners .....................................................F-4

Figure F-5

Spalled concrete cover .......................................................F-5

Figure F-6

Exposed reinforcing steel ...................................................F-5

Figure F-7

Concrete cracks ..................................................................F-6

Figure F-8

Stair-step cracking ..........................................................F-7

Figure F-9

Masonry joint separations ..................................................F-8

Figure G-1

The separate tectonic plates comprising the earths crust

superimposed on a map of the world ................................ G-1

Figure G-2

Seismicity data for the United States showing earthquake

locations with varying size of circles depending on the

magnitude.......................................................................... G-4

Figure G-3

Mid-rise building collapse, 1985 Mexico City

earthquake ......................................................................... G-7

Figure G-4

Collapsed chimney with damaged roof, 1987 Whittier

Narrows earthquake .......................................................... G-8

List of Figures

FEMA P-154

Figure G-5

House that slid off foundation, 1994 Northridge

earthquake......................................................................... G-8

Figure G-6

Collapsed cripple stud walls dropped this house to the

ground, 1992 Landers and Big Bear earthquakes ............. G-9

Figure G-7

Photo of house settled to the ground due to collapse of its

post and pier foundation ................................................... G-9

Figure G-8

Collapse of unreinforced masonry bearing wall, 1933

Long Beach earthquake .................................................. G-10

Figure G-9

Collapse of a tilt-up bearing wall, 1994 Northridge

earthquake....................................................................... G-10

FEMA P-154

List of Figures

xxiii

List of Tables

Table 1-1

Comparison of Prominent Seismic Evaluation Methods in

the United States .............................................................. 1-11

Table 2-1

Key Players in an RVS Program ........................................ 2-5

Table 2-2

Seismicity Region Determination from MCER Spectral

Acceleration Response ..................................................... 2-16

Table 2-3

RVS Benchmark Years for FEMA Building Types......... 2-20

Table 2-4

Quick Reference Guide from Appendix B....................... 2-21

Table 2-5

Soil Type Definitions....................................................... 2-30

Table 2-6

Checklist of Field Equipment Needed for Rapid Visual

Screening ......................................................................... 2-33

Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and

Performance in Past earthquakes ..................................... 3-36

Table 3-2

Level 1 Reference Guide for Reviewing Buildings with

Horizontal Additions........................................................ 3-54

Table 4-1

Building Additions Reference Guide............................... 4-14

Table 5-1

Matrix of Recommended Personnel and Material

Resources for Various FEMA P-154 RVS

Applications ..................................................................... 5-16

Table 6-1

Site Coefficient Fa.............................................................. 6-5

Table 6-2

Site Coefficient Fv .............................................................. 6-5

Table 6-3

Comparison of Final Scores using Electronic and Paper-

Based Scoring for Soil Type CD ....................................... 6-7

Table 7-1

RVS Budget for Anyplace, USA ....................................... 7-3

Table 7-2

Customized Quick Reference Guide for Anyplace,

USA ................................................................................... 7-8

Table 7-3

RVS Budget for Any State, USA ..................................... 7-25

Table 7-4

Summary of Paper-Based and Electronic Scores ............. 7-42

Table A-1

Seismicity Region Determination from MCER Spectral

Acceleration Response ...................................................... A-1

FEMA P-154

List of Tables

xxv

xxvi

Table B-1

FEMA Building Types and Code Adoption and

Enforcement Dates .......................................................... B-12

Table B-2

Level 1 Reference Guide for Reviewing Buildings with

Horizontal Additions ....................................................... B-13

Table B-3

Level 1 Pounding Reference Guide ................................ B-14

Table B-4

Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide............................. B-15

Table B-5

Plan Irregularity Reference Guide................................... B-17

Table B-6

Level 2 Building Addition Reference Guide................... B-18

Table D-1

Photographs, Architectural Characteristics, and Age of

Residential Buildings ........................................................ D-3

Table D-2

Illustrations, Architectural Characteristics, and Age of

Commercial Structures ...................................................... D-4

Table D-3

Photographs, Architectural Characteristics, and Age of

Miscellaneous Structures .................................................. D-7

Table D-4

Most Likely FEMA Building Types for Pre-1930

Buildings ........................................................................... D-9

Table D-5

Most Likely FEMA Building Types for 1930-1945 BuildingsD-10

Table D-6

Most Likely FEMA Building Types for 1945-1960 BuildingsD-11

Table D-7

Most Likely FEMA Building Types for Post-1960

Buildings ......................................................................... D-12

List of Tables

FEMA P-154

Chapter 1

1.1

Introduction

Summary of Rapid Visual Screening

The FEMA P-154 Report, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential
Seismic Hazards: A Handbook, is the first of a two-volume publication on
recommended methodology for rapid visual screening of buildings for
potential seismic hazards. The technical basis for the methodology,
including the scoring system and its development, is contained in the
companion volume, FEMA P-155 report, Rapid Visual Screening of
Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards: Supporting Documentation
(FEMA, 2015). Both this document and the companion document are third
editions of similar documents first published by FEMA in 1988 and updated
in 2002.
The rapid visual screening (RVS) procedure has been developed to identify,
inventory, and screen buildings that are potentially seismically hazardous.
Once identified as potentially hazardous, such buildings should be further
evaluated by a design professional experienced in seismic design to
determine if, in fact, they are seismically hazardous. The RVS procedure
uses a methodology based on a sidewalk survey of a building and a Data
Collection Form, which the person conducting the survey completes, based
on visual observation of the building from the exterior, and if possible, the
interior. The two-page Data Collection Form (shown in Figures 1-1 and 1-2)
includes space for documenting building identification information,
including its use and size, a photograph of the building, sketches, and
documentation of pertinent data related to seismic performance. Based on
the data collected during the survey, a score is calculated that provides an
indication of the expected seismic performance of the building.
Once the decision to conduct rapid visual screening for a community or
group of buildings has been made, the screening effort can be expedited by
pre-field planning, including the training of screeners, and careful overall
management of the process.
Completion of the Data Collection Form in the field begins with identifying
the primary structural seismic force-resisting system and structural materials
of the building. Basic Scores for various building types are provided on the
form, and the screener circles the appropriate one. The screener modifies the

FEMA P-154

1: Introduction

1-1

Figure 1-1
1-2

RVS Level 1 Data Collection Form for High seismicity region.

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

Figure 1-2
FEMA P-154

RVS Level 2 Optional Data Collection Form for High seismicity region.
1: Introduction

1-3

Basic Score by identifying and circling Score Modifiers. The Score

Modifiers are related to observed performance attributes and are then added
(or subtracted) to the Basic Score to arrive at a Final Score. A more detailed
screening of the building can be documented by using the optional form
presented on the second page of the Data Collection Form. This optional
form allows the user to adjust the Final Score with additional Score
Modifiers. Basic Scores, Score Modifiers, and Final Scores relate to the
probability of building collapse, should a rare earthquake occur (that is, a
ground shaking level equivalent to the Maximum Considered Earthquake
(MCE) currently used in national design and evaluation standards for the
evaluation of existing buildings). Final Scores typically range from 0 to 7,
with higher scores corresponding to better expected seismic performance and
a lower potential for collapse.
The entity that decides to conduct an RVS program may be a state
legislature, city council, private company, school district, or other
organization and is known as the RVS Authority. Use of RVS on a
community-wide basis enables the RVS Authority to divide screened
buildings into two categories: those that are expected to have acceptable
seismic performance, and those that may be seismically hazardous and
should be studied further. A Final Score of 2 is suggested as a cut-off,
based on present seismic design criteria. Using this cut-off level, buildings
with Final Score of 2 or less should be investigated by a design professional
experienced in seismic design.
The procedure presented in this Handbook is meant to be the preliminary
screening phase of a multi-phase procedure for identifying potentially
hazardous buildings. Buildings identified by this procedure as potentially
hazardous should be analyzed in more detail by an experienced seismic
design professional. The RVS method identifies building attributes that may
contribute to poor seismic performance, and conservative assumptions have
been made in developing the methodology. However, because rapid visual
screening is designed to be performed from the sidewalk, with interior
inspection not always possible, hazardous details will not always be visible,
and seismically hazardous buildings may not be identified as such.
Conversely, buildings initially identified as potentially hazardous by RVS
may prove to be adequate.
The methodology presented here can serve as an efficient step in assessing
risk as part of a broader seismic risk-management program. Its cost is 15 to
75 minutes of inspection time for each building of interest, plus travel time
between buildings, potentially several person-days of preparation time, and
potentially several person-days to compile results into decision-making
1-4

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

information. Its benefits can be much greater, potentially eliminating the

need for detailed seismic analysis of a large fraction of the buildings in
question. Each such detailed evaluation that is avoided can save hours, days,
or more of effort by an engineering professional.
1.2

Screening Procedure Purpose, Overview, and Target

Audience

The updated RVS procedure presented in this Handbook has been formulated
to identify, inventory, and screen buildings that are potentially seismically
hazardous. The target audience for the Handbook includes (1) those agencies
or organizations that are considering conducting a rapid visual screening
program; and (2) the screeners who will conduct the evaluations. The
screeners can be civil engineers, structural engineers, architects, design
professionals, building officials, construction contractors, firefighters,
architectural or engineering students, or other individuals with general
familiarity or background in building design or construction. The
instructions in this Handbook are intended to minimize ambiguity and limit
the need for judgment, making the methodology accessible to a wide array of
potential screeners.
The RVS procedure can be implemented relatively quickly and
inexpensively to develop a list of potentially seismically hazardous
buildings without the high cost of performing a detailed seismic analysis of
every individual building. If a building receives a high score (i.e., above a
specified cut-off score), the building is considered to have adequate seismic
resistance to prevent collapse during a rare earthquake. The building score
reflects probability of collapse or partial collapse only (as defined in the
sidebar), and is not meant to be an indicator of the probability that the
building will be usable following an earthquake. If a building receives a
low score on the basis of this RVS procedure, it should be evaluated by a
design professional experienced in seismic design. On the basis of a
detailed inspection, engineering analyses, and other detailed procedures, a
final determination of the seismic adequacy and the need for retrofit can be
made. Typically, an evaluation based on ASCE/SEI 41-13, Seismic
Evaluation and Retrofit of Existing Buildings (ASCE, 2014), will be most
appropriate for those buildings that require a Detailed Structural Evaluation.
Identification of selected nonstructural hazards is included in the
methodology. Where a Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation is recommended
based on the results of the rapid visual screening, FEMA E-74, Reducing the
Risks of Nonstructural Earthquake Damage A Practical Guide, Fourth
Edition (FEMA, 2012e), can be used.

FEMA P-154

1: Introduction

Definition of Collapse
FEMA P-154 defines collapse
probability as the probability that
the building will suffer partial or
complete collapse. In that part of
the building, the gravity loadcarrying system (such as beams,
columns, floors, and shear walls)
loses the ability to carry its own
weight and the weight of whatever
else it supports. That failure leads
to severe structural deformation of
a potentially life-threatening
nature, especially falling of all or
portions of a structure. A
potentially seismically hazardous
building is one where, within the
accuracy of the RVS procedure, the
collapse probability is estimated to
be more than 1% in rare
earthquake shaking (using the
default cut-off score of 2.0). See
FEMA P-155 Section 4.4.1 for
further details.

1-5

During the planning stage, which is discussed in Chapter 2, the RVS

Authority will need to select both a Program Manager and a Supervising
Engineer. The Program Manager oversees management and administration
of the RVS program. The Supervising Engineer should be a structural
engineer with a background in seismic evaluation. RVS programs have a
wide range of goals, and constraints on budget, completion date, and
accuracy, which must be considered when planning the program. For some
RVS programs, it will be preferable to use more experienced design
professionals as screeners.
The RVS procedure in this Handbook is designed to be implemented without
performing structural analyses. The RVS procedure employs a scoring
system that requires the screener to: (1) determine the building type by
identifying the primary gravity load-carrying material of construction and the
primary seismic force-resisting system; and (2) identify building attributes
that modify the seismic performance expected of the respective average
building type. Data collection and scoring typically will occur at the building
site, taking an average of 15 to 30 minutes per building (additional time is
needed if the interior is accessed or if a Level 2 screening is performed).
Observations are recorded on one of five Data Collection Forms, depending
on the seismicity of the region being surveyed. The Data Collection Forms,
described in greater detail in Chapters 3 and 4, provide space for
documenting building identification information, including its use and size, a
photograph of the building, sketches, and documentation of pertinent data
related to seismic performance.
Buildings may be reviewed from the sidewalk without the benefit of building
entry, structural drawings, or structural calculations. Reliability and
confidence in building attribute determination are increased, however, if the
structural framing system can be verified during interior screening, or using
construction documents.
The scores are based on average expected ground shaking levels for the
seismicity region and are intended to reflect the seismic design and
construction practices for that region. In general, there are little or no
seismic design requirements in Low seismicity regions, limited seismic
design requirements in Moderate seismicity regions, and extensive seismic
design requirements in Moderately High, High, and Very High seismicity
regions. Consequently, a building in a High seismicity region will have
generally been constructed with more seismic resistance than a similar
building in a Low seismicity region. Seismic design and construction
practices, however, vary regionally and are not necessarily uniform across
regions of similar seismic risk. Western states and particularly California
1-6

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

have historically imposed stricter seismic design requirements sooner than

other places, in large part because of greater awareness among design
professionals. Moderately High, High, and Very High seismicity regions in
other areas may have no seismic design provisions or may have only just
recently adopted and begun to enforce seismic design provisions. The
methodology provides Score Modifiers to adjust scores to reflect buildings
built before seismic provisions were implemented (known as pre-code) and
after modern seismic provisions were required (known as the benchmark
year). By identifying pre-code and benchmark years that accurately reflect
the local design and construction practices, the RVS procedure can be
implemented in any area (see Chapter 2 for further discussion of how the
Supervising Engineer selects the pre-code and benchmark years).
In this edition, seismicity regions have been updated to consider risk-targeted
Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCER) ground motions. These ground
motions are described in more detail in FEMA P-155. Chapter 2 discusses
determination of seismicity regions and Figure 1-3 provides a map of
seismicity regions in the United States. Appendix A provides enlarged maps.

Figure 1-3

FEMA P-154

Map showing Very High, High, Moderately High, Moderate, and Low seismicity
regions in the United States. A different RVS Data Collection Form has been
developed for each of these regions.

1: Introduction

1-7

The RVS procedure is intended to be applicable nationwide, for all

conventional building types. Bridges, large towers, and other non-building
structure types, however, are not covered by the procedure. Because of
budget or other constraints, some RVS Authorities may wish to restrict their
RVS to identifying only selected building types that they consider potentially
hazardous, such as unreinforced masonry or nonductile concrete buildings, or
critical, such as schools. If an RVS program is limited to only select building
types, it is possible that some potentially hazardous buildings may not be
identified.
1.3

Role of FEMA 154 in the Spectrum of Seismic

Evaluation Tools

The Handbook was originally developed as an integral and fundamental part

of the FEMA report series on seismic safety of existing buildings. In the 26
years since the initial publication, the documents that were part of the
original FEMA report series have been updated. In addition, the Applied
Technology Council (ATC), the American Society of Civil Engineers
(ASCE), and the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) have also
developed documents that address seismic safety of existing buildings. The
following is a list of publications intended for use by design professionals
and others as part of a program to mitigate the damaging effects of
earthquakes on existing buildings:
ASCE/SEI 41-13 provides both procedures to evaluate the seismic forceresisting capacity of buildings and recommended procedures for the
seismic retrofitting of buildings with inadequate seismic capacity. The
ASCE/SEI 41-13 procedure includes three tiers of evaluation and is ideal
for those buildings that require a Detailed Structural Evaluation.
Previously, evaluation was covered by ASCE/SEI 31-03, Seismic
Evaluation of Existing Buildings (ASCE, 2003), and recommended
retrofitting procedures, along with more in-depth evaluation procedures
were contained in the separate ASCE/SEI 41-06 standard, Seismic
Evaluation and Retrofit of Existing Buildings (ASCE, 2007). ASCE/SEI
31 was an updated version of FEMA 310, Handbook for Seismic
Evaluation of Buildings - A Prestandard (FEMA, 1998), which in turn
was an update of the original FEMA 178 report, NEHRP Handbook for
the Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings (FEMA, 1992). ASCE/SEI
41 began as an updated version of FEMA 356, Prestandard and
Commentary for the Seismic Retrofit of Buildings (FEMA, 2000b), which
was in turn an update of FEMA 273, NEHRP Guidelines for the Seismic
Rehabilitation of Buildings (FEMA, 1997a).

1-8

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

 FEMA P-58-1, Seismic Performance Assessment of Buildings, Volume 1

The Methodology (FEMA, 2012d), is the initial volume in a series of
publications that document a sophisticated methodology for seismic
performance assessment of individual buildings that properly accounts
for uncertainty in accurately predicting response, and communicates
performance in ways that better relate to the decision-making needs of
stakeholders. The procedures are probabilistic, uncertainties are
explicitly considered, and performance is expressed as the probable
consequences, in terms of human losses (deaths and serious injuries),
direct economic losses (building repair or replacement costs), and
indirect losses (repair time and unsafe placarding) resulting from
building damage due to earthquake shaking.
HAZUS-MH is FEMAs nationally applicable software program that
estimates potential building and infrastructure losses from earthquakes,
riverine and coastal floods, and hurricane winds using methodology
documented in the Multi-Hazard Loss Estimation Methodology,
Earthquake Model, HAZUS-MH MR4 Technical Manual (FEMA,
2009a). HAZUS can be used to inform decision-making at all levels of
government by providing a reasonable basis for developing mitigation,
emergency preparedness, and response and recovery plans and policies.
FEMA 547 report, Techniques for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing
Buildings (FEMA, 2006), provides a comprehensive discussion of
common techniques for seismic retrofitting, with extensive figures and
advice on detailing.
FEMA P-50 report, Simplified Seismic Assessment of Detached, SingleFamily, Wood-Frame Dwellings (FEMA, 2012a), uses a simplified
seismic assessment form to evaluate detached, single-family, woodframe dwellings, and to assign each a grade that represents expected
performance in future damaging earthquakes.
FEMA P-50-1 report, Seismic Retrofit Guidelines for Detached, SingleFamily, Wood-Frame Dwellings (FEMA, 2012b), provides practical
information on retrofit measures to improve the earthquake resistance of
a particular home.
FEMA P-807 report, Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of Multi-Unit
Wood-Frame Buildings with Weak First Stories (FEMA, 2012c),
provides guidance for evaluation and cost-effective retrofit procedures
for wood buildings with weak ground stories.

FEMA P-154

1: Introduction

1-9

FEMA E-74 explains the sources of nonstructural earthquake damage in

simple terms and provides methods for reducing potential risks. FEMA
E-74 is ideal where a Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation is recommended
based on the results of the rapid visual screening.

Additional publications exist to evaluate and repair buildings damaged in

earthquakes. They include the following:

ATC-20-1, Field Manual: Postearthquake Safety Evaluation of Buildings

(ATC, 2005), provides a procedure to evaluate earthquake-damaged
buildings and post them as INSPECTED (no occupancy restriction, green
placard), RESTRICTED USE (yellow placard), or UNSAFE (red
placard). This procedure has two tiers for conducting rapid and detailed
evaluations.

FEMA 352, Recommended Postearthquake Evaluation and Repair

Criteria for Welded Steel Moment-Frame Buildings (FEMA, 2000a),
provides guidance for evaluation and repair of damaged steel moment
frame structures.

FEMA 306, Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry

Wall Buildings: Basic Procedures Manual (FEMA 1999a), provides
guidance for evaluating earthquake damage to concrete and masonry
wall buildings. FEMA 307, Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged
Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings: Technical Resources (FEMA,
1999b), provides technical background to FEMA 306. FEMA 308, The
Repair of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings
(FEMA, 1999c), provides guidance for the repair and retrofit of concrete
and masonry wall buildings damaged in earthquakes.

ATC-52-4, Here TodayHere Tomorrow: The Road to Earthquake

Resilience in San Francisco: Post-Earthquake Repair and Retrofit
Requirements (ATC, 2010), provides guidance for evaluating damage
and determining repair and retrofit requirements for single family
residences, multi-story multi-unit wood frame residential structures, and
older concrete buildings. Though developed for San Francisco, the
report has information and recommendations that can be applied to other
seismically active areas.

Table 1-1 provides a simplified comparison of these seismic evaluation

methods with respect to the time required to perform the evaluation, the
relative cost, and the qualifications needed to perform the evaluation.

1-10

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

Table 1-1

Comparison of Prominent Seismic Evaluation Methods in the United States

Undamaged
Buildings

FEMA P-154

ASCE/SEI 41 Tier 1

ASCE/SEI 41 Tier 2

ASCE/SEI 41 Tier 3
FEMA P-807
FEMA P-58
HAZUS

EarthquakeDamaged
Buildings

ATC-20 Rapid

ATC-20 Detailed

FEMA 352
ATC-52-4

FEMA 306
ATC-52-4

Time Required

Minutes

Hours

Days

Weeks

Relative Cost

$$

$$$

$$$$

Qualifications

Properly trained building

professionals (see Section 2.2)

Structural engineers experienced in seismic evaluation and design

1.4

History of FEMA 154

Rapid visual screening of buildings for potential seismic hazards was

discussed in a series of papers contained in Techniques for Rapid Assessment
of Seismic Vulnerability (Scawthorn, 1986). The FEMA 154 methodology
originated soon after in 1988 with the publication of the FEMA 154 report,
Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards: A
Handbook (FEMA, 1988a).
During the decade following publication of the first edition of the FEMA 154
Handbook, the RVS procedure was used by private-sector organizations and
government agencies to evaluate more than 70,000 buildings nationwide
(FEMA, 2002b). Through this widespread application, knowledge was
gained about who the likely users of the RVS procedure are and why they
use it, the ease-of-use of the Handbook, and the accuracy of the procedures
scoring system.
Concurrent with the widespread use of the document, damaging earthquakes
occurred in California and elsewhere, and extensive research and
development efforts were carried out under the National Earthquake Hazards
Reduction Program (NEHRP). These efforts yielded important new data on
the performance of buildings in earthquakes, and on the expected
distribution, severity, and occurrence of earthquake-induced ground shaking.
The data and information gathered during the first decade after publication
(experience in applying the original Handbook, new building earthquake
performance data, and new ground shaking information) were used to update
and improve the rapid visual screening procedure provided in the second
edition of the FEMA 154 report, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for
Potential Seismic Hazards: A Handbook (FEMA, 2002a). The procedure in
the Second Edition retained the same framework and approach of the original

FEMA P-154

1: Introduction

1-11

procedure, but incorporated a revised scoring system compatible with the

ground motion criteria in the FEMA 310 report and the damage and loss
estimation methodology provided in the then recently developed FEMAfunded HAZUS Technical Manual (FEMA, 1999d).
The Basic Scores (referred to in the Second Edition as Basic Structural
Hazard Scores) and Score Modifiers were updated using analytical
calculations and HAZUS fragility curves for the building types considered by
the RVS methodology. As in the original Handbook, a Data Collection Form
was provided for each of three seismicity regions: Low, Moderate, and High.
However, the boundaries of the Low, Moderate, and High seismicity regions
identified in the previous version of the Handbook were modified based on
new knowledge on the expected distribution, severity, and occurrence of
earthquake ground shaking. In addition, the recurrence interval was changed
from a 475-year average return period (corresponding to ground motions
having a 10% probability of exceedance in 50 years) to two-thirds of the
values from a 2,475-year average return period (corresponding to ground
motions having a 2% probability of exceedance in 50 years).
The second edition of the Handbook was also shortened from the original
and focused to facilitate implementation. It included guidance on planning
and managing an RVS survey and provided additional guidance for
identifying the structural (seismic force-resisting) system. The Data
Collection Form was revised to document soil type, falling hazards, and an
expanded list of occupancy types.
FEMA has conducted training on the second edition of FEMA 154 through
the National Earthquake Training Assistance Program (NETAP).
1.5

Third Edition Updates to FEMA 154

This third edition of FEMA P-154 comes about after the second decade of
extensive use of the procedure, which has identified several areas of
necessary enhancement. The Third Edition also takes into consideration the
evolution of computer-aided tools for more efficient implementation of the
procedure.
Major enhancements in the Third Edition include the following:
The Data Collection Form (Level 1) has been reorganized to enhance
usability.
An optional Level 2 Data Collection Form has been added. The goal of
the Level 2 screening is to obtain valuable additional information and a
more accurate assessment without a substantial increase in effort or time.
1-12

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

It is still a rapid visual screening, but relies on further information

gathered by an experienced engineer or architect.
The number of seismicity regions has been expanded from three to five
to increase accuracy of screening in higher seismicity regions. The Third
Edition seismicity regions are based on MCER ground motions (rather
than the two-thirds of MCE ground motions that were used in the Second
Edition).
All Basic Scores and Score Modifiers have been updated.
Reference guides for identifying vertical and plan irregularities are now
provided to guide the screeners in determining whether irregularities
exist, reducing ambiguity and limiting the need for judgment. Additional
figures have been added to the document to help illustrate various
irregularities. Score Modifier values now vary depending on the severity
of the irregularity.
Large multi-unit, multi-story wood frame residential and manufactured
housing building types have been added.
The screening procedure for nonstructural hazards has been enhanced.
The occupancy classes have been updated to align better with those in
the HAZUS-MH MR4 Technical Manual (FEMA, 2009a) and the 2012
International Building Code (ICC, 2012).
Pounding and adjacency are now considered.
Better guidance for screening buildings with additions is provided.
Consideration of existing retrofits has been included on the Level 2 Data
Collection Form.
A minimum score has been included on the Data Collection Form to
address negative scores.
An optional electronic scoring methodology has been provided, and
FEMA P-154 Rapid Observation of Vulnerability and Estimation of Risk
(ROVER) software (FEMA, 2014b) is discussed.
Additional information has been provided on how to run an effective
RVS program, including required and optional tasks and associated
resources needs.
Additional discussion on how to use the results of RVS for advocacy has
been added.

FEMA P-154

1: Introduction

1-13

1.6

Rapid Visual Screening Procedures

The Data Collection Form used for rapid visual screening has now been
extended with an optional second page, where the first page represents a
Level 1 screening and the second page represents an optional Level 2
screening. The Level 1 screening is similar to the procedure used in the
second edition of the Handbook, with the same objectives and the same
general level of expertise required from the screeners. The Level 2 screening
is more detailed than the Level 1 screening, and requires greater expertise to
complete, but it is still rapid and visual. In both levels, the screener fills out
the form and determines a score for the building. This score provides an
indication of the expected seismic performance of the building. The Level 2
score can be higher than the Level 1 score (indicating less seismic risk),
because Score Modifiers within the Level 1 screening score have more
conservative values. In some instances, the Level 2 score can be lower than
the Level 1 score, because the Level 2 screening evaluates some items in
more detail and includes some items not covered by the Level 1 screening.
For both levels, the screeners require training, and, for quality assurance
purposes, the screening program must be overseen by a design professional
knowledgeable in seismic design, evaluation, and risk assessment.
There are five versions of each form, one each for regions of Low, Moderate,
Moderately High, High, and Very High seismicity. The forms for Moderate,
Moderately High, High, and Very High seismicity regions vary only in the
values assigned to the Basic Scores and Score Modifiers and in the criteria
used to assess pounding.
1.7

Optional Electronic Scoring

Data Collection Forms have been set up to be used as paper forms with
simple arithmetic to determine a score for the building. This Third Edition
also introduces an optional use of electronic scoring. There are a number of
alternative methods that can be developed to implement electronic scoring
for RVS, as described in Chapter 6. The use of electronic scoring is intended
to improve the process by reducing errors when transferring data and to
allow for more refinement in the scoring based on site-specific seismic
hazard and soil information.
1.8

Using ROVER to Perform RVS

FEMA P-154 Rapid Observation of Vulnerability and Estimation of Risk

(ROVER) software developed by the Applied Technology Council (ATC) for
FEMA (2014) is free mobile software for pre- and post-earthquake building
safety screening. Its pre-earthquake module implements FEMA 154 Second

1-14

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

Edition procedures and automates several RVS tasks. ROVER is platformindependent, currently operating through a web browser on Android, iPad,
Blackberry, Windows Phone, or any web-connected smart device
(smartphone, tablet, or other device with a browser).
Data are entered through the browser and transmitted to a secure, webaccessible server that is controlled by the user or optionally by a web service
provider. The web server places the FEMA 154 RVS data into a database
that allows for access to the data by the screener or other authorized person.
Field data can be entered into the database either directly through the smart
devices browser, or collected on paper forms and manually transcribed later
into the database through a web browser. At the time of the preparation of
the FEMA P-154 Third Edition, data entry into the web browser closely
resembled the FEMA 154 Second Edition paper form with the addition that
FEMAP-154 ROVER provides the following capabilities: geolocation,
digital photos, automated site-specific hazard and soil lookup, automatic
score calculation, integration with HAZUS-MH, ShakeCast, ATC-20, and
user data files.
FEMA P-154 ROVER can be acquired on CD from the FEMA warehouse or
downloaded from www.roverready.org. It is recommended that the reader
check the website for the latest updates on FEMA P-154 ROVER, which
may have since evolved. FEMA offers FEMA P-154 ROVER training in
addition to FEMA 154 training through NETAP.
1.9

Uses of RVS Survey Results

While the principal purpose of the RVS procedure is to identify potentially

seismically hazardous buildings needing further evaluation, results from RVS
surveys can also be used for other purposes. These include: (1) evaluating a
communitys or agencys seismic retrofitting needs; (2) designing seismic
hazard mitigation programs for a community or agency; (3) developing
inventories of buildings for use in monitoring buildings for earthquake
impacts or for facilitating earthquake damage and loss assessments; (4)
planning post-earthquake building safety evaluation efforts; and (5)
developing building-specific seismic vulnerability information for purposes
such as insurance rating, decision making during building ownership
transfers, and possible triggering of remodeling requirements during the
permitting process. Chapter 2 discusses development of an RVS program,
including establishment of goals and objectives. Additional discussion on
the use of RVS survey results, including a discussion on using the survey
results for seismic advocacy, is provided in Chapter 5.

FEMA P-154

1: Introduction

1-15

1.10

Advantages and Limitations of the RVS Method

The RVS method described in this Handbook has a number of advantages as

well as limitations that need to be understood when developing and
implementing a screening program, and when using the results.
1.10.1 Advantages

The primary advantages of the RVS method are speed and ability to use
screeners who are not necessarily structural engineers. The procedure in this
Handbook has been designed to minimize ambiguity and limit the need for
judgment by the screeners. As noted above, it fills a unique niche in the
spectrum of available seismic evaluation tools, as other tools require greater
effort, expertise, and cost. Because screening can be done quickly, large
portfolios of buildings can be evaluated in a cost effective manner. The
method has also been used by many different people and jurisdictions
throughout the United States for over 25 years. As a result, it has had a long
track record of actual use and opportunities for scrutiny and improvement,
including both the second and third edition updates.
1.10.2 Limitations

The RVS methods primary advantage relates to its intrinsic limitations.

Limited reviewoften only from the exterior, typically without the benefit
of drawing review, and without calculationmeans the accuracy of the RVS
method is anticipated to be less than that of more detailed, time consuming,
and expensive reviews. Determining the seismic force-resisting system is
integral to the method (and to any seismic evaluation). It is likely that for a
relatively small percentage of buildings in any screening program, the
seismic force-resisting system cannot be identified by a rapid visual
screening because the structure will be covered by architectural finishes. A
Detailed Structural Evaluation will be required to determine the building
type.
An interior review is desirable, but not always possible given either the
available time or access limitations. As such, interior hazards can be missed,
and an understanding of the structural system and some of its deficiencies is
necessarily limited.
In more detailed evaluation methods, drawings are reviewed and calculations
are done, providing a more refined understanding of the individual buildings
structural characteristics. With drawing review, it may be possible to spot
deficiencies known to be of concern that cannot be seen in a rapid visual
screening. Seismic evaluation calculations determine the relationship

1-16

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

between demands on members and their associated capacities and whether

they are expected to have more desirable ductile behaviors or less desirable
nonductile behaviors. The RVS method does not include calculations, so
assessments of seismic capacity are based on more general considerations
related to building type, geometric irregularities, and site soil conditions.
Because large numbers of buildings are often screened and the level of
expertise can vary widely, errors are inevitable. It is essential to have a
thorough quality assurance program to minimize the extent of the errors.
Given the large data collection effort and the potential flexibility in program
goals, it is important to manage the program thoughtfully and with
organizational skill to derive the most efficient use of personnel and to
organize the collected information in the most useful way.
This Handbook provides advice in the following chapters to help minimize
the limitations of the method so that the program can be as successful as
possible.
1.11

Companion FEMA P-155 Report

The companion volume to this report, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings

for Potential Seismic Hazards: Supporting Documentation (Third Edition)
(FEMA P-155) documents the technical basis for the RVS procedure
described in this Handbook. The third edition of FEMA P-155 provides the
basis for the updated Basic Scores and Score Modifiers and the basis for the
updated criteria for considering pounding and building additions in the RVS
procedure. It also provides an explanation of the risk associated with RVS
scores.
1.12

Organization of This Handbook

The Handbook has been designed to facilitate the planning and execution of
a rapid visual screening program. It is assumed that the RVS Authority has
already decided to conduct the survey, and that detailed guidance is needed
for all aspects of the surveying process. Therefore, the main body of the
Handbook focuses on the three principal activities in the RVS procedure:
planning, execution, and data interpretation. Chapter 2 contains detailed
information on planning and managing an RVS program. Chapter 3
describes in detail how to complete the Level 1 Data Collection Form, and
Chapter 4 describes in detail how to complete the optional Level 2 Data
Collection Form. Chapter 5 provides guidance on interpreting and using the
RVS results. Chapter 6 describes how to use optional electronic scoring.
Finally, Chapter 7 provides example applications of the RVS procedure on
sample buildings.

FEMA P-154

1: Introduction

1-17

Relevant seismic hazard maps are provided in Appendix A. Full-sized Data

Collection Forms and the Reference Guides (including the Quick Reference
Guide and reference guides for irregularities, additions, and pounding), are
provided in Appendix B. Guidance for reviewing design and construction
drawings are provided in Appendix C and additional guidance for identifying
a buildings seismic force-resisting system from the street are provided in
Appendix D. Appendix E provides additional information on the building
types considered in the RVS procedure, and Appendix F provides guidance
for assessing damage and deterioration of common building materials.
Appendix G provides an overview of earthquake fundamentals, the
seismicity of the United States, and earthquake effects.

1-18

1: Introduction

FEMA P-154

Chapter 2

Planning and Managing a

Successful Rapid Visual
Screening Program

2.1

Planning and Implementing an RVS Program

Once the decision to conduct rapid visual screening (RVS) for a community
or group of buildings has been made by the RVS Authority, the screening
effort can be expedited by planning and careful overall management of the
process. This chapter provides detailed information on important planning
and management aspects of conducting an RVS program, including a
description of the overall screening implementation sequence. Instructions
on how to complete the Data Collection Forms are provided in Chapters 3
and 4.

RVS Authority refers to the

entity that has made the
decision to perform an RVS
program. Examples of RVS
Authorities include state
legislatures, city councils,
school districts, and private
building owners.

There are several steps involved in planning a successful RVS program. As

a first step, the RVS Authority should define the goals and objectives of the
RVS program and describe how the RVS results will be used. The RVS
Authority should then select a Program Manager to manage the program and
a Supervising Engineer to provide the technical expertise necessary to
conduct an RVS program. Next, the Program Manager, in consultation with
the Supervising Engineer, should define the scope of the project. Defining
the scope is done in conjunction with and concurrent to developing the
project budget. Scope issues, such as deciding how many buildings will be
screened, screener resources and experience, and whether Level 2 screenings
will be performed, have a direct impact on the budget. Coordination is
required to bring the project scope and the budget in line with one another.
Once the project scope and the project budget have been defined by the
Program Manager and approved by the RVS Authority, implementation of
the RVS program continues with additional pre-field activities, such as the
following:

Pre-field planning, including selection and development of a recordkeeping system, development of electronic scoring tools (if desired), and
compilation and development of maps that document local seismic
hazard information,

FEMA P-154

2: Planning and Managing A Successful

Rapid Visual Screening Program

2-1

Selection of the Data Collection Form based on the seismic hazard and
review and modification of the Data Collection Form for the individual
needs of the RVS program,

Selection and training of screening personnel,

Acquisition and review of pre-field data, including review of available

building files and databases to collect existing information on the
buildings to be screened (e.g., address, lot number, number of stories,
design date) and identifying soil types for the survey area, and

Review of existing building plans, if available.

Following the completion of these pre-field activities, field screening of

individual buildings is performed (see Chapters 3 and 4 for details). The
RVS program concludes after the screening data are checked for quality and
the screening results are filed in the record-keeping system or database. The
RVS Authority can then use the RVS results for decision making.
The general sequence of implementing the RVS procedure is depicted in
Figure 2-1.
2.2

Selecting the RVS Program Manager and the

Supervising Engineer

The RVS Authority determines who will manage the RVS program. The
Program Manager is responsible for defining the program scope, developing
the program budget, and overseeing implementation of the screening
program. The Program Manager must be knowledgeable about RVS and
capable of managing the project. Whether the RVS Authority decides to
manage the program itself or whether it decides to hire an outside consultant
will depend on the capabilities of the RVS Authority, as well as the size and
complexity of the program. If the RVS Authority is a building department,
for example, it may be possible for individuals within the department to
manage the program. If the RVS Authority is a state legislature, on the other
hand, it will be desirable to hire a consultant to manage the program or assign
the task to a qualified technical branch of government.
A Supervising Engineer is also required to run a successful RVS program.
The Supervising Engineer should be a local practicing structural engineer
with a background in seismic evaluation and risk assessments. The
Supervising Engineer should ideally also have experience with the FEMA
RVS methodology. If the Supervising Engineer is not knowledgeable about
the technical basis of FEMA P-154, he or she should become so by
reviewing both FEMA P-154 and FEMA P-155.

2-2

2: Planning and Managing A Successful

Rapid Visual Screening Program

FEMA P-154

Select the Program

Manager and the
Supervising Engineer

Define the scope of the

program and develop
the budget

Perform pre-field
planning

Select and modify the

Data Collection Form

Select and train the

screeners

Acquire and review of

pre-field building data

Review existing
construction drawings, if
available

Perform field screening

of buildings

Define the goals and

objectives of the RVS
program and how the
results will be used

File the screening data

in the record-keeping
system
RVS results available for
the RVS Authority to use
for decision making!

Check the quality of the

screening data

Figure 2-1

FEMA P-154

Rapid visual screening implementation sequence.

2: Planning and Managing A Successful

Rapid Visual Screening Program

2-3

In addition to overall quality assurance, the Supervising Engineer has the

following responsibilities:
Selecting and modifying the Data Collection Form,
Determining key seismic code adoption dates for the area being
screened,
Determining benchmark years for the area being screened,
Determining the cut-off score to be used in concert with the RVS
Authority and Program Manager,
Training the screeners (alternatively, training courses may be available
through FEMA),
Being available for the screeners to consult with during the field
screenings,
Reviewing the completed forms, and
Providing assistance in interpreting the results of the RVS screening.
If the Program Manager is an experienced structural engineer, he or she can
perform the role of Supervising Engineer.
Table 2-1 provides a description of the key players in an RVS program,
including the roles and responsibilities of each, as well as the recommended
qualification for each position.
2.3

Defining the Scope of the RVS Program

Defining the scope of an RVS program involves many choices. This section
presents some of the most important choices and describes the consequences
of various decisions. Decisions generally vary based on the goals and
objectives of individual programs and the resources available.
If the RVS program is to be a public or community project, the local
governing body and local building officials should formally approve of the
program plan and general procedure. Then, the public or the members of the
community should be informed about the purpose of the screening process
and how it will be carried out.
2.3.1

Determining Resources Needed for the RVS Program

Understanding the intended end uses of an RVS program before developing a

project scope and budget is imperative.

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Table 2-1

Key Players in an RVS Program

Entity

Description

Examples

Qualifications

Responsibilities

RVS
Authority

Entity that has

decided to
conduct an RVS
program and will
use the results.

State legislature, city

council, school district,
private building owner.

Has authority to
conduct an RVS
program.

Sets the goals and objectives of the

program and describes how the
results will be used. Chooses the
Program Manager and the
Supervising Engineer. Approves the
plan developed by the Program
Manager.

Program
Manager

Entity that will

manage the RVS
program on behalf
of the RVS
Authority.

Building department,
qualified technical
branch of government,
outside consultant.

Knowledgeable about
RVS. Capable of
managing the project.

Defines the scope of the program

and develops the budget. Oversees
implementation of the screening
program. Allocates screener
resources to ensure efficient use of
their time and minimize travel time.
Program Manager likely has
administrative staff to develop the
record keeping system, conduct the
pre-field data collection, and
perform data entry.

Supervising
Engineer

Individual who will

provide the
technical expertise
necessary to run
the RVS program.

Structural engineer (may

be the Program
Manager).

Structural engineer
with a background in
seismic evaluation and
risk assessments.
Understands RVS
methodology and its
technical basis as
described in FEMA P155.

Selects and modifies the Data

Collection Form. Determines the
key seismic code adoption dates and
benchmark years. Determines cutoff score (with RVS Authority and
Program Manager). May train the
screeners. Available for screeners to
consult with during field screening.
Reviews completed forms. Assists in
interpreting the results of the
program.

Level 1
Screener

Individual who will

conduct Level 1
screenings of
buildings.

Civil or structural
engineer, architect,
design professional,
building official,
construction contractor,
facility manager,
firefighter, architectural
or engineering student,
or another individual
with a general familiarity
or background in
building design or
construction.

Receives appropriate
FEMA P-154 training.

Performs Level 1 field screening.

Level 2
Screener

Individual who will

conduct both Level
1 and Level 2
screenings of
buildings.

Civil or structural
engineering professional,
architect, or graduate
student with background
in seismic evaluation or
design of buildings.

Receives appropriate
FEMA P-154 training.

Performs Level 1 and Level 2 field

screenings.

If the RVS program will be used to help establish a hazardous building

mitigation program for a community, then the information obtained in the
RVS should be as complete as possible. This would benefit the RVS
Authority in establishing the scope and need of such a mitigation program
and will lend a high degree of confidence that decisions are based on the best

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available information regarding the seismic vulnerability of the buildings. In

this case, a thorough search for building information during the pre-field
planning stage will be warranted and should be budgeted for accordingly.
Other uses for RVS may include getting order-of-magnitude results to help
focus concerns on vulnerable buildings. This could be accomplished without
spending resources to research building information and instead rely on field
determination of building type and age. In this type of program, the
Supervising Engineers quality assurance effort may be larger so that the
information recorded by the screeners can be checked.
If the RVS Authority plans to notify owners of low-scoring buildings and
either inform them of the building risk or possibly even require the owner to
comply with an ordinance, the administrative costs of running the program
will be more than if the screening program is used solely for potential
seismic damage estimation. This is because the notification process, as well
as increased quality assurance efforts, will require additional resources.
In general, an RVS program will offer an opportunity to collect valuable
information about nonstructural features of buildings. Although deemed
very important in high seismic regions, in areas of low seismicity,
nonstructural hazards are typically less significant, but they can be important
for life-safety considerations in a large rare earthquake. Heavy exterior
cladding and parapets have dislodged during past earthquakes and killed
passers-by. Nonstructural ceilings, light fixtures, heavy cabinets, and shelves
can also injure occupants and block exitways. Glass shards from untempered
windows and doors can also be hazardous, particularly if located near
emergency exits. Failure of nonstructural components has also been shown
to cause delays in helping communities return to normal functionality.
2.3.2

Deciding Which Buildings to Screen

The RVS Program Manager may decide that because of budget, time, or
other constraints, priorities should be set and certain areas within the region
should be surveyed immediately, whereas other areas can be surveyed at a
later time because they are assumed to be less hazardous. An area may be
selected because it contains an older building stock and may have a higher
density of potentially seismically hazardous buildings relative to other areas.
For example, an area with older buildings within the RVS Authority region
that consists mainly of unreinforced masonry buildings may be of higher
priority than a newer area with mostly warehouse facilities, or a residential
section of a city consisting of wood frame single-family dwellings.

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The Program Manager may also decide that only buildings with certain
attributes, such as a particular building type or occupancy, will be screened.
For example, it may be decided to screen only school buildings.
2.3.3

Combining Level 1 and Level 2 Screening

A Level 1 screening is performed for each building considered within the

RVS program. The optional Level 2 screening collects information about
additional structural features affecting risk and provides refined Score
Modifiers. A background in seismic evaluation or seismic design of
buildings is needed in order for the screener to be able to identify these
additional features.
Performing the Level 2 screening adds cost because the Level 2 screening
adds additional time, and the screener must be a structural engineer or other
qualified professional (see Table 2-1). If the Level 2 screening occurs at the
same time as the initial Level 1 screening, the added time per building is
typically around 5-15 minutes. If the Level 2 screening is a follow-up to an
earlier Level 1 screening, the added time per building is much greater
because travel time must be repeated, and the Level 2 screener may need to
redo the Level 1 screening. Hourly compensation for Level 2 screeners may
be higher because of their necessary qualifications.
Various permutations of Level 1 and Level 2 screenings are described below.
Level 1 only. In this approach, only Level 1 screenings are performed.
This type of program will maximize the potential number of buildings
screened at a minimum cost point. Screener qualifications are lower for
Level 1 screeners, increasing the potential pool of participants. This may
increase the need for additional Supervising Engineer review time to
validate the results from Level 1 screeners.
Level 1 with Level 2 on higher priority buildings. The added cost of the
Level 2 screening is reserved for high priority buildings. High priority
buildings are those with certain attributes, such as a particular building
type or occupancy as identified during pre-field activities. This program
will yield valuable Level 2 information on previously selected high
priority buildings for a minimal additional cost.
Level 1 with Level 2 as part of a second round on a subset of buildings.
A follow-up screening with Level 2 is performed for buildings based on
building type or the buildings Final Score as determined by the Level 1
screening. For example, a subset of the total portfolio of buildings may
be established from buildings with Final Scores within a given range

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above and below the cut-off score. Level 2 screenings of these particular
buildings may change the action required from No Detailed Stuctural
Evaluation Required to Detailed Structural Evaluation Required, or
vice versa. The added cost of the Level 2 screening per building is more
than it would be if it were performed as part of the first round of
screening because familiarization with the building, travel time, and the
Level 1 review may need to be repeated. An advantage is that the
number of detailed evaluations required may be reduced, benefiting the
overall project results.
Level 1 and Level 2 for all buildings. This option requires that all
members of the screening team be structural engineers or other qualified
professionals. If the RVS Authority has few buildings to screen or a
large budget with which to screen them, and experienced engineers are
available to perform the screenings, it may be appropriate to perform
both Level 1 and Level 2 screenings of all the buildings. Although this
approach will likely lead to the most accurate results, it will likely come
with the highest cost as well. With a fixed budget, this may mean fewer
buildings can be screened.
Some programs may wish to conduct screening programs that are as simple
as possible, and may wish to base screening scores solely on the Basic Score
associated with each building being screened, or similarly, the Minimum
Score. This simplified approach is not recommended and is not expected to
provide the RVS Authority with meaningful or accurate data on the seismic
hazard of their building stock.
2.3.4

Determining Screeners

Potential RVS screeners for Level 1 range from individuals with a general
familiarity or background in building design or construction to experienced
engineers and architects. Engineers and architects are likely to be more
costly on an hourly basis than nonprofessionals, but this cost may be offset
by the efficiency of the screener in the field, and the increased accuracy of
the screenings, which in turn reduces the Supervising Engineers effort. Of
course, if the decision has been made to perform Level 1 and Level 2
screenings of all buildings at the same time, then all the screeners must be
engineers or other qualified professionals.
Level 1 screeners should be generally familiar with the design and
construction of buildings. This could include knowledge or hands-on
experience with the structural elements of a building or historical interest in
building materials or construction practices. All Level 1 and Level 2

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screeners should receive the appropriate amount of FEMA P-154 training to

help ensure competency.
2.3.5

Extent of Pre-Field Data Collection

Pre-field data can include building information stored in assessor, building

department, or municipal files, as well as data from Sanborn maps, previous
studies, soils information, and construction documents. Data collection can
be time consuming; however, it can be extremely useful in reducing the total
field time and can increase the reliability of data collected in the field. A
good example of valuable pre-field data is the age, or design date of a
building. This might be readily available from building department files but
is much more difficult to estimate from the street. Another example is the
FEMA Building Type, which is often concealed behind architectural finishes.
It may be possible to determine the building type from a review of available
construction drawings.
Depending on the type of supplemental data available, pre-field data
collection may take up to 75 minutes per building (for example, if a thorough
review will be performed including determining soil type, reviewing permit
files, and reviewing construction documents or Sanborn maps) or as little as
15 minutes per building (for example, to determine soil type, confirm there
are no permit files available, and perform a quick search on the internet for
possible additional information).
The Program Manager should explore sources of information that are likely
to contain useful information on the buildings to be screened. For example,
the community may already have a Geographic Information System (GIS)
database with building age and building type, and drawings may be available
for some or all of the buildings. An estimate can then be made about how
much time per building will be spent on pre-field data collection.
Time spent on acquisition and review of the pre-field data is often the most
difficult portion to estimate in developing a preliminary budget. The
unknowns are great, as are the implications. If not given sufficient attention
during budget development, it can result in adjustments during the program
and affect the desired results.
2.3.6

Electronic Scoring

The Program Manager can decide to incorporate the use of electronic scoring
as part of the RVS program. Important considerations include whether the
RVS program includes a large number of buildings and whether the

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seismicity in the area to be screened is relatively constant over the area or

varies from the median seismicity of the appropriate Data Collection Form.
The paper-based RVS procedure uses a coarse gradation of the seismicity by
dividing the country into regions of Low, Moderate, Moderately High, High,
and Very High seismicity. In some areas, these coarse gradations may
overestimate or underestimate the seismic hazard, which in turn affect the
building score. Areas that have a large difference between the site-specific
seismicity and the median seismicity considered by the Low, Moderate,
Moderately High, High, and Very High seismicity paper forms will gain the
most benefit in terms of accuracy of results with the use of electronic
scoring. In addition, regions that include more than one level of seismicity
will benefit because slight changes in seismicity within the region may not
require changing the Data Collection Form when using electronic scoring.
One such system available is FEMA P-154 Rapid Observation of
Vulnerability and Estimation of Risk (ROVER) (FEMA, 2014). FEMA P154 ROVER is software developed by the Applied Technology Council
(ATC) for FEMA and uses FEMA 154 Second Edition methodology. Other
uses of electronic scoring will require effort to develop tools specific to the
RVS program. When considering the use of electronic scoring, the Program
Manager should take into account the availability of resources to develop and
implement the electronic scoring system. If the types of buildings to be
screened as part of the RVS program are similar, the development of the
electronic scoring could be streamlined since the methodology would not
need to be developed for all building types. However, once the electronic
scoring system is developed for the first building type, adapting it for other
building types will be less time consuming.
Another important consideration for government agencies is the availability
of the appropriate technology platform to implement electronic scoring.
Purchase of hardware for a government entity can be involved. In general,
hardware and software used in a government effort has to be owned by the
entity; personal equipment is not usually utilized. This is not an issue for
private entities, but may be an important consideration when determining if a
contractor or government personnel perform the evaluations.
2.3.7

Updating Existing Second Edition Screening Programs

RVS is a tool for initiating mitigation programs. If a program has been

implemented based on Second Edition results, the mitigation program should
generally continue, and there will usually not be a need to redo the RVS
program.

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If an RVS Authority has performed screening per the Second Edition and
developed a set of scores for a portfolio of buildings, but has not yet begun to
implement a mitigation program, the RVS Authority could continue to
proceed using the Second Edition score. However, to obtain a more current
assessment of relative risk and prioritization, the RVS Authority is
encouraged to consider re-screening using the Third Edition methodology in
some situations. These include how close the existing score was to the cutoff score, whether buildings had used the mid-rise or high-rise Score
Modifiers, and if the buildings would be affected by the increased number of
seismicity regions used in the Third Edition. Other factors that may lead the
RVS Authority to consider re-screening might be new knowledge and data
on seismicity. If the Final Score for a building screened using the Second
Edition was within 0.5 points of the adopted cut-off score (i.e., it had a Final
Score of 1.5 to 2.5), then re-screening these buildings should be considered.
Buildings that used the mid-rise and high-rise Score Modifiers in the Second
Edition may also be considered for re-screening since these Score Modifiers
were eliminated in the Third Edition in favor of combining that effect with
soil type Score Modifiers. Because the Third Edition now uses updated
ground motion maps and has divided the older High seismicity region into
three smaller regions, a re-screening of buildings that used the Second
Edition High seismicity form may warrant consideration.
2.4

Budget Development and Cost Estimation

Many of the decisions that are made about the project scope will depend
upon budget constraints. Funds should be allocated to cover the cost of the
screenings, as well as for pre-field planning (8 to 40 hours), selection and
optional modification of the Data Collection Form and determination of key
seismic code adoption dates (8 to 12 hours), screener training (6 to 8 hours
per screener), acquisition and review of pre-field building data (15 to 75
minutes per building), quality assurance (5 to 10 minutes per building),
administrative costs (10% of total costs), development of the record keeping
system (2% to 5% of costs), and post-processing of the data (15 to 30
minutes/building). See Chapter 7 for a suggested budget for an example
RVS program.
It is expected that the field screening of each building should take about 15 to
30 minutes. If access to the interior is obtained, screenings may take an
additional 15 to 30 minutes per building. If Level 2 screenings are
performed, screenings may take an additional 5 to 15 minutes per building.
The budget should also consider travel time. If the distance between
buildings to be screened is large, then the corresponding costs will be greater.
If the number of buildings to be screened is large, there is no urgency to
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completing the screening, and in-house staff who ordinarily visit the
buildings for other reasons will do the screening, the RVS Authority may
wish to integrate the data collection with the screeners day-to-day activities,
thus avoiding the cost of special trips to the buildings.
Opportunities exist to control the costs of an RVS program. Partnering with
local colleges and universities to involve students as screeners can reduce
costs. Upper division undergraduates and graduate students enrolled in
programs that emphasize the design of building structures, such as civil,
structural or architectural engineering, architecture, or construction can be
well prepared to learn and implement screening procedures.
Additionally, if a public program is being performed, training materials and
an instructor could be coordinated through the states Earthquake Program
Manager using FEMAs National Earthquake Technical Assistance Program
(NETAP).
2.5

Pre-Field Planning

During pre-field planning, the Program Manager compiles maps that

document local seismic hazard information, investigates sources of available
building information, engages local design professionals to advise on the
special features and vulnerabilities of the existing building stock, develops a
record-keeping system for the RVS program, and develops electronic scoring
tools (if desired).
Compiling and developing maps for the surveyed region is important in the
initial planning phase as well as in scheduling of screeners. Maps of soil
profiles will be useful for determining soil type prior to field screening.
Maps of landslide, liquefaction, and fault rupture potential, if available, will
also be useful for determining geologic hazards prior to field screening.
Maps of lots will be useful in scheduling screeners and, as data are collected,
in identifying areas with large numbers of potentially hazardous buildings.
An important element of pre-field planning is research and the collection of
available building data. Many municipalities maintain a database of building
data for their building stock. This data can vary from basic address and
occupancy type to GIS mapping and more detailed data on building
construction, which will assist in the RVS screening. Using these data as the
starting point for the RVS database is a natural time saver. Construction
drawings are ideal and should be collected when available. Acquiring
information from architectural and structural drawings may require the
expertise of an experienced design professional.

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Another important phase of pre-field planning is interaction with the local

design profession and building officials to gather information about local
design practices, common seismic hazards, and the history of seismic code
adoption and enforcement within the jurisdiction. Local design professionals
may be able to identify falling hazards unique to the area, or may be able to
focus the screening effort to particular buildings or areas of concern.
Another factor that should be considered during pre-field planning is the
development and administration of a record-keeping system for the screening
process. The type of record keeping system selected will be a function of
existing procedures and available funds as well as the ultimate goal of the
screening. The record-keeping system may be as simple as a list or it may be
an extension of an existing GIS database. The record-keeping system may in
fact consist of several systems.
Consideration should be given to developing an electronic database
containing location and other building information. This information can be
preprinted on the Data Collection Forms that the screeners use in the field.
Following the field screening, data collected in the field is entered into the
database. This process can be facilitated through the use of smart devices.
Using an electronic application, such as FEMA P-154 ROVER, the screener
can enter information directly into the database as it is collected in the field,
including photographs and sketches.
If an electronic database is not used for record-keeping, the completed forms,
including pictures and sketches, can be scanned and saved. Another method
that has been used is to generate a separate hardcopy file for each building as
it is screened. In fact, the screening form can be reproduced on a large
envelope with all supporting material and photographs stored inside. This
solves any problems associated with attaching multiple sketches and
photographs. Even so, the files may grow rapidly and become
unmanageable. Even when electronic databases are used, or when scanned
electronic files are saved, hardcopies of the screening forms and supporting
material can be kept as a valuable supplement or backup to the electronic
files.
Part of this planning phase may include deciding how buildings are to be
identified. Some suggestions are street address, assessors parcel number,
census tract, and lot number or owner.
If electronic scoring will be used, tools should be developed as described in
Chapter 6.

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2.6

To download Word or pdf files

of the Data Collection Forms,
visit www.atcouncil.org.

Selection and Optional Modification of the Data

Collection Form

There are five Data Collection Forms, one for each of the following five
regions of seismicity: Low, Moderate, Moderately High, High, and Very
High. Each Data Collection Form has a Level 1 page and an optional Level
2 page. Full-sized versions of each form are provided in Appendix B.
Electronic versions of the forms are available on ATCs website.
The structural scoring system consists of a matrix of Basic Scores (one for
each FEMA Building Type and its associated seismic force-resisting system)
and Score Modifiers to account for observed attributes that modify seismic
performance. The five forms vary from each other only in the values of these
Basic Scores and Score Modifiers and the Level 2 pounding criteria. The
Basic Scores and Score Modifiers are based on (1) time-dependent seismic
design and construction practices in the region; (2) attributes known to
decrease or increase seismic resistance capacity; and (3) maximum
considered ground motions for the seismicity region under consideration.
The Basic Score, Score Modifiers, and Final Score all relate to the
probability of building collapse, should the maximum ground motions
considered by the RVS procedure occur at the site. Final Scores typically
range from 0 to 7, with higher scores corresponding to better seismic
performance.
The scoring system in the Third Edition considers risk-targeted (MCER)
ground motions. These ground motions are consistent with the BSE-2N
ground motions specified in ASCE/SEI 41-13, Seismic Evaluation and
Retrofit of Existing Buildings (ASCE, 2014).
2.6.1

Determination of Seismicity Region

To select the appropriate Data Collection Form, it is first necessary to

determine the seismicity of the region that is to be screened. If the RVS
program covers a large geographic area, different seismicity regions may
apply for different building sites. The seismicity region can be determined
by one of two methods:
1. Find the county covering the surveyed region on the seismicity maps
provided in Appendix A, and identify the corresponding seismicity
region.
2. Determine the seismicity of the site using site-specific values of seismic
hazard for MCER ground motions and Soil Type B as provided by the
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). An online tool for obtaining sitespecific values of spectral acceleration response for short-period, SS, and
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one-second, S1, is available at http://earthquake.usgs.gov

/designmaps/usapp/. When using this tool, the design code reference
document should be set to 2013 ASCE 41, the earthquake hazard level to
BSE-2N, and the site soil classification to Site Class B Rock, as
shown in Figure 2-2. The location of the site is defined using either
latitude and longitude or street address. Using the provided values SS and
S1 by the tool (see Figure 2-3), Table 2-2 can then be used to select the
appropriate seismicity region, assuming that the highest seismicity level
defined by the parameters in Table 2-2 shall govern.

Figure 2-2

Input tool for determining site-specific seismicity using the USGS online tool (USGS,
2013a).

The site-specific approach of the second method, implemented by the

Supervising Engineer, is preferred as it enables the user to determine
seismicity based on a buildings specific location. In contrast, each county
shown in the Appendix A maps is assigned its seismicity designation on the
basis of the highest seismicity in that county, even though it may only apply
to a small portion of the county.
2.6.2

Optional Modification of the Data Collection Form

The Data Collection Form can be used as it is presented in this Handbook or

modified by the Program Manager and Supervising Engineer according to
the needs of the program. Therefore, another aspect of the screening
planning process is to review the Data Collection Form to determine if all
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required data are represented or if modifications should be made to reflect

the needs and special circumstances of the program.

Figure 2-3

Output summary report from USGS online tool for determining sitespecific seismicity (USGS, 2013a).

Table 2-2

Seismicity Region Determination from MCER Spectral

Acceleration Response

Seismicity Region

Spectral Acceleration
Response, SS (short-period,
or 0.2 seconds)

Spectral Acceleration
Response, S1 (long-period,
or 1.0 second)

Low

less than 0.250g

less than 0.100g

Moderate

greater than or equal to

0.250g but less than 0.500g

greater than or equal to

0.100g but less than 0.200g

Moderately High

greater than or equal to

0.500g but less than 1.000g

greater than or equal to

0.200g but less than 0.400g

High

greater than or equal to

1.000g but less than 1.500g

greater than or equal to

0.400g but less than 0.600g

Very High

greater than or equal to

1.500g

greater than or equal to

0.600g

Notes: g = acceleration of gravity in horizontal direction

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For example, an RVS Program Manager can choose to define additional

occupancy classes such as parking structure or multi-family residential.
The RVS Program Manager can choose to add a field for the screener to note
building number if, for example, the buildings being screened are on a
college campus. There may also be an exterior falling hazard common to the
area being screened. The Supervising Engineer can determine that
liquefaction, landslide, and fault rupture are not significant hazards in the
area being screened, and can recommend that these considerations be
removed from the form.
During the Data Collection Form modification process, it is critically
important that the Basic Scores and Score Modifiers and the Level 2
statements not be changed.
2.6.3

Determination of Key Seismic Code Adoption Dates

One of the key issues that must be addressed in the planning process is the
determination of: (1) the year in which seismic codes were initially adopted
and enforced by the local jurisdiction; and (2) the year in which significantly
improved seismic codes were adopted and enforced (this latter year is known
as the benchmark year).
On the Very High, High, Moderately High, and Moderate seismicity forms,
Basic Scores are provided for buildings built after the initial adoption of
seismic codes, but before substantially improved codes were adopted
(benchmark year). This generally corresponds to buildings designed based
on the Uniform Building Code (UBC) in the period between 1941 and 1975.
Score Modifiers designated as Pre-Code and Post-Benchmark are
provided, respectively, for buildings built before the adoption of codes and
for buildings built after the adoption of substantially improved codes. In
Low seismicity regions, the Basic Scores have been calculated assuming the
buildings were built without consideration of seismic codes. For buildings in
these regions, the Score Modifier designated as Pre-Code is not applicable
(N/A), and the Score Modifier designated as Post-Benchmark is applicable
for buildings built after the adoption of seismic codes.
In some jurisdictions, seismic anchorage requirements for heavy cladding
have been adopted and enforced. Determining the dates that these
requirements were adopted and enforced enables the screener to determine
whether observed heavy cladding is a falling hazard or whether it is likely to
be properly braced, and therefore should not be flagged during screening as a
falling hazard.

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Therefore, as part of this review process, the Supervising Engineer should

identify the following: (1) the year in which seismic codes were first adopted
and enforced in the area to be screened; (2) the benchmark year in which
significantly improved seismic code requirements were adopted and enforced
for each building type considered by the RVS procedure; and (3) the year in
which the community adopted seismic anchorage requirements for heavy
cladding.
Benchmark improvements are associated with building code years where
significant provisions were introduced addressing particular seismic
performance concerns. Examples include the wall-to-diaphragm connections
introduced for tilt up (PC1) buildings in the 1997 Uniform Building Code
(UBC; ICBO, 1997) and steel moment frames introduced in the Emergency
Provisions of the 1994 UBC (ICBO, 1994) following observations made of
beam-column connection damage in the Northridge earthquake.
The Supervising Engineer should confer with the Chief Building Official,
plan checkers, and other local design professionals to identify the years in
which the local jurisdiction initially adopted and enforced seismic codes (if
ever) for the building types considered by the RVS procedure. Since
municipal codes are generally adopted by the city council, another source for
this information, in many municipalities, is the city clerks office. If the
Supervising Engineer in Very High, High, Moderately High, and Moderate
seismicity regions is unsure of the year(s) in which codes were initially
adopted, but does know that the region has traditionally both adopted and
enforced the UBC, the default year for all but one building type is 1941 (the
default year specified in the Multi-hazard Loss Estimation Methodology,
Earthquake Model, HAZUS-MH MR4 Technical Manual (FEMA, 2009a)).
The one exception is tilt-up (PC1) buildings, for which it is assumed that
seismic codes were initially adopted in 1973, the year in which walldiaphragm (ledger) connection requirements first appeared in the Uniform
Building Code (ICBO, 1973).
Historically, the Standard Building Code (SBC) by the Southern Building
Code Congress (SBCC) was used in many parts of the Southeast. In many
areas of the East Coast and the Midwest, the Basic Building Code was used.
The name of this reference evolved over the years as it was administered by
the Building Officials Code Administrators International (BOCA) from
BOCA Basic Building Code to Basic National Building Code to BOCA
National Building Code (NBC). In some regions of the country, seismic
design provisions under BOCA and SBCC were not enforced until the early
1990s. If codes other than the UBC apply to the region of interest, then it is

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suggested that a default code adoption year of 1992 be used for all building
types.
In addition to determining the year in which seismic codes were initially
adopted and enforced, the Supervising Engineer must also determine the
benchmark years in which substantially improved seismic codes were
adopted and enforced for the various building types. Table 2-3 provides the
benchmark years for NBC/SBC and UBC for each FEMA Building Type.
Benchmark years are also shown for the International Building Code (IBC)
which more recently combined and replaced the NBC, SBC, and UBC. The
IBC should only be used if the jurisdiction did not adopt the NBC, SBC or
UBC. If one of these codes has been both adopted and enforced in the area
being screened, the Supervising Engineer may select the benchmark years for
each building type from the column for that code. If the area has both
adopted and enforced a set of codes not listed in the table, the Supervising
Engineer must determine the benchmark years based on an understanding of
when the seismic codes were substantially improved for the various building
types. If the area has not both adopted and enforced any seismic codes, no
benchmark year is applicable. In this case, the screeners should be directed
not to use the Post-Benchmark Score Modifiers.
The Supervising Engineer must also determine the year in which anchorage
requirements for cladding were adopted and enforced. Heavy cladding
installed prior to the year noted is considered an exterior falling hazard.
Once the Supervising Engineer has determined the dates corresponding to the
initial adoption and enforcement of seismic codes and the benchmark years,
and to the initial adoption of anchorage requirements for heavy cladding,
these years should be inserted on the Quick Reference Guide in Appendix B,
repeated here as Table 2-4.
Table 2-4 has been created to facilitate the use of the Data Collection Form.
In order to consider the lapse in time that typically occurs between design
date and year built, the Supervising Engineer may choose to add a few years
to each date so that the screener can compare the year built directly to the
years on the Quick Reference Guide.

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Table 2-3

RVS Benchmark Years for FEMA Building Types (based on ASCE/SEI 41-13)
Model Building Seismic Design Provisions

FEMA Building Type

2-20

National Building
Code/ Standard
Building Code

Uniform Building
Code

International
Building Code

1993

1976

2000

W1

Light wood frame single- or multiplefamily dwellings of one or more stories

in height

W1A

Light wood frame multi-unit, multistory residential buildings with plan

areas on each floor of greater than
3.000 square feet

1997

2000

W2

Wood frame commercial and

industrial buildings with a floor area
larger than 5,000 square feet

1993

1976

2000

S1

Steel moment-resisting frame

buildings

19942

2000

S2

Braced steel frame buildings

1997

2000

S3

Light metal buildings

2000

S4

Steel frame buildings with concrete

shear walls

1993

1994

2000

S5

Steel frame buildings with

unreinforced masonry infill walls

2000

C1

Concrete moment-resisting frame

buildings

1993

1994

2000

C2

Concrete shear wall buildings

1993

1994

2000

C3

Concrete frame buildings with

unreinforced masonry infill walls

2000

PC1

Tilt-up buildings

1997

2000

PC2

Precast concrete frame buildings

2000

RM1

Reinforced masonry buildings with

flexible floor and roof diaphragms

1997

2000

RM2

Reinforced masonry buildings with

rigid floor and roof diaphragms

1993

1994

2000

URM

Unreinforced masonry bearing wall

buildings

MH

Manufactured housing

No benchmark year.

Steel moment-resisting frame shall comply with the 1994 UBC Emergency Provisions, published September/October
1994.

The model building codes in this table do not apply to manufactured housing. In California, relevant requirements
appeared in the Mobile home Parks Act, the California Health and Safety Code, and the California Code of
Regulations. They evolved between 1985 and 1994; the year 1995 is recommended here as the benchmark year for
California. In other states, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Developments Installation Standards required
tie-downs after October 2008. The year 2009 is recommended here as the benchmark year for states other than
California.

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Table 2-4

Quick Reference Guide from Appendix B

FEMA Building Type

W1

Light wood frame single- or multiple-family dwellings of one or

more stories in height

W1A

Light wood frame multi-unit, multi-story residential buildings

with plan areas on each floor of greater than 3,000 square feet

W2

Wood frame commercial and industrial buildings with a floor

area larger than 5,000 square feet

S1

Steel moment-resisting frame

S2

Braced steel frame

S3

Light metal frame

S4

Steel frame with cast-in-place concrete shear walls

S5

Steel frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls

C1

Concrete moment-resisting frame

C2

Concrete shear wall

C3

Concrete frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls

PC1

Tilt-up construction

PC2

Precast concrete frame

RM1

Reinforced masonry with flexible floor and roof diaphragms

RM2

Reinforced masonry with rigid floor and roof diaphragms

URM

Unreinforced masonry bearing-wall buildings

MH

Manufactured housing

Year Seismic
Codes
Initially
Adopted and
Enforced

Benchmark Year
when Codes
Improved

Anchorage of Heavy Cladding

Year in which seismic anchorage requirements were adopted:

2.6.4

Determination of Cut-Off Score

Use of the RVS methodology on a community-wide basis enables the RVS

Authority to divide screened buildings into two categories: (1) those that are
expected to have acceptable seismic performance; and (2) those that may be
seismically hazardous and should be studied further. This requires that the
RVS Authority determines, preferably as part of the pre-planning process, an
appropriate cut-off score.
A score of 2.0 is suggested as a cut-off for standard occupancy buildings,
based on present seismic design criteria. Using this cut-off level, buildings
having a score of 2.0 or less should be investigated by a design professional
experienced in seismic design. In some cases, a higher cut-off score may be
warranted for critical or essential facilities. A higher score indicates a

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smaller probability of collapse. It does not, however, indicate a greater

probability of other performance objectives being met, such as continued
operation. See Section 5.3 for additional guidance on selecting an
appropriate cut-off score.
2.7

Desirable attributes for potential

screeners:
Interest and knowledge
about buildings and
structures
Some understanding and
appreciation of the effects
of earthquakes
Willingness to be trained in
RVS
Attention to detail
Previous ATC-20 training

Qualifications and Training for Screeners

Level 1 screenings can be performed by a wide array of individuals,

including civil engineers, structural engineers, architects, design
professionals, building officials, construction contractors, facility managers,
firefighters, architecture and engineering students, or other individuals with a
general familiarity or background in building design or construction.
These individuals will need to be trained to ensure consistent, high quality
collection of data and uniformity of decisions among screeners. Training
materials and an instructor can be coordinated through the states Earthquake
Program Manager using FEMAs NETAP.
Training should include discussions of seismic force-resisting systems and
how they behave when subjected to seismic loads, how to identify building
irregularities, how to complete the Level 1 Data Collection Form, what to
look for in the field, and how to account for uncertainty.
It will be beneficial if the trainees, in conjunction with a professional
engineer experienced in seismic design, can simultaneously score buildings
of several different types and compare results. This will serve as a
calibration for the screeners. This process can be accomplished in a
classroom setting with photographs of actual buildings used as examples.
Prospective screeners can review the photographs and perform the RVS
procedure as though they were on the sidewalk. Upon completion, the class
may discuss the results and students can compare how they did in relation to
the rest of the class and the professional engineer. Alternately, the training
can include a field exercise with real buildings. This can be easily
accomplished using the training facility building as the example building.
The screeners can be broken into small groups with each group
independently reviewing the exterior and possibly the interior of the building,
if access to mechanical and unfinished spaces can be secured. The groups
can then return to the training room and inform the others how they scored
the building, what structure type was selected and Score Modifiers applied.
The Level 2 screening is designed assuming that the screening will be
performed by a civil or structural engineering professional, architect, or
graduate student with a background in seismic evaluation or design of
buildings. Training should be provided to these individuals to provide them

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with an understanding of how the FEMA P-154 methodology works and how
to complete the Level 1 and Level 2 Data Collection Forms. For graduate
students, the Supervising Engineer should determine on a case-by-case basis
whether the student has the necessary knowledge and experience to perform
Level 2 screenings.
Screener information, such as names, email addresses, and other contact
information, should be archived with the survey results. This will allow for
follow-ups during the final stages of reviewing the data and also for future
references.
2.8

Acquisition and Review of Pre-Field Building Data

Information on the structural system, age or occupancy (that is, use) of the
building may be available from supplemental sources. These data, from
assessor and building department files, insurance (Sanborn) maps, and
previous studies, should be reviewed and collated for a given area before
commencing the field survey for that area. It is recommended that this
supplemental information be either written directly on the Data Collection
Forms as it is retrieved or entered into an electronic database. The advantage
of a database is that selected information can be printed directly onto Data
Collection Forms for the screeners to use in the field. Following the field
screening, data collected in the field can be entered into the database and
later used to generate reports and maps.
Some sources of supplemental information are described in Sections 2.8.1
through 2.8.7.
2.8.1

Assessors Files

Assessors files may contain information about the floor area and the number
of stories of a building. These files often also include coordinates and zip
codes that can be used to pre-populate an electronic database. The
construction type may be indicated, but should be verified during screening.
Property type and building style may also be available and can provide clues
about the specific use of the property and its exterior wall finishes. Caution
must be exercised with the age of a building retrieved from assessors files,
because usually assessors files contain the year that the building was first
eligible for taxation. Because the criteria for this may vary, the date may be
several years after the building was designed or constructed. If no other
source of information is available, this year will give a good estimate of the
period during which the building was constructed. However, this date should
not be used to establish conclusively the code under which a building was
designed. Assessors offices may also have parcel or lot maps, which may be

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useful for locating sites or may be used as a template for sketching building
adjacencies on a particular city block.
2.8.2

Building Department Files

The extent and completeness of information in building department files will

vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. For example, in some locations all old
files have been removed or destroyed, so there is no information on older
buildings. In general, files (or microfilm) may contain permits, plans, and
structural calculations required by the city. Sometimes the building
department files contain information about a buildings occupancy and use.
If building plans or calculations are included in the building department files,
an engineer can review them to determine building type.
2.8.3

Sanborn Maps and Parcel Maps

These maps, published primarily for the insurance industry since the late
1800s, exist for about 22,000 communities in the United States. The Sanborn
Map Company stopped routinely updating these maps in the early 1960s, and
many communities have not kept these maps up-to-date. Thus, they may not
be useful for newer construction. However, the maps may contain useful
data for older construction. They can be found at the library or in some cases
in building department offices. There exist services that provide digitized
libraries of Sanborn maps with search engines and GIS capabilities.
Figure 2-4 shows a Sanborn map and photographs of the associated city
block. Building descriptions obtained from the Sanborn maps are also
included. Figures 2-5 and 2-6 show keys to identifiers on Sanborn maps.
Information found on a Sanborn map includes height of building, number of
stories, year built, thickness of walls, building size (square feet), type of roof
(tile, shingle, composite), building use (dwelling, store, apartment), presence
of garage under structure, and structural type (wood frame, fireproof
construction, adobe, stone, concrete). The structural type can be helpful in
identifying the FEMA Building Type. Although the information on Sanborn
maps may be useful, it is the responsibility of the screener to verify any
information derived from these maps in the field.
Parcel maps are also available and contain lot dimensions. If building size
information cannot be obtained from another source such as the assessors
file, the parcel maps are particularly helpful for determining building
dimensions in urban areas where buildings cover the entire lot. However,
even if the building does not cover the entire lot, it will be easier to estimate
building dimensions if the lot dimensions are known.

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Figure 2-4

FEMA P-154

Sanborn map and corresponding aerial photograph of a city block.

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Figure 2-5

2-26

Key to Sanborn map symbols.

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Figure 2-6

FEMA P-154

Detailed key to Sanborn map symbols. (From

http://sanborn.umi.com/HelpFiles/key.html)

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2.8.4

Municipal Databases

Many jurisdictions have made digital maps or databases available online for
use by the general public. Figure 2-7 shows an example from a municipal
database.

Figure 2-7

2-28

Example of property details from City of Calabasas municipal

database (from http://www.cityofcalabasas.com/departments
/planning/).

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These databases provide general information on the various building sites

within the jurisdiction. The level of detail of these databases varies greatly.
Some of them may provide information on building age, square footage, and
occasionally, the construction type and presence of geologic hazards. These
databases are expected to become more detailed over time, and hence, more
useful to RVS.
2.8.5

Previous Studies

In a few cases, previous building inventories or studies of hazardous

buildings or hazardous nonstructural elements (e.g., parapets) may have been
performed. These studies may be limited to a particular structural or
occupancy class, but they may contain useful maps or other relevant
structural information and should be researched, collected, and reviewed.
Other important studies might address related seismic hazard issues such as
liquefaction or landslide potential. Local historical societies may have
published books or reports about older buildings in the community. Fire
departments are often aware of the overall condition and composition of
building interiors.
2.8.6

Soil Information

Soil Type, also known as Site Class, has a major influence on amplitude and
duration of shaking, and thus structural damage. Generally speaking, the
greater the depth of soil to bedrock at a site, the more damaging the
earthquake motion will be. Table 2-5 provides measurable parameters that
define soil type using the site class definitions of ASCE/SEI 7-10 (ASCE,
2010).

Many communities have developed

building inventories that might be
of value. For example, the Utah
Division of State History includes
valuable information about historic
buildings and is accessible online at
http://historicbuildings.utah.gov.
Additionally, the state has
performed a series of
Reconnaissance Level and Intensive
Level Surveys, which provide
additional information about
historic buildings. Available at
http://heritage.utah.gov/history/bu
ilding-surveys.

Soil type cannot be readily identified by visual methods in the field. The soil
type should be identified during the planning stage and put into a readily
usable map format for use during RVS. During the screening, or the
planning stage, the soil type should be documented on the Data Collection
Form by checking the correct soil type, as designated by the letters A through
F.
There are various sources of data for the soil conditions at a site, including
geotechnical engineering reports. For the purpose of a rapid visual
screening, the use of geotechnical engineering reports may be impractical. In
some areas of the country, such as the San Francisco Bay Area, maps that
provide the applicable soil types are publically available and can be used to
determine site-specific soil type information.
If soil maps of the area are not available, soil type can be estimated based on
average shear wave velocity in the top 30 meters of soil, VS30. These values
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have been derived using topographic slopes and using geological conditions
of the surface soil. These values are available as maps or site-specific values
from the U.S. Geological Survey web site http://earthquake.usgs.gov
/hazards/apps/vs30/ (see Figure 2-8).
Table 2-5

Soil Type Definitions

Soil Type/Site
Class

Shear Wave Velocity1, VS30

Standard Blow
Count1, N

Undrained Shear
Strength of the
upper 100ft1, su

A. Hard Rock

VS30 > 5000 ft/s

B. Rock

2500 ft/s < VS30 < 5000 ft/s

C. Very Dense
Soil and Soft
Rock

1200 ft/s < VS30 < 2500 ft/s

N >50

su>2000 psf

D. Stiff Soil

600 ft/s < VS30 < 1200 ft/s

15 < N <50

1000psf < su <

2000 psf

N < 15

su < 1000 psf

E. Soft Clay Soil VS30 < 600 ft/s

More than 10 feet of soft soil with plasticity index PI > 20,
water content w > 40%, and su < 500 psf
F. Poor Soil

Soils requiring site-specific evaluations.

Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under seismic

loading, such as liquefiable soils, quick and highly-sensitive clays,
collapsible weakly-cemented soils.

Thicker than 10 feet of peat or highly organic clay.

Very high plasticity clays (25 feet with PI > 75).

More than 120 ft of soft or medium stiff clays.

Average values.

The USGS also provides a tool called OpenSHA Site Data Viewer/Plotter
(http://opensha.org/apps-SiteData) to download and plot data and maps for
site-related data from various sources.
The most commonly encountered soil types are Soil Type C and Soil Type
D. The average of these soil types is known as Soil Type CD. This average
is used as the basis of the Basic Scores. If the soil type cannot be identified
or estimated during the planning stage, Soil Type D should be assumed.
Buildings on Soil Type F cannot be screened effectively by the RVS
procedure, other than to recommend that buildings on this soil type be further
evaluated by a geotechnical engineer and design professional experienced in
seismic design.

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Figure 2-8
2.8.7

VS30 map of Alaska from USGS website showing soil type (USGS,
2013b).

Using Resources from the Internet and Other Available

Tools

The internet is home to vast amounts of information, including specific

information about buildings. A web search of a specific building may reveal
meaningful information about it, including its date of construction or
information about a recent retrofit to it.
Additional tools that can aid in the RVS effort are available on the internet.
For example, satellite images found on the internet can be used to view
buildings from above. From these images, screeners can identify plan
irregularities that may be hidden when viewing the building at street level.
These images from above may also reveal the presence or absence of parapet
bracing. Maps found on the internet can be used to quickly view the exterior
of buildings without leaving the office. This tool can be particularly useful
for the quality assurance process as it can be used by the Supervising

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Engineer to verify number of stories, building type, and other building

characteristics.
Additional tools are expected to become available in the future. Information
from the internet should always be verified during the field screening.
2.9

Review of Construction Documents

Whenever possible, construction documents for the buildings to be screened

should be reviewed prior to the conduct of field work. The review of
construction documents substantially improves the confidence in the
determination of building type. It also greatly assists in determining building
age and in identifying building irregularities. Appendix C provides a list of
common symbols shown on structural drawings. Determining the FEMA
Building Type from existing drawings often requires some familiarity in
reading architectural and structural drawings that an experienced design
professional would have.
Some sources for obtaining construction documents include building
departments, facilities managers, and building owner files. Building
department records may include information about the original construction
date and permitted work done over a number of years. Obtaining copies of
files may involve getting permission from the original designers, but some
information may be publically available over the counter.
Facilities mangers and building owners often keep records of the
construction documents for reference purposes. These are generally the
easiest to obtain and should be requested first. Persistence in discovering
these documents is generally worth the effort since conversations with those
responsible for maintaining the building will often uncover valuable
information.
2.10

Field Screening of Buildings

Rapid visual screening of buildings in the field can be carried out by

individuals or teams of two. Teams of two provide the screeners an
opportunity to discuss issues requiring judgment and to facilitate the data
collection process. Using teams of two, however, increases the number of
screeners needed and related costs. The benefit of pairing up an experienced
engineer or architect with an inexperienced screener will be minor, except as
a way of training the less experienced person.
Relatively few tools or equipment are needed. Table 2-6 provides a list of
items that may be needed in performing RVS as described in this Handbook.

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The Level 1 screening procedure is described in Chapter 3. The optional

Level 2 procedure is described in Chapter 4.
Table 2-6

Checklist of Field Equipment Needed for Rapid Visual Screening

Field Equipment
Binoculars, if high-rise buildings are to be evaluated
Camera, preferably digital and spare batteries
Clipboard for holding Data Collection Forms
Copy of the FEMA P-154 Handbook
Copies of the Quick Reference Guide and other reference guides (see Appendix
B)
Pen or pencil
Straight edge (optional for drawing sketches)
Graph paper (optional for drawing sketches)
Flashlight for interior observations
Manual or digital measuring device to assist in measuring distances and
calculating building square footage
Smartphone or tablet computer if using electronic tools for RVS review with spare
batteries or car charger

2.11

Quality Assurance

The Supervising Engineer should provide quality assurance by reviewing the

completed Data Collection Forms. The scope of the Supervising Engineers
review depends on the scope of the screening and can include review of each
form, spot checking of forms, or review of the compiled data. The
Supervising Engineer may choose to check specific fields on every form or
check every form for a certain building type. It is recommended that the
forms for all failing buildings be reviewed by the Supervising Engineer.
Some of this review should come early in the screening process to catch
common errors and to allow for additional training of individual screeners
that may be making too many mistakes or are repeatedly unable to narrow
down the building type. Overlooking quality assurance early in the RVS
program can result in significant amounts of added effort later on that will
potentially impact the budget and time frame of the project.
The Supervising Engineer can perform this review using data and photos
collected in the field, or the Supervising Engineer can go into the field to
work with the screeners and check their work. Field involvement can be
very beneficial. Pairing the Supervising Engineer with a less experienced
screener at the start will be desirable as a training aid and will reduce the
level of review required later.

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The extent of the Supervising Engineers role will be dependent on the

qualifications of the screeners. If the screeners are not familiar with building
design and if they have limited experience performing screenings, the
Supervising Engineer will need to be more available for consultation during
the screenings and will need to review the completed screening forms more
closely. If the screeners are experienced engineers or architects, the
Supervising Engineer's efforts will be less. The cost of more experienced
screeners may be offset by the cost of the added work for the Supervising
Engineer.
In some programs, the Supervising Engineer may be assisted in performing
quality assurance by additional experienced seismic design professionals.
Reviewers should pay particular attention to EST (estimated) and DNK
(do not know) marks on the forms, or screeners who circle too many building
types.
Some common mistakes made include the following:
Incorrect assumptions regarding the FEMA Building Type, particularly
when architectural finishes cover the structural framing, such as precast
cladding over steel framing.
Incorrect use of the Pre-Code and Post-Benchmark Score Modifiers.
Selection of the wrong seismicity level form based on limits established
by the Ss and S1 parameters.
Use of the wrong or default soil type if this information is known or
obtained for the project.
Missing some of the possible situations that trigger one of the Vertical
Irregularity Score Modifiers.
Incorrectly applying the Minimum Score.
2.12

Filing the Field Data in the Record-Keeping System

The last step in the implementation of rapid visual screening is filing the
RVS data in the record-keeping system established for this purpose. If
FEMA P-154 ROVER is used to collect field data, then this step is
unnecessary, as the data are already stored in a database when the field data
are entered. Alternatively, if RVS data are recorded on paper they can be
transcribed into FEMA P-154 ROVERs database, which can serve as the
record-keeping system. If the data are to be stored in file folders or
envelopes containing data for each building that was screened, the process is

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straightforward, and requires careful organization. If the data are to be stored

in digital form, it is important that the data input and verification process
include either double entry of all data, or systematic in-depth review of print
outs (item-by-item review) of all entered data.

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Chapter 3

Completing the
Level 1 Data Collection Form

3.1

Introduction

This chapter provides instructions on how to complete the Level 1 Data

Collection Form (Figure 3-1). It is assumed that pre-field planning activities
(as described in Chapter 2) have already been conducted, including the
selection of the Data Collection Form, based on the seismicity level of the
area to be screened, and the determination of the soil type. Instructions for
completing the optional Level 2 Data Collection Form are provided in
Chapter 4.
The Level 1 Data Collection Form is completed for each building screened
through execution of the following steps:
1. Verifying and updating the building identification information;
2. Walking around the building to identify the number of stories and shape,
and sketching a plan and elevation view on the Data Collection Form;
3. Photographing the building;
4. Determining and documenting occupancy;
5. Reviewing the soil type and geologic hazards, as identified during the
pre-field planning process;
6. Identifying adjacency issues, building irregularities, and any potential
exterior falling hazards;
7. Adding any comments about unusual conditions or circumstances that
may affect the screening;
8. Identifying the building material, gravity load-carrying system, and
seismic force-resisting system to identify the FEMA Building Type
(entering the building, if possible, to facilitate this process) and circling
the Basic Score on the Data Collection Form;
9. Circling the appropriate seismic performance attribute Score Modifiers
(e.g., irregularities, design date, and soil type) on the Data Collection
Form;

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Figure 3-1
3-2

Level 1 Data Collection Form (High seismicity).

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10. Determining the Final Level 1 Score, SL1 (by adjusting the Basic Score
from Step 8 with the Score Modifiers identified in Step 9); and
11. Completing the summary section at the bottom of the form (i.e., Extent
of Review, Other Hazards and Action Required).
Full-sized copies of the Level 1 Data Collection Forms (one for each
seismicity region) are provided in Appendix B. The form has been designed
to be filled out from top to bottom, with a minimum of writing (most items
can simply be checked or circled). The following sections provide
instructions and guidance on completing sections of the form from top to
bottom.
3.2

Building Identification Information

Space is provided in the upper right-hand portion of the Level 1 Data

Collection Form (see Figure 3-2) to document building identification
information (address, building name, use, latitude and longitude, and sitespecific ground motion values), name of the screener(s), and the date and
time of the screening. As indicated in Chapter 2, it is desirable to develop
and document this information during the pre-field planning stage, if
possible. This information may be filled out manually, or it can be preprinted
on a peel-off label or printed directly onto the Data Collection Form.

Figure 3-2
3.2.1

Building Identification Information portion of Level 1 Data

Collection Form.

Building Identification

Proper identification and location of the building is critically important for

subsequent use in hazard assessment and mitigation by the RVS Authority.
As described in Chapter 2, the structure can be identified by street address,
parcel number, building owner, or some other scheme. However, it is
recommended that as a minimum the street address and zip code be recorded
on the form. Zip code is important because it is universal to all
municipalities, and as such, is an especially useful item for later collation and
summary analyses. Assessor parcel number or lot number is also useful for
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jurisdictional record-keeping purposes and can be entered in the Other

Identifiers field on the form.
Caution should be exercised for buildings that contain multiple tenants with
individual addresses for the same building structure. In these instances, it is
suggested to include the full range of address numbers for the building, for
example 6200 6250, and complete the screening for the building using
one form.
Assuming the identification information is provided directly on the form,
such information should be verified in the field. If the building identification
information is not developed during the pre-field planning stage, it must be
completed in the field.
3.2.2

Latitude and Longitude and Site Seismicity

Fields are provided to document the latitude and longitude of the building
and to document SS and S1 values, which describe the site-specific ground
motion. These fields may be completed during pre-field planning. Latitude
and longitude can be determined using tools found on the internet. Once
latitude and longitude are known, S1 and SS can be determined as described in
Section 2.6.
It is not expected that the screener will use these fields while performing the
screening. However, they may be useful later for data keeping purposes or if
electronic scoring will be performed (as described in Chapter 6). If a GPS
device is available to the screener while at the building site, the screener
should verify the latitude and longitude information on the form.
3.2.3

Screener Identification

The screener should be identified by name, initials, or some other type of

code. At some later time, it may be important to know who the screener was
for a particular building. The date and time of the screening should also be
noted. In particular, noting the time of the screening will be helpful later in
matching digital photos to the appropriate Data Collection Form.
3.3

Building Characteristics

Space is provided to document important building characteristics (see Figure

3-3). It is desirable to develop and document this information during the pre
field planning stage, if at all possible. This information may be filled out
manually, or it can be preprinted on a peel-off label or printed directly onto
the Data Collection Form. Assuming the information is compiled during pre
field planning, the information should be verified in the field. If the

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information is not compiled during the pre-field planning stage, it must be

completed in the field.

Figure 3-3
3.3.1

Building Characteristics portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form.

Number of Stories

The amount of damage a building may sustain is sometimes related to the

height of a structure. The number of stories is a good indicator of the height
of a building (approximately 9-to-10 feet per story for residential, 12 feet per
story for commercial or office).
Counting the number of stories may not be a straightforward issue if the
building is constructed on a hill or if it has several different roof levels. As a
general rule, the largest number (that is, count floors from the downhill side
to the highest roof) should be used. The comment section and the sketch can
be used to indicate variations in the number of stories.
The number of stories below grade should also be indicated if the screener
can verify the number. Collecting this information is particularly useful if
the community decides later to investigate flooding issues.
3.3.2

Year Built and Code Year

Information pertaining to the design and code year of the building is one of
the key elements of the RVS procedure. Building age is tied directly to
design and construction practices. Therefore, age can be a factor in
determining FEMA Building Type and thus can affect the Final Score. This
information is not typically available at the site and thus should be obtained
in advance of the fieldwork.
If information on year built is not available during pre-field planning (see
Chapter 2), a rough estimate of the buildings age can be made on the basis
of architectural style and building use. Appendix D provides guidance on
determining building attributes from the street. An additional source of
obtaining the building vintage is from a dedication placard or plate. These
are more common for public buildings and usually are located near the main
entrance of the building. If the year built is only an approximation, check the
EST box to indicate the entry is estimated.
Code year is the year of the building code that was used to design the
building. The building may have been designed several years before it was
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constructed and thus designed to an earlier code with different requirements

for seismic detailing. Code year can generally only be determined from the
drawings during pre-field planning (see Chapter 2). If code year is not
known, it should be left blank.
3.3.3

Total Floor Area

The total floor area, in some cases available from building department or
assessor files (see Chapter 2), will most likely be estimated by multiplying
the estimated area of one story by the total number of stories in the building.
The length and width of the building can be paced off in the field or
estimated during the pre-field planning stage from Sanborn or other parcel
maps or satellite images. Repeating modules on the faade of the building
can also be measured and extrapolated to determine the building dimensions.
Total floor area may be useful at a later time for estimating the value of the
building or for estimating occupancy load. If the value is an estimate, EST
should be noted.
3.3.4

Buildings with Additions or Multiple Parts

Many buildings are comprised of more than one independent structural

framing system divided by joints. In some cases, the joints are provided to
separate portions of buildings that were constructed at the same time. This
may be to separate portions of the building that have different structural
systems, and thus different responses to lateral forces or portions of buildings
with different total height or story heights. Alternately, buildings can be
divided to accommodate expansion and contraction caused by temperature
changes.
Buildings can also be considered as having multiple portions when additions
are constructed to expand the original building. Building additions may be
constructed as independent structures with separation joints or may be
integrally tied to the original building.
Information obtained in advance of the screening may be useful in
identifying buildings that have additions. Section 3.14.5 provides guidance
for assessing whether to evaluate a building as a single building or as
multiple buildings.
When additions are present, the Yes box should be checked and the year
the addition was built should be indicated. EST should be added if the
year built for the addition is estimated.

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3.4

Photographing the Building

A space is provided on the Level 1 form to place a photograph of the

building (see Figure 3-4). At least one photograph of the building should be
taken for identification purposes. The screener is not limited to one
photograph. If possible, the screener should take a photograph of each side of
the building and of any important features (such as observed irregularities
and falling hazards). These additional photographs will be helpful to the
Supervising Engineer during the quality assurance phase.

Figure 3-4

Photograph and Sketch portions of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form.

Large buildings are difficult to photograph from the street and the camera
lens introduces distortion for high-rise buildings. If possible, the photograph
should be taken from a sufficient distance to include a full building elevation,

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such that adjacent faces are included. Two examples are shown in Figure
3-5. A wide angle lens may be helpful. Strong sunlit faades should be
avoided, as harsh contrasts between shadows and sunlit portions of the
faade will be introduced. Lastly, if possible, the photographed elevation of
the building should not be obscured by trees, vehicles or other objects, as
they obscure the lower stories.

Figure 3-5

Sample sketches and photos.

It is expected that screeners will most often use a digital camera. In this case,
one or two of the photographs can later be electronically added to the Data
Collection Form. Additional photographs can be saved in an electronic file
or printed and arranged on an additional page to be saved along with the
paper copy of the Data Collection Form.
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3.5

Sketching the Building

A place is provided on the Level 1 Data Collection Form to draw a sketch of

the building (see Figure 3-4). As a minimum, the screener should draw a
plan sketch. An elevation sketch may also be useful in indicating significant
features. Drawing the sketch is an important part of the screening procedure
because many of the buildings attributes will be revealed to the screener as
the screener systematically views all aspects of the building in order to
prepare the sketch. A photograph contains more detailed information than a
sketch, but the sketch can better emphasize important features.
The plan sketch should show the shape of the building from above and any
plan irregularities. It can also show the location of the building on the site
and the relative or approximate distance to adjacent buildings. The plan
sketch can be made during pre-field planning using a Sanborn map or an
image of the building from above, such as a satellite image. In this case, the
sketch should be verified in the field. More often, the sketch will be drawn
by the screener in the field. Screeners with access to a smart device will find
it helpful to view the satellite image of the building while performing the
screening. This is especially valuable when access between buildings is not
available.
The elevation sketch should show the number of stories, any steps in
elevation, and any vertical irregularities. If all sides of the building are
different, an elevation can be sketched for each side. If all sides are similar,
the screener can note that the sketch is typical of all sides. The sketch can
also be used to emphasize special features such as significant cracks, falling
hazards, and floor levels where pounding could occur.
The length and width of the building can be paced off or estimated (during
the planning stage) from Sanborn maps, other parcel maps, or satellite
images. Repeating modules on the faade of the building can also be
measured and extrapolated to determine the building dimensions. These
estimated dimensions should be included on the sketch. It will not usually be
practical for the screener to draw the sketch to scale while in the field.
Screeners may want to sketch in pencil on a separate sheet of gridded paper.
In this case, the sketch can be scanned and added to the form in the same
manner as photographs.
Sample photos and related sketches are shown in Figure 3-5.

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3.6

Building Occupancy

The occupancy of a building refers to its use. Although it does not usually
bear directly on the structural hazard or probability of sustaining major
damage, the occupancy of a building is of interest and used when
determining priorities for mitigation.
3.6.1

Occupancy Classes

Nine general occupancy classes have been identified as easy to recognize in a

rapid visual screening and are defined below (Figure 3-6). These occupancy
classes have characteristics that are easily identifiable from the street, they
generally represent the broad spectrum of building uses in the United States,
and they are similar to the occupancy classes used in the Multi-hazard Loss
Estimation Methodology, Earthquake Model, HAZUS-MH MR4 Technical
Manual (FEMA, 2009a) and the International Building Code (ICC, 2012).

Figure 3-6

Occupancy portion of the Level 1 Data Collection Form.

It is strongly encouraged that for RVS Programs where data collection is

being performed with the intent of inputting the data into HAZUS, the
HAZUS Building Occupancy Classes be used when evaluating the building
stock. The ROVER, Rapid Observation of Vulnerability and Estimation of
Risk (FEMA, 2011), software provides a module, RedROVER, containing an
export file for HAZUSs Advanced Engineering Building Module (FEMA,
2003). This enables mapping of FEMA 154 RVS occupancy classes to
HAZUS occupancy classes.
The nine occupancy classes in RVS are described below:
Assembly. Places of public assembly are those where large groups of
people might be gathered in one room at the same time. A threshold of
300 people is typically used in building codes, and it is used here, as
well. Examples are theaters, auditoriums, community centers,
performance halls, and churches.
Commercial. The commercial occupancy class refers to retail and
wholesale businesses, financial institutions, restaurants, and parking
structures.
Emergency Services. The emergency services class is defined as any
facility that would likely be needed in a major catastrophe. These
include police and fire stations, hospitals, and communications centers.
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 Industrial. Included in the industrial occupancy class are factories,

assembly plants, and heavy manufacturing facilities.
Office. Typical office buildings house clerical, management, and
professional services occupancies.
Residential. This occupancy class refers to residential buildings such as
houses, townhouses, dormitories, motels, hotels, apartments and
condominiums, and residences for the aged or disabled. Indicate the
number of dwelling units in the building on the line next to the word
Residential.
School. This occupancy class includes all public and private educational
facilities from nursery school to university level.
Utility. This occupancy class includes all buildings that house public or
private utilities, such as power plants, water treatment facilities, and
electric substations.
Warehouse. This occupancy class includes both large warehouses where
items are stored and commercial warehouses where items are sold.
The occupancy class that best describes the building being evaluated should
be circled on the form. If there are several types of uses in the building, such
as commercial and residential, all applicable types should be circled. The
actual use of the building can be written in the Building Identification portion
of the form. For example, one might indicate that the building is a restaurant
on the line titled Use in the upper right of the form. For occupancy, the
screener would circle Commercial.
If none of the defined classes seem to fit the building, an explanation should
be included in the Comments section.
3.6.2

Additional Designations

Of additional interest are whether the building is historic, whether it houses

government services, and whether it is designated as an emergency shelter.
These are not occupancy classes, but may be used for setting priorities for
hazard mitigation.
Historic. This will vary from community to community. It is included
because historic buildings may be subjected to specific ordinances and
codes.
Government. This includes local, state, and federal non-emergency
related buildings.

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Shelter. Some buildings may be designated as shelters to be used in the

event of an emergency. The community may set a higher priority on
upgrading these buildings.

If the building is any of these, the screener should circle the occupancy and
check the appropriate box. For example, when screening a school designated
as an emergency shelter, the screener will circle School and check the
Shelter box.
3.7

Soil Type

As indicated in Chapter 2, the soil type should be identified and documented

on the Data Collection Form (see Figure 3-7) during pre-field planning. If
the soil type has not been determined as part of that process, it needs to be
identified by the screener during the building site visit. If there is no basis
for classifying the soil type, DNK should be selected and Soil Type D
should be assumed.

Figure 3-7

3.8

Soil Type portion of the Level 1 Data Collection.

Geologic Hazards

Liquefaction, landslide potential, and surface fault rupture are three types of
geologic hazards. Any one of these three conditions can increase a
buildings risk of sustaining damage and collapse during an earthquake. If
any of these hazards are identified at a building site, a Detailed Structural
Evaluation of the building is triggered.
Geologic hazards may be identified and documented on the Data Collection
Form (see Figure 3-8) during pre-field planning.

Figure 3-8

Geologic Hazards portion of the Level 1 Data Collection Form.

The presence of possible landslide hazards should be evaluated or confirmed

during the field visit by assessing the distance between the building to a steep
slope either above or below the building grade level. As a rule of thumb, if
the height of the slope is greater than the distance from the nearest side of the
building to the slope, a potential landslide hazard should be marked on the
form (see Figure 3-9).
For each of the three geologic hazards, Yes or No should be circled
depending on whether the geologic hazard exists at the building site. If the

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Figure 3-9

Building with potential landslide hazard.

presence of the geologic hazard has not been determined as part of the pre
field planning process and cannot be determined during the screening, the
screener should circle DNK (do not know).
3.9

Adjacency

The interaction between adjacent buildings can lead to several types of

damage during earthquakes. When there is insufficient separation between
buildings, they can pound together as they respond to ground shaking. In
some cases, an addition may pound against the original building. See
Section 3.14.5 for a discussion of how to screen buildings with additions.
Another potential concern is falling hazards from an adjacent building.
These can be chimneys, parapets, walls, appendages, tanks, signs, or any
other building components that if dislodged, could fall onto the building
being screened or block major means of egress from the building being
screened.
In the Level 1 screening, the intent is to capture these situations by checking
the appropriate box, which is either Pounding or Falling Hazards from
Taller Adjacent Building (see Figure 3-10). If either of these conditions is
identified, a Detailed Structural Evaluation of the building is triggered.

Figure 3-10

Adjacency portion of the Level 1 Data Collection Form.

The Level 1 pounding criteria is described in the Level 1 Pounding

Reference Guide which is provided in Appendix B. The guide provides
minimum separation gaps between adjacent buildings (see Figure 3-11). In
Very High seismicity regions, the minimum gap between the two buildings is
2 inches per story. In High seismicity regions, the minimum gap is 1 1/2
inches per story. In Moderately High seismicity regions, the minimum gap is
1 inch per story. In Moderate and Low seismicity regions, the minimum gap
is 1/2 inch per story.

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Figure 3-11

Definition of separation gap between adjacent buildings.

For example, for two adjacent six-story buildings, the minimum gap is 12 in
Very High seismicity, 9 in High seismicity, 6 in Moderately High
seismicity, and 3 in Moderate or Low seismicity.
Pounding is considered when the actual gap is less than the minimum
separation gap and when at least one of three additional conditions also
applies:
1. Floors are separated vertically by more than two feet, as shown in Figure
3-12. Damage and potential collapse are considered to be more likely
when the floor mass of one building can directly impact the columns or
walls of the adjacent building.

Figure 3-12

Schematic illustration of floors not aligning vertically.

2. One building is two or more stories taller than the adjacent building, as
illustrated in Figure 3-13. Damage may concentrate in the taller building
at the roof level of the shorter building.
3. The building is at the end of a row of three or more buildings, as
illustrated in Figure 3-14. Higher demands are imposed on the end
building when the adjacent building moves toward it and because it does
not have a building on the other side to balance the loads. Higher levels
of damage have been observed at end buildings in past earthquakes.

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Figure 3-13

Schematic illustration of buildings of different height.

Figure 3-14

Schematic illustration of end buildings.

If the building meets any of the three criteria above, the screener checks the
Pounding box and a Detailed Structural Evaluation is triggered in the
Other Hazards and Action Required fields at the bottom of the Level 1
form. Similarly, if falling hazards from an adjacent building are identified,
the screener checks the Falling Hazards box and a Detailed Structural
Evaluation is triggered in the Other Hazards and Action Required fields
at the bottom of the Level 1 form.
3.10

Irregularities

Buildings are often irregular for architectural, functional, or economic

reasons. Often the first floor of a building is taller than the stories above, as
in the case of a building with commercial space on the ground floor and
apartments above. A building on a corner may have many windows on the
two sides facing the street, but have solid walls on the other two sides.
Irregularities such as these adversely affect the seismic performance of a
building by concentrating demands at certain floor levels or elements. The
concentrated demands can lead to damage, failure, and, in some cases,
collapse.
Building irregularities are generally grouped into two categories: vertical
irregularities and plan irregularities. For the Level 1 RVS procedure, vertical
irregularities are further divided into severe vertical irregularities (those that
have a significant adverse effect on building performance) and moderate

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vertical irregularities (those that have a less significant adverse effect on

building performance). The RVS score takes into account irregularities by
including negative Score Modifiers whose values depend on the type and
severity of the buildings irregularities.
The following sections describe how to identify vertical and plan
irregularities during the Level 1 screening. If any irregularities are observed,
the screener describes them using the Irregularities portion of the form (see
Figure 3-15).

Figure 3-15

Irregularity portion of the Level 1 Data Collection Form.

3.10.1 Vertical Irregularities

Vertical irregularities can affect all building types. There are seven common
types of vertical irregularities, as shown in the Vertical Irregularity Reference
Guide (see Appendix B, Table B-4) and as described below:
Sloping Site. If the building is on a steep hill, as illustrated in Figure
3-16, a problem may exist because the horizontal stiffness along the
lower side may be different from the uphill side. In addition, in the up
slope direction, the stiff short columns attract more of the seismic shear
forces and may fail. For all FEMA Building Types other than light wood
frame buildings (W1), the Moderate Vertical Irregularity Score Modifier
should be applied when there is at least a one-story slope from one side
of the building to the other. For W1 buildings, the effect of a sloping site
is more severe and the Severe Vertical Irregularity Score Modifier should
be applied when there is at least a one-story slope from one side of the
building to the other.
Weak and/or Soft Story. A weak story exists when one story has less
strength (fewer walls or columns) than the story above or below it. A
soft story exists if the stiffness of one story is dramatically less than that
of most of the others. In a rapid visual screening, it is not possible to
quantitatively determine and compare the strength and stiffness of each
story. Certain observable conditions, however, provide clues that a soft
or weak story may exist. If any of the conditions described below exist,
the screener checks the vertical irregularity box on the form and indicates
the type and severity of the irregularity. If there is doubt about whether
any of the following conditions exist, it is best to be conservative and
assume that it does exist. Use an asterisk and the comment section to
explain the source of uncertainty.

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Figure 3-16

Illustration of a building on a sloping site.

o Light wood frame residential buildings (W1) often have cripple

walls. A cripple wall is a short wall that rests on the foundation and
supports the floor and exterior walls. When cripple walls are
unbraced, they are often the weakest part of the structure. A cripple
wall is considered unbraced when there is no plywood sheathing. In
this case, the walls are sheathed only with stucco or wood siding on
the exterior side of the wall, as shown in Figure 3-17. It will not
usually be possible for the screener to determine if a W1 building has
unbraced cripple walls from a sidewalk survey. However, in the
event that there is access to the crawl space and unbraced cripple
walls are observed, the screener should note this condition.
Unbraced cripple walls may sometimes be observed in garage spaces
as well. Unbraced cripple walls are considered a moderate vertical
irregularity. If the basement is occupied, consider this condition as a
soft story and apply the Severe Vertical Irregularity Score Modifier.
o For a wood framed home (W1) with occupied space over a garage,
there are limited or short wall lengths on both sides of the garage
opening, as shown in Figure 3-18. This is considered a severe
vertical irregularity.
o A wood framed multi-unit residential building (W1A) has an open
front at the ground floor, such as for parking. Apartment buildings
with this common condition are often referred to as tuckunder
buildings (see Figure 3-19). Several past earthquakes in California
have shown the vulnerability of this type of construction. This is
considered a severe vertical irregularity.

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Cripple wall behind

exterior finish
Figure 3-17

Schematic illustration of a W1 building with cripple wall.

Figure 3-18

Schematic illustration of a W1 building with occupied space

over a garage.

Figure 3-19

Schematic illustration of building with a soft-story condition

where parking requirements result in large openings.

o One of the stories has fewer walls or columns (or more windows and
openings) than the floor above it. In many commercial buildings, the

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first story is weak/soft due to large window openings for display

purposes. Figure 3-20 shows an industrial building with large
openings at the ground floor. These large openings cause the first
floor piers to be narrower than the piers at upper stories resulting in a
weak story. This is considered a severe vertical irregularity.

Figure 3-20

Illustration of a building with a soft ground story due to

large openings and narrow piers.

o One of the stories is particularly tall compared to the other stories.

Figure 3-21 shows a building with a ground story significantly taller
than the stories above. This difference in story height causes the
piers to be taller at the first floor than at the upper stories resulting in
a soft story. This is considered a severe vertical irregularity.

Figure 3-21

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Illustration of a building with a soft ground story due to tall

piers.

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 Out-of-Plane Setback. The out-of-plane setback irregularity occurs when

the seismic force-resisting system at one story is not aligned vertically
with the seismic force-resisting system above or below. One such
example is shown in Figure 3-22. In more severe cases, the walls at an
upper story are outboard of the walls below causing the diaphragm to
cantilever as shown in Figure 3-23. The out-of-plane setback irregularity
is usually identified based on the exterior walls. The exterior walls of the
building, however, may not correctly indicate the location of the seismic
force-resisting elements, such as when there are interior shear walls that
are not visible from the exterior. If there is doubt about whether an outof-plane setback exists, it is best to be conservative and assume that it
does exist. Out-of-plane setbacks are considered severe vertical
irregularities and should be considered where the setback is greater than
or equal to 2 feet.
In-Plane Setback. This condition occurs when elements of the seismic
force-resisting system at upper levels are offset from elements of the
seismic force-resisting system at lower levels. It is usually observable in
braced frame and shear wall buildings. Damage can become concentrated
in the horizontal elements that connect the offset lateral elements and in
the vertical elements that occur below the lateral elements at the upper
levels. This is considered a moderate vertical irregularity. Figure 3-24
shows an example where the shear walls at the ground story are offset
from the shear walls above due to the loading dock location.

Figure 3-22

3-20

Illustration of a building with out-of-plane setback at the third

story.

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Figure 3-23

Illustration of a building with out-of-plane setback where the

upper floors cantilever out over the smaller ground story
footprint.

Short Column/Pier. When some columns (or wall piers) are shorter than
the typical columns, these shorter, stiffer columns attract more of the
lateral load. Consequently, they can experience significant damage.
Short columns can occur when there are partial height infill walls that
shorten the clear height of the column or when a slab has been added
between floor levels (e.g., for a mezzanine floor). Columns or piers that
are narrow compared to the depth of the spandrels are also a concern. In
these cases, damage concentrates in the columns rather than the beams,
increasing the potential for loss of vertical support and subsequent
collapse. Short columns or piers are considered severe vertical
irregularities. This deficiency is typically seen in older concrete and
steel buildings. Figure 3-25 shows three short column conditions.
Split Levels. This condition occurs where floor or roof levels in one part
of the building do not align with floor or roof levels in other parts of the
buildings. Damage can become concentrated in the elements that
connect the offset floor level to the vertical framing. This is considered a
moderate vertical irregularity and is shown in Figure 3-26.

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Shear walls above are

offset from shear walls at
ground story
Figure 3-24

Illustration of a building with an in-plane setback.

In some cases, a single building will have multiple vertical irregularities,

such as the building shown in Figure 3-27. In this case, the screener should
note all observed irregularities on the Data Collection Form and apply the
Vertical Irregularity Score Modifier as described in Section 3.15.1.
3.10.2 Plan Irregularities

Although plan irregularity can occur in all building types, the primary
concern lies with wood, tilt-up, pre-cast frame, reinforced masonry, and
unreinforced masonry construction. Damage at roof connections may
significantly reduce the capacity of a gravity load-carrying element, leading
to partial or total collapse. There are five common types of plan
irregularities, as shown in the Plan Irregularity Reference Guide (see Table
B-5 in Appendix B) and as described below:
Torsion. This condition applies when a building has a definable or good
lateral-load resistance in one direction but not the other, or when there
are major stiffness eccentricities in the seismic force-resisting system
which may cause twisting (torsion) around a vertical axis. Plan
irregularities causing torsion are especially prevalent among corner

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Short columns
with reduced
height

(a)

Typical column
height

Deep Spandrels
(c)

(b)
Figure 3-25

Schematic illustrations of buildings with short columns due to:

(a) irregular wall openings; (b) deep spandrels; and (c) infill
walls.

Figure 3-26

Schematic illustration of a split level irregularity.

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Infill Walls

3-23

Setback

Soft Story
Figure 3-27

Building with multiple vertical irregularities: setbacks and a soft first story.

buildings, in which the two adjacent street sides of the building have
significant window openings, whereas the other two sides are generally
solid. Figure 3-28 shows an unreinforced masonry bearing wall building
with similar pier and window patterns at all stories on all sides. This
building does not have a plan irregularity. Figure 3-29 shows a common
condition where the front or street faade on the ground story has
windows such as for a store, with the walls in a C-shaped configuration.
This would be considered a plan irregularity. Figure 3-30 shows a
building with windows on two adjacent sides and more solid walls on the
other two sides. This would also be considered a plan irregularity.

Figure 3-28

3-24

Illustration of a building without a plan irregularity.

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FEMA P-154

Figure 3-29

Illustration of a building with the torsion plan irregularity due to

the C-shaped configuration of walls at the ground floor.

Figure 3-30

Illustration of a corner building with the torsion plan irregularity

due to L-shaped configuration of walls at the ground floor due
to windows on two sides (visible in figure) and solid walls on
two sides (hidden in the figure).

Non-Parallel Systems. Wedge-shaped buildings, triangular in plan, on

corners of streets not meeting at 90 degrees, are similarly susceptible to
torsion and increased damage and collapse potential (see Figure 3-31).
Reentrant Corners. Buildings with reentrant corners include those with
long wings that are E, L, T, U, or + shaped, with projections of more than
20 feet (see Figure 3-32, Figure 3-33, and Figure 3-34). Stress
concentrations can develop at reentrant corners and lead to damage or
collapse. In addition, these buildings are likely to experience torsion.
Where possible, the screener should check to see if there is a seismic
separation where the wings meet. If so, the two portions of the building
can be screened separately with consideration for pounding.

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3-25

3-26

Figure 3-31

Building with a plan irregularity (non-parallel systems) due to its

triangular footprint.

Figure 3-32

Plan views of various building configurations showing reentrant

corners and large diaphragm openings; arrows indicate possible
areas of damage.

Figure 3-33

Building with a plan irregularity with two wings meeting at right

angles.

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FEMA P-154

Figure 3-34

Illustration of a building with a reentrant corner plan irregularity.

Diaphragm Openings. The floors and roof of a building have the

important role of distributing seismic forces to the vertical elements of
the seismic force-resisting system. Large openings in the floors or roof
weaken the diaphragm and reduce its ability to transfer seismic forces.
As a rule of thumb, a large opening is one that has a width of over 50%
of the width of the diaphragm (see Figure 3-35). These openings occur
for architectural features, such as roof skylights.
Beams do not align with columns. This condition occurs when the
exterior beams do not align with the columns in plan, as shown in Figure
3-36. Typically, this applies to concrete buildings, where the perimeter
columns are outboard of the perimeter beams.
If the building being screened has a plan irregularity, the screener should
check the plan irregularity box in the Irregularities section of the form and
note the type of irregularity.

Figure 3-35

FEMA P-154

Schematic illustration of large diaphragm openings.

3: Completing the Level 1 Data Collection Form

3-27

Figure 3-36

3.11

Schematic illustration of a building with beams that do not align

with columns.

Exterior Falling Hazards

Nonstructural falling hazards such as chimneys, parapets, cornices, veneers,

overhangs, and heavy cladding can pose hazards to life safety if not
adequately anchored to the building. Some of these are illustrated in Figure
3-37.
Although the basic seismic force-resisting system for the building may be
adequate and require no further review, if the presence of such hazards may
still be a danger to building occupants and passersby. Several boxes are
provided in the Exterior Falling Hazards portion of the Data Collection Form
to help the screener identify potential hazards (see Figure 3-38).

Figure 3-37

3-28

Illustration of a building with parapets and other potential falling

hazards, including canopy over loading dock and water tank on
roof.

3: Completing the Level 1 Data Collection Form

FEMA P-154

Figure 3-38

Exterior Falling Hazards portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form.

Falling hazards of major concern are:

Unbraced Chimneys. Unbraced, unreinforced masonry chimneys are
common in older masonry and wood frame dwellings. They are often
inadequately tied to the structure and fall in moderate to strong shaking.
If in doubt as to whether a chimney is braced or unbraced, assume that it
is unbraced.
Parapets. A parapet is the portion of the exterior wall or faade that
extends above the roof. The primary concern is parapets constructed of
unreinforced masonry, such as brick, stone, or concrete block. In an
earthquake, these can break and fall onto the roof or out into the street. It
is sometimes difficult to tell if a faade projects above the roofline,
forming a parapet and, if there is a parapet, it is often difficult to tell if it
is braced. Parapets often exist on three sides of the building, and their
height may be visible from the back of the structure. In some cases, the
presence of bracing may be verified using satellite imagery. If in doubt
as to whether an unreinforced masonry parapet is braced or unbraced,
assume that it is unbraced.
Heavy Cladding or Heavy Veneer. Large heavy cladding elements,
usually precast concrete or cut stone, may fall off the building during an
earthquake if improperly anchored. The loss of panels may also create
major changes to the building stiffness (the elements are considered
nonstructural but may contribute substantial stiffness to a building), thus
setting up plan irregularities or torsion when only some fall. (Glass
curtain walls in which the area of glass exceeds the area of metal or
stucco spandrel panels and column covers are not considered as heavy
cladding in the RVS procedure.) Masonry veneer can also be a falling
hazard concern if improperly anchored. The concern is greater with
heavy veneer, such as full thickness bricks used as the faade material in
front of wood frame construction, rather than adhered veneer that uses
partial thickness masonry units. The existence of heavy cladding or
heavy veneer is of concern if the connections were designed and installed
before the jurisdiction adopted seismic anchorage requirements
(normally based on forces that are twice that for gravity loads). The date
of such code adoption will vary with jurisdiction and should be
established by the Supervising Engineer in the planning stages of the

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3-29

RVS process (see Chapter 2). If the jurisdiction has not adopted cladding
ordinances or the building predates adopted ordinances, then it should be
indicated that heavy cladding hazards exist. If the building postdates the
adopted ordinances, then the cladding connections may be properly
designed and not pose a hazard.
Appendages. Building appendages may fall off the building during an
earthquake if improperly anchored. Such appendages include canopies
and architectural elements that add detail and decorative interest to the
faade. The concern is greater with larger elements that pose a significant
falling hazard risk. The box should be checked only if heavier
appendages exist.
Other. The screener may observe a falling hazard that does not fit into
any of the above categories. If so, the Other box should be checked
and additional details should be provided in the space next to it and in the
comments section, if needed. For example, tall and heavy roof
equipment and components near the perimeter of the building, such as
the elevated tank shown in Figure 3-37, could be considered an Other
falling hazard.
If any of the above nonstructural falling hazards exist, the appropriate box (or
boxes) should be checked. Additional details can be provided in the
comments section. Taking a photograph of the falling hazard is also
recommended. The RVS authority may later use this information to develop
a mitigation program.
3.12

Damage and Deterioration

The scoring system in RVS is established assuming that the building is

constructed of sound materials. Deterioration of structural elements can have
a significant impact on the expected performance of a building and therefore
needs to be captured when performing a survey.
Buildings that are poorly maintained and show obvious signs of deterioration
due to weathering to their major structural elements are candidates for further
investigation.
Determination of the potential impact on performance is difficult at best
since not all damage and deterioration is visible, nor is it easy to assess. Prior
damage may be concealed by finishes or in areas not directly examined
during a rapid visual screening.
For a Level 1 screening, it is anticipated that the surveyor may not have
sufficient time to fully assess the potential effects of damage and

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deterioration; however, this issue should not be ignored. The focus should be
on examining the major elements of the seismic force-resisting system for
significant damage that could weaken the building.
The key question is whether the level of deterioration and damage rises to the
level of significant and thus triggers a Detailed Structural Evaluation under
the Other Hazards and Action Required boxes on the Level 1 form. This
is best determined by an experienced engineer, but general guidance is
provided below to assist the screener in conducting a RVS.
Ideally, the focus should be on inspecting the major components of the
seismic force-resisting system for signs of distress. Corroded steel columns,
deteriorated mortar joints in a masonry wall, concrete walls with large cracks
from previous earthquakes, and wood cripple walls with termite damage are
examples of damage and deterioration that increase the probability of
collapse of the building in a future earthquake. Deteriorated or compromised
foundation elements or significant erosion of confining soils may also reduce
the buildings ability to withstand earthquake loads.
For the purpose of the Level 1 screening, where access to the interior of the
building is limited, it is recommended that the screener focus on observable
conditions such as the following:
Is the building abandoned? An abandoned structure may have not had
adequate maintenance. As a result, there is a greater likelihood of
significant deterioration inside the structure that will not be observable
during a rapid visual screening based on an exterior review only.
Are there beams, floors, or roofs that are visibly sagging?
Are there beams or columns that are visibly broken?
Are there sloping floors or large exterior cracks that indicate significant
settlement has occurred?
Is there visible distress from prior earthquakes that has not been repaired
(i.e., the building is leaning slightly or there are large x-cracks in the
concrete or masonry walls)?
Is there visible fire damage that has not been repaired?
For wood buildings, is there extensive wood rot and/or water staining
that is visible?
For unreinforced masonry buildings, is the mortar eroding away, leaving
areas of uneven depth?

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3-31

 For concrete buildings, has the concrete been damaged or eroded such
that the rebar is exposed?
For steel buildings, are there members that are corroded? (Note that it is
common for steel to appear rusted; the focus should be on members that
actually have reduced cross-section due to corrosion.)
Are there visible foundation elements with large cracks?
Are foundation elements exposed due to significant erosion of adjacent
soil?
If the screener observes any of these conditions, or another example of
visible damage or deterioration, the condition should be described in the
comments section. The screener should also take additional photographs of
the condition.
Refer to Appendix F for additional guidance on assessing damage and
deterioration for common building materials.
3.13

C
omments Section

This section of the form is for recording any comments the screener may
wish to make regarding the building, occupancy, condition, quality of the
data, or unusual circumstances of any type. For example, if not all
significant details can be effectively photographed or drawn, the screener
could describe additional important information in the comments area.
Comments may be made on building features that can be seen at or through
window openings. If the screener is unsure of certain conditions, such as
whether a vertical irregularity is severe or moderate, the source of the
uncertainty should be described here. Other examples where comments are
helpful are described throughout Chapter 3. If the screener elects to provide
additional comments on a separate page, the Additional sketches or
comments on separate page box should be checked to notify the Supervising
Engineer that additional comments exist.
3.14 Identifying the FEMA Building Type and
Documenting the Related Basic Score
Two key characteristics of seismic performance are construction material
(e.g., wood, concrete) and type of seismic force-resisting-system (moment
frame, braced frame, or shear wall). A building classification system allows
buildings with similar materials and seismic force-resisting systems to be
grouped together, facilitating the fast identification of a buildings likely
strengths and vulnerabilities, and thus the buildings expected performance
during an earthquake. The FEMA P-154 RVS procedure groups the most

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common combinations of construction materials and seismic force-resisting

systems in the United States into 17 types, referred to here as FEMA
Building Types. Each FEMA Building Type has its own Basic Score for
each seismicity region, providing a measure of the expected performance of
each FEMA Building Type in each seismicity region.
These 17 FEMA Building Types are based on the set of building types that
were first defined in ATC-14, Evaluating the Seismic Resistance of Existing
Buildings (ATC, 1987), and have since been updated and expanded in
numerous FEMA guideline documents, including the first and second
editions of FEMA 154, and in ASCE/SEI 41-13, Seismic Evaluation and
Retrofit of Existing Buildings (ASCE, 2014) and the FEMA-funded HAZUS
damage and loss estimation methodology HAZUS-MH MR4 Technical
Manual (FEMA, 2009a).
ASCE/SEI 41-13 defines a set of 25 building types, referred to as Common
Building Types. This includes 16 of the 17 FEMA Building Types plus
additional sub-classifications of certain framing types that specify that the
roof and floor diaphragms are either rigid or flexible. Such distinctions in
diaphragm flexibility are used less often within the FEMA P-154 system,
accounting for the smaller number of FEMA Building Types.
HAZUS defines a set of 36 building types, referred to as Model Building
Types. The HAZUS Model Building Types include distinctions between
low-rise, mid-rise, and high-rise buildings. Such distinctions in height are
excluded from the 17 FEMA Building Types used here. The seventeenth
FEMA Building Type, Manufactured Housing (MH), is similar to HAZUSs
Mobile Home (MH) Model Building Type, but is expanded to include
nonresidential buildings, such as school portables.
The RVS procedure is based on the premise that the building being screened
is one of the 17 FEMA Building Types, and further, that the screener will be
able to determine the FEMA Building Type from the street, or eliminate all
those that it cannot possibly be.
The building stock in the United States is very diverse, and there are many
buildings that do not strictly conform to a single FEMA Building Type.
Some judgment will be necessary to assign the most relevant FEMA
Building Type to each building, with the focus on the seismic force-resisting
system and construction material. If the building is particularly unique such
that none of the 17 FEMA Building Types is appropriate, the FEMA P-154
procedure cannot be used to determine if the building is potentially
hazardous. Examples of this include steel plate shear wall buildings, rammed

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3-33

earth structures, and certain types of Native American construction. A

building that cannot be assigned a FEMA Building Type will require a
special investigation to determine whether it is seismically hazardous.
3.14.1 FEMA Building Types Considered and Basic Scores

Following are the 17 FEMA Building Types considered in the FEMA P-154
RVS procedure. Alpha-numeric reference codes used on the Data Collection
Form are shown in parentheses.
Light wood frame single- or multiple-family dwellings of one or more
stories in height (W1)
Light wood frame multi-unit, multi-story residential buildings with plan
areas on each floor of greater than 3,000 square feet (W1A)
Wood frame commercial and industrial buildings with a floor area larger
than 5,000 square feet (W2)
Steel moment-resisting frame buildings (S1)
Braced steel frame buildings (S2)
Light metal buildings (S3)
Steel frame buildings with cast-in-place concrete shear walls (S4)
Steel frame buildings with unreinforced masonry infill walls (S5)
Concrete moment-resisting frame buildings (C1)
Concrete shear-wall buildings (C2)
Concrete frame buildings with unreinforced masonry infill walls (C3)
Tilt-up buildings (PC1)
Precast concrete frame buildings (PC2)
Reinforced masonry buildings with flexible floor and roof diaphragms
(RM1)
Reinforced masonry buildings with rigid floor and roof diaphragms
(RM2)
Unreinforced masonry bearing-wall buildings (URM)
Manufactured housing (MH)
Using available damage and loss estimation functions, a Basic Score has
been computed for each FEMA Building Type that reflects the estimated
likelihood that building collapse will occur if the building is subjected to
risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake (MCER) ground motions. For

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more information about the development of the Basic Scores, see FEMA P
155 Third Edition (FEMA, 2015).
The Basic Scores are provided on the Level 1 Data Collection Form. The
scores vary by seismicity region. As such, the Very High, High, Moderately
High, Moderate, and Low seismicity forms each have a unique set of basic
scores. Figure 3-39 shows Basic Scores as they appear on the High
seismicity Data Collection Form.

Figure 3-39

FEMA Building Type and Basic Score portion of the Level 1

Data Collection Form for High seismicity.

In Very High, High, Moderately High, and Moderate seismicity regions, the
Basic Scores apply to buildings built after the initial adoption and
enforcement of seismic codes, but before the relatively recent significant
improvement of codes (that is, before the applicable benchmark year, as
determined during the pre-planning phase). In Low seismicity regions, they
apply to all buildings except those designed and constructed after the
applicable benchmark year, as determined during the pre-planning phase.
The identification of those years in which seismic codes were initially
adopted and later significantly improved is a key issue to be addressed in the
planning stage (as described in Chapter 2). As described later in this chapter,
the Level 1 Data Collection Form includes Score Modifiers that provide a
means for modifying the Basic Score as a function of design and construction
date.
Brief summaries of the physical characteristics and expected earthquake
performance of each of the 17 FEMA Building Types, along with a
photograph of a sample exterior view, and the Basic Scores for regions of
Very High (VH), High (H), Moderately High (MH), Moderate (M), and Low
(L) seismicity are provided in Table 3-1.

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3: Completing the Level 1 Data Collection Form

3-35

Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes

FEMA Building Type

W1
Light wood frame
single- or multiplefamily dwellings of one
or more stories in
height

W1A
Light wood frame
multi-unit, multi-story
residential buildings
with plan areas on
each floor of greater
than 3,000 square feet

3-36

Photograph

Characteristics and
Performance

Basic Score

(VH) = 2.1
(H) = 3.6
(MH) = 4.1
(M) = 5.1
(L) = 6.2

Wood stud walls are typically

constructed of 2-inch by 4inch (2-inch by 6-inch for
multiple stories) vertical wood
members set about 16 inches
apart.
Most common exterior finish
materials are wood siding,
metal siding, or stucco.
Buildings of this type
performed very well in past
earthquakes due to inherent
qualities of the structural
system and because they are
lightweight and low rise.
Earthquake-induced cracks in
the plaster and stucco (if any)
may appear, but are classified
as non-structural damage.
The most common type of
structural damage in older
buildings results from a lack of
connection between the
superstructure and the
foundation, and inadequate
chimney support.

(VH) = 1.9
(H) = 3.2
(MH) = 3.7
(M) = 4.5
(L) = 5.9

These are typically residential

buildings, but some may have
commercial space at the
ground floor.
Large openings are common at
the ground floor for parking.
These are often termed
tuckunder buildings.
W1A buildings with large
openings at the ground floor
for parking or commercial
purposes have performed
poorly in past earthquakes
because the large openings
create a soft story.

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Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

W2
Wood frame
commercial and
industrial
buildings with a
floor area larger
than 5,000 square
feet

Photograph

Basic Score

(VH) = 1.8
(H) = 2.9
(MH) = 3.2
(M) = 3.8
(L) = 5.7

Characteristics and Performance

These are typically commercial
buildings or industrial structures
usually of one to three stories,
and, rarely, as tall as six stories.
For commercial and industrial
buildings with less than 5,000
square feet, the W2 type can be
assigned as well.

Typical steel moment-resisting

frame structures have similar bay
widths in both the transverse and
longitudinal directions, around
20-30 feet.

S1
Steel momentresisting frame

(VH) = 1.5
(H) = 2.1
(MH) = 2.3
(M) = 2.7
(L) = 3.8

The floor diaphragms are usually

concrete, sometimes over steel
decking. This structural type is
used for commercial, institutional,
and public buildings.
The 1994 Northridge and 1995
Kobe earthquakes showed that
the welds in steel moment frame
buildings were vulnerable to
severe damage. The damage took
the form of broken connections
between the beams and columns.
The relatively low stiffness of the
frame can lead to substantial
nonstructural damage.
This building could also have a
concrete seismic force-resisting
system. See Appendix D for
advice on how to identify FEMA
Building Type.

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3-37

Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

Photograph

Basic Score

Characteristics and Performance

These buildings are braced with
diagonal members, which usually
cannot be detected from the
building exterior.
Braced frames are sometimes used
for long and narrow buildings
because of their stiffness.

(VH) = 1.4
(H) = 0 2
(MH) = 2.2
(M) = 2.6
(L) = 3.9

S2
Braced steel
frame

From the building exterior, it is

difficult to tell the difference
between steel moment frames, steel
braced frames, and steel frames with
interior concrete shear walls.
In recent earthquakes, braced
frames were found to have damage
to brace connections and, in some
cases to the braces, especially at the
lower levels.

Close-up photo of building above

S3
Light metal
building

3-38

(VH) = 1.6
(H) = 2.6
(MH) = 2.9
(M) = 3.5
(L) = 4.4

The structural system usually consists

of moment frames in the transverse
direction and braced frames in the
longitudinal direction, with
corrugated sheet-metal siding. In
some regions, light metal buildings
may have partial height masonry
walls.
The interiors of most of these
buildings do not have interior
finishes and their structural skeleton
can be seen easily.
Insufficient capacity of tension
braces can lead to their elongation
and consequent building damage
during earthquakes.
Inadequate connection to a slab
foundation can allow the building
columns to slide on the slab.
Loss of the cladding can occur.

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Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

S4
Steel frames with
cast-in-place
concrete shear
walls

S5
Steel frames with
unreinforced
masonry infill
walls

FEMA P-154

Photograph

Basic Score

(VH) = 1.4
(H) = 2.0
(MH) = 2.2
(M) = 2.5
(L) = 4.1

(VH) = 1.2
(H) = 1.7
(MH) = 2.0
(M) = 2.7
(L) = 4.5

Characteristics and Performance

Lateral loads are resisted by shear
walls, which usually surround
elevator cores and stairwells, and
are covered by finish materials.
An interior investigation will
permit a wall thickness check. A
thickness in excess of six inches
usually indicates a concrete shear
wall.
Shear cracking and distress can
occur around openings in
concrete shear walls during
earthquakes.
Wall construction joints can be
weak planes, resulting in wall
shear failure below expected
capacity.
This building could also have a
concrete frame. See Appendix D
for advice on how to identify
FEMA Building Type.
Steel columns are relatively thin
and may be hidden in walls.
Usually masonry is exposed on
exterior with narrow piers (less
than 4 ft wide) between windows.
Portions of solid walls will align
vertically.
Infill walls are usually two to three
wythes thick.
Veneer masonry around columns
or beams is usually poorly
anchored and detaches easily.
This building could also have a
concrete frame. See Appendix D
for advice on how to identify
FEMA Building Type.

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3-39

Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

C1
Concrete
moment-resisting
frames

C2
Concrete shear
wall buildings

3-40

Photograph

Basic Score

Characteristics and Performance

(VH) = 1.0
(H) = 1.5
(MH) = 1.7
(M) = 2.1
(L) = 3.3

All exposed concrete frames are

reinforced concrete (not steel
frames encased in concrete).
A fundamental factor governing
the performance of concrete
moment-resisting frames is the
level of ductile detailing.
Large spacing of ties in columns
can lead to a lack of concrete
confinement and shear failure.
Lack of continuous beam
reinforcement can result in hinge
formation during load reversal.
The relatively low stiffness of the
frame can lead to substantial
nonstructural damage.
Column damage due to pounding
with adjacent buildings can occur.

(VH) = 1.2
(H) = 2.0
(MH) = 2.1
(M) = 2.5
(L) = 4.2

Concrete shear wall buildings are

usually cast-in-place, and show
typical signs of cast-in-place
concrete.
Shear wall thickness often ranges
from 6 to 18 inches.
These buildings generally perform
better than concrete frame
buildings.
They are heavier than steel-frame
buildings but more rigid due to
the shear walls.
Damage commonly observed in
taller buildings is caused by
vertical discontinuities, pounding,
and irregular configuration.

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Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

Photograph

(VH) = 0.9
(H) = 1.2
(MH) = 1.4
(M) = 2.0
(L) = 3.5

C3
Concrete frames
with unreinforced
masonry infill
walls

PC1
Tilt-up buildings

Basic Score

(VH) = 1.1
(H) = 1.6
(MH) = 1.8
(M) = 2.1
(L) = 3.8

Characteristics and Performance

Concrete columns and beams
may be full wall thickness and
may be exposed for viewing on
the sides and rear of the building.
Usually masonry is exposed on
the exterior with narrow piers (less
than four feet wide) between
windows.
Portions of solid walls will align
vertically.
This type of construction was
generally built before 1940 in high
seismicity regions but continues to
be built in other regions.
Infill walls tend to buckle and fall
out-of-plane when subjected to
strong lateral out-of-plane forces.
Veneer masonry around columns
or beams is usually poorly
anchored and detaches easily.
Tilt-ups are typically one or two
stories high and are basically
rectangular in plan.
Exterior walls were traditionally
formed and cast on the ground
adjacent to their final position,
and then tilted up and attached to
the floor slab.
The roof can be a plywood
diaphragm carried on wood
purlins and glulam beams or a
light steel deck and joist system,
supported in the interior of the
building on steel pipe columns.
Weak diaphragm-to-wall
anchorage results in the wall
panels falling and the collapse of
the supported diaphragm (or
roof).

Partial roof collapse due to failed diaphragm-towall connection

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Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

Photograph

Basic Score

Building under construction

(VH) = 1.0
(H) = 1.4
(MH) = 1.5
(M) = 1.9
(L) = 3.3

PC2
Precast concrete
frame buildings

Detail of the precast components

Characteristics and Performance

Precast concrete frames are, in
essence, post and beam
construction in concrete.
Structures often employ concrete
or reinforced masonry (brick or
block) shear walls.
The performance varies widely
and is sometimes poor. In
addition to damage to shear walls
similar to C2 buildings, PC2
buildings have additional issues as
follows.
Poorly designed connections
between prefabricated elements
can fail.
Loss of vertical support can occur
due to inadequate bearing area
and insufficient connection
between floor elements and
columns.
Corrosion of metal connectors
between prefabricated elements
can occur.

Building nearing completion

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Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

Photograph

Basic Score

Walls are either brick or concrete

block.
Wall thickness is usually 8 inches
to 12 inches.
Interior inspection is required to
determine if diaphragms are
flexible or rigid.
The most common flexible floor
and roof diaphragm systems are
wood or light steel.
These buildings can perform well
in moderate earthquakes if they
are adequately reinforced and
grouted, with sufficient diaphragm
anchorage.
Poor construction practice can
result in ungrouted and
unreinforced walls, which will fail
easily.

RM1
Reinforced
masonry buildings

with flexible
Truss-joists support plywood and light-weight
diaphragms
concrete slab

Characteristics and Performance

(VH) = 1.1
(H) = 1.7
(MH) = 1.8
(M) = 2.1
(L) = 3.7

Detail showing reinforced masonry

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Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

RM2
Reinforced
masonry buildings
with rigid
diaphragms

URM
Unreinforced
masonry buildings

3-44

Photograph

Basic Score

Characteristics and Performance

(VH) = 1.1
(H) = 1.7
(MH) = 1.8
(M) = 2.1
(L) = 3.7

Walls are either brick or concrete

block.
Wall thickness is usually 8 inches
to 12 inches.
Interior inspection is required to
determine if diaphragms are
flexible or rigid.
The most common rigid floor and
roof diaphragm systems are
precast concrete or concrete over
metal deck.
These buildings can perform well
in moderate earthquakes if they
are adequately reinforced and
grouted, with sufficient diaphragm
anchorage.
Poor construction practice can
result in ungrouted and
unreinforced walls, which will fail
easily.

(VH) = 0.9
(H) = 1.0
(MH) = 1.2
(M) = 1.7
(L) = 3.2

These buildings often used weak

lime mortar to bond the masonry
units together.
Arches are often an architectural
characteristic of older brick
bearing wall buildings.
Other methods of spanning are
also used, including steel and
stone lintels.
Unreinforced masonry usually
shows header bricks in the wall
surface.
The performance of this type of
construction is poor due to lack of
anchorage of walls to floors and
roof, soft mortar, and narrow piers
between window openings.

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Table 3-1

FEMA Building Type Descriptions, Basic Scores, and Performance in Past earthquakes
(continued)

FEMA Building
Type

Photograph

Basic Score

(VH) = 1.4
(H) = 1.8
(MH) = 2.2
(M) = 2.9
(L) = 4.6

MH
Manufactured
housing

Characteristics and Performance

These buildings can be mobile
homes or modular buildings, such
as those used for portable
classrooms.
The buildings are mobile, raised
up off the ground, not anchored
to the ground, and may or may
not have an earthquake resistant
bracing system (ERBS).
Manufactured homes are typically
one story and come in different
sizes. A single-wide unit can be
up to 18 feet in width. A doublewide unit is 20 feet or more in
width.
Floors and roofs are usually
constructed with plywood or
oriented strand board, and the
outside surfaces are covered with
sheet metal.
The primary source of damage is
due to the lack of a permanent
foundation connection or an
earthquake-resistant bracing
system (ERBS). In moderate
shaking, the building can fall off its
supports, and jack stands can
penetrate the floor. Connecting
utility lines can be severed, and
escaping gas can cause fires.

3.14.2 Identifying the FEMA Building Type

At the heart of the RVS procedure is the task of identifying the FEMA
Building Type from the street. Once the FEMA Building Type is identified,
the screener finds the appropriate alpha-numeric code on the Level 1 Data
Collection Form and circles the Basic Score immediately beneath it.
Each FEMA Building Type corresponds to a construction material and a type
of seismic force-resisting system. Ideally, the FEMA Building Type for each
building to be screened would be identified prior to field work through the
review and interpretation of construction documents for each building (i.e.,
during the planning stage, as discussed in Chapter 2). More commonly, the
screener must determine the FEMA Building Type in the field. When
possible, the screener should enter the building to verify the FEMA Building
Type selected. See Section 3.14.3 for additional information on interior
inspections.
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Appendix D provides additional guidance for identifying FEMA Building

Types from a sidewalk survey. Additional background information on the
physical characteristics and earthquake performance of these FEMA
Building Types, not essential to the RVS procedure, is provided in Appendix
E.
Determining the FEMA Building Type in the field is often difficult. A
careful review of Table 3-1 and the information provided in Appendices D
and E, along with training by knowledgeable building design professionals,
should assist the screener in the determination of the FEMA Building Type.
The following process is recommended:
Step 1: Identify the gravity system. Is the building primarily wood, steel,
concrete, or masonry? Screen out materials that the building obviously is
not to arrive at one or two materials.
Step 2: Identify the type of seismic force-resisting system. Is the seismic
force-resisting system a frame, braced frame, or bearing wall?
Step 3: Based on the material type from Step 1 and the type of seismic
force-resisting system from Step 2, eliminate as many FEMA Building
Types as possible. The screener should be able to narrow down the
possible FEMA Building Types to between one and three.
Of these steps, identifying the seismic force-resisting system (Step 2) is
perhaps the most challenging. A frame structure (for example, S1, S3, S4,
C1, or PC2) is made up of beams and columns throughout the entire
structure, resisting both vertical and lateral loads. A braced frame structure
(S2) has beams and columns that resist vertical loads and diagonal braces
that resist lateral loads. A bearing wall structure (for example, PC1 and
URM) uses vertical-load-bearing walls, which are more or less solid, to resist
the vertical and lateral loads.
When a building has large openings on all sides, as illustrated in Figure 3-40,
it is probably a frame structure as opposed to a bearing wall structure. A
common characteristic of a frame structure is the rectangular grid patterns of
the faade, indicating the location of the columns and girders behind the
finish material. This is particularly revealing when windows occupy the
entire opening in the frame, and no infill wall is used. A newer multistory
commercial building should be assumed to be a frame structure, even though
there may exist interior shear walls carrying the lateral loads (this would be a
frame structure with shear walls, such as a S4 or C2 building).

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Figure 3-40

Typical frame structure. Features include large window spans,

window openings on many sides, and clearly visible columnbeam grid pattern.

Bearing-wall systems (also called box systems), as illustrated in Figure 3-41,

carry vertical and lateral loads with walls rather than solely with columns.
Structural floor members such as slabs, joists, and beams, are supported by
load-bearing walls. A bearing wall system is thus characterized by more or
less solid walls and, as a rule of thumb, a load-bearing wall will have more
solid areas than openings. It also will have no wide openings, unless a
structural lintel is used.

Figure 3-41

Typical bearing wall structure. Features include small window

span, at least two mostly solid walls, and thick load-bearing
walls.

Some bearing-wall structures incorporate structural columns, or are partly

frame structures. This is especially popular in multistory commercial
buildings in urban lots where girders and columns are used in the ground
floor of a bearing wall structure to provide larger openings for retail spaces.

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Another example is where the loads are carried by both interior columns and
a perimeter wall. Both of these examples should be considered as bearing
wall structures, because lateral loads are resisted by the bearing walls.
Bearing wall structures sometimes utilize only two walls for load bearing.
The other walls are non-load-bearing and thus may have large openings.
Therefore, the openness of the front elevation should not be used to
determine the structure type. The screener should also look at the side and
rear faades. If at least two of the four exterior walls appear to be solid then
it is likely that it is a bearing wall structure.
Window openings in older frame structures can sometimes be misleading.
Since wide windows were excessively costly and fragile until relatively
recently, several narrow windows separated by thin mullions are often seen
in older buildings. These thin mullions are usually not load bearing. When
the narrow windows are close together, they constitute a large opening
typical of a frame structure, or a window in a bearing wall structure with
steel lintels.
Whereas open faades on all sides clearly indicate a frame structure, solid
walls may be indicative of a bearing wall structure or a frame structure with
solid infill walls. Bearing walls are usually much thicker than infill walls,
and increase in thickness in the lower stories of multi-story buildings. This
increase in wall thickness can be detected by comparing the wall thickness at
windows on different floors. Thus, solid walls can be identified as bearing or
non-bearing walls according to their thickness, if the structural material is
known.
Unreinforced masonry and tilt-up buildings are usually bearing-wall type,
steel buildings and pre-cast concrete buildings are usually frame type,
concrete buildings may be of either type.
There will be some buildings for which the FEMA Building Type cannot be
identified because of their faade treatment. In this case, the screener should
eliminate those FEMA Building Types that are not possible and assume that
any of the others are possible. If two or three possibilities remain, the Basic
Scores for all the possible FEMA Building Types would be circled on the
Data Collection Form. If more than three possibilities remain, the screener
circles Do Not Know and does not calculate a score for the building.
3.14.3 Interior Inspections

Ideally, whenever possible, the screener should seek access to the interior of

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the building to identify, or verify, the FEMA Building Type. In the case of
reinforced masonry buildings, entry is particularly important so that the
screener can distinguish between RM1 buildings, which have flexible floor
and roof diaphragms, and RM2 buildings, which have rigid floor diaphragms
and either flexible or rigid roof diaphragms. Flexible diaphragms are
typically wood framed. Whether the floor is concrete or wood can usually be
determined from the sound of footfall or tapping with a hard object on the
floor. The screener should look in storage or mechanical rooms where
ceilings are not present to view the underside of the floor construction.
The RVS procedure does not require the removal of finish materials that are
otherwise permanently affixed to the structure. There are a number of places
within a building where it is possible to see the exposed structure. The
following are some ways to determine the structure type.
If the building has a basement that is not occupied, the first-floor framing
may be exposed. The framing will usually be representative of the floor
framing throughout the building.
If the structural system is a steel or concrete frame, the columns and
beams will often be exposed in the basement. The perimeter basement
walls will likely be concrete, but this does not mean that they are
concrete all the way to the roof.
High rise and mid-rise structures usually have one or more levels of
parking below the building. When fireproofed steel columns and girders
are seen, the screener can be fairly certain that the structure is a steel
building (S1, S2, or S4; see Figure 3-42).

Figure 3-42

FEMA P-154

Interior view showing fire-proofed columns and beams, which

indicate a steel building (S1, S2, or S4).

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 If the columns and beams are constructed of concrete, the structure is

most likely a concrete moment-frame building (C1, see Figure 3-43).
However, this is not guaranteed as some buildings will use steel framing
above the ground floor. To ascertain the FEMA Building Type, the
screener will need to look at the columns above the first floor.

Figure 3-43

Interior view showing concrete columns and girders with no

identifiable shear walls, which indicates a concrete moment
frame (C1).

If there is no basement, the inspection of the mechanical and electrical

equipment rooms may enable identification of the framing for the floor
above.
If suspended ceilings are used, one of the ceiling tiles can be lifted and
simply pushed aside. In many cases, the floor framing will then be
exposed. Caution should be used in identifying the framing materials,
because prior to about 1960, steel beams were encased in concrete to
provide fireproofing. If steel framing is seen with what appears to be
concrete beams, the latter are most likely steel beams encased in
concrete.
If plastered ceilings are observed above suspended ceilings, the screener
will not be able to identify the framing materials; however, plaster is not
generally used for ceilings in post-1960 buildings.
At exterior walls, if the structural system is a frame system, there will be
regularly spaced locations where the wall is thicker and projects into the
interior space of the building farther than the adjacent wall areas. These
are the building columns. If the exterior walls between the columns are
constructed of brick masonry and the thickness of the wall is 9 inches or
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more for each story, the structure type is either steel frame with
unreinforced masonry infill (S5) or concrete frame with unreinforced
masonry infill (C3). However, if the exterior walls are constructed of
thick brick masonry and there is no discernible frame system, the FEMA
Building Type may be unreinforced masonry (URM).
Pre-1930 brick masonry buildings that are six stories or less in height and
that have wood-floor framing supported on masonry ledges in pockets
formed in the wall are unreinforced masonry bearing-wall buildings
(URM).
3.14.4 Screening Buildings with More Than One FEMA Building
Type

In some cases, the screener may observe buildings having more than one
FEMA Building Type. Examples might include a wood frame building atop
a precast concrete parking garage, or a building with reinforced concrete
shear walls in one direction and a reinforced moment-resisting frame in the
other.
A building that has one FEMA Building Type in one direction and another
FEMA Building Type in the other direction should be evaluated for both
types, and the lowest Final Score should govern.
A building with one FEMA Building Type above another should be
evaluated for both types. For example, in the case of a three-story wood
frame residential structure over a one-story concrete moment frame podium,
one score can be calculated for the three-story W1A and another score can be
calculated for the one-story C1. Use the lowest score as the Final Score.
Other, more complicated scenarios also exist. If in doubt about how to
screen the building, the screener should note the complication in the
Comments section of the form and the Supervising Engineer should
determine whether the building requires a Detailed Structural Evaluation.
3.14.5 Screening Buildings with Additions

Some buildings are modified with additions after the original construction.
There are a number of aspects of building additions that need to be
considered when evaluating the significance of the addition and its effect on
the seismic resistance of the structure as a whole. The additions can be
horizontal, adding to the plan area of the building (as shown in Figure 3-44),
or vertical, adding stories to the building (as shown in Figure 3-45).

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Figure 3-44

Illustration of a horizontal addition.

Figure 3-45

Illustration of a vertical addition.

An important characteristic of an addition is that it is structurally connected

to the original building. Where structural separation gaps exist between
buildings or portions of buildings, the structures on either side of the
separation gap should be treated as separate buildings. Additions are
common for many types of buildings, such as hospitals or schools that
change over time.
Separation joints can be present to separate a horizontal addition from the
original building or to separate portions of a building constructed at the same
time. These separation joints occur over the entire height of the building and
across the width of the building. On the exterior, these joints typically are
either filled with material that is compressible and water tight or covered
with a joint cover that allows the two parts of the building to move
independently. Some building additions, such as vertical additions, are
integrally connected to the original structure while others are constructed as
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essentially a separate structure. Single story penthouses need not be

considered as a vertical addition if not used as normally habitable space.
Additions are often identified by observing obvious differences in the
architectural style or exterior cladding materials (non-matching brick color
and texture) of different parts of the building relative to each other. An
addition may be constructed using framing and materials that are similar to
those used for the original building, or the framing of the addition may be
different than the original building. Differences in construction materials
used typically indicate that the lateral stiffness of the addition and original
building are different, and therefore the two parts will respond differently to
earthquake forces. The differences between sections may also be indicated
where there are differences in floor levels between adjacent portions of a
building or where the structural framing material used for parts of the
building are different.
Where complex conditions involving additions or buildings with multiple
independent sections are encountered for the building being screened, the
preferred approach would be to recommend that the building receive a
Detailed Structural Evaluation. If the screener is unable to determine
whether a building is an addition or a separate structure, the buildings should
be noted as requiring a Detailed Structural Evaluation.
For horizontal additions, a checklist is presented in Table 3-2 for use in
assessing whether to screen a building as a single building or multiple
buildings based on the characteristics of the additions.
3.15

Score Modifiers

Once the screener has completed the top half of the Level 1 Data Collection
Form and identified the FEMA Building Type, he or she is ready to calculate
the buildings RVS score using the scoring matrix. The scoring matrix,
shown in Figure 3-46, provides the Basic Score and Score Modifiers related
to building characteristics or performance attributes. Building characteristics
that positively affect the performance of the building have positive Score
Modifiers and increase the score. Building characteristics that negatively
affect the performance of the building have negative Score Modifiers and
decrease the score.
The severity of the impact of the performance attribute on structural
performance varies with the FEMA Building Type; thus the assigned Score
Modifiers depend on FEMA Building Type. If a performance attribute does

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Table 3-2

Level 1 Reference Guide for Reviewing Buildings with Horizontal

Additions

Building Addition Screening Criteria

Response

Criterion 1: Does the building have

visible and aligned joints over the entire
height of two exterior walls and across
the roof?

Yes

Determine scores for each

separate building defined by
the joints and consider the
potential for pounding using
the adjacency guidelines in
Section 3.9.

No

See Criterion 2

Yes

Screen as separate buildings

defined by the differences
noted in Criterion 2.
Determine score for each
portion and record the lower
score.

No

Screen as a single building.

Criterion 2: Does the building have any

of the following characteristics:
a) abrupt and noticeable differences in
architectural style that occur on two
sides of the building over the entire
height of the exterior walls?
b) visible differences in structural
framing between distinct portions of the
building?
c) differences in floor elevation
between portions of the building?

Screening Guidance

not apply to a given FEMA Building Type, the Score Modifier is indicated
with N/A, which indicates that this Score Modifier is not applicable. Score
Modifiers associated with each building characteristic are indicated in the
scoring matrix on the Level 1 Data Collection Form.

Figure 3-46

Scoring Matrix portion of the Level 1 Data Collection Form for High seismicity.

The screener circles Score Modifiers for the building in the appropriate
column (i.e., under the reference code for the identified FEMA Building
Type). Following are instructions for when to apply each Score Modifier.
3.15.1 Vertical Irregularity

If one or more severe vertical irregularities have been identified in the

Irregularities section of the form (as per Section 3.10.1), the Severe Vertical
Irregularity Score Modifier should be circled. If one or more moderate
vertical irregularities have been identified, and no severe vertical

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irregularities exist, the Moderate Vertical Irregularity Score Modifier should

be circled.
3.15.2 Plan Irregularity

If one or more plan irregularities have been identified in the Irregularities

section of the form (as per Section 3.10.2), the Plan Irregularity Score
Modifier should be circled.
3.15.3 Pre-Code

This Score Modifier is applicable if the building being screened was

designed and constructed prior to the initial adoption and enforcement of
seismic codes applicable for that FEMA Building Type. The year(s) in
which seismic codes were initially adopted and enforced for the various
FEMA Building Types should have been identified during the pre-planning
stage (as recommended in Chapter 2) and added to the Quick Reference
Guide in Appendix B. Using the Quick Reference Guide, the screener
compares the year built (or code year, if known) to the year seismic codes
were initially adopted and enforced for that FEMA Building Type. If the
year built is earlier than the year seismic codes were adopted, the screener
should apply the Pre-Code Score Modifier. Because of the method used to
calculate the Basic Scores, this Score Modifier does not apply to buildings in
a Low seismicity region.
3.15.4 Post-Benchmark

This Score Modifier is applicable if the building being screened was

designed and constructed after significantly improved seismic codes
applicable for that FEMA Building Type were adopted and enforced by the
local jurisdiction. The year in which such improvements were adopted is
termed the benchmark year. Benchmark year(s) for the various FEMA
Building Types should have been identified during the pre-planning stage (as
recommended in Chapter 2) and added to the Quick Reference Guide. Using
the Quick Reference Guide, the screener should compare the year built (or
code year, if known) to the benchmark year. If the year built matches or is
later than the benchmark year, the screener applies the Post-Benchmark
Score Modifier.
3.15.5 Soil Type

Score Modifiers are provided for Soil Type A or B and for Soil Type E. If
Soil Type A or B has been identified in the Soil Type portion of the form, the
screener circles the Soil Type A or B Score Modifier. If Soil Type E has
been identified and there are three or fewer stories, the screener circles the

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Soil Type E (1-3 stories) Score Modifier. If Soil Type E has been
identified, and there are more than three stories, the screener circles the Soil
Type E (>3 stories) Score Modifier.
Basic Scores were calculated assuming Soil Type CD (the average of Soil
Type C and Soil Type D). Therefore, no Score Modifier applies when one of
these soil types occurs. There is no Score Modifier for Soil Type F because
buildings on Soil Type F cannot be screened effectively with the RVS
procedure. If the building is on Soil Type F, the screener should note that
Geologic hazards or Soil Type F are present under the Other Hazards
portion of the form, which will trigger a Detailed Structural Evaluation for
the building.
3.15.6 Minimum Score, SMIN

Individual Score Modifiers were developed by calculating the probability of

collapse when varying a single condition. Summing multiple Score
Modifiers can overestimate the combined effect of multiple conditions and
may result in a final score less than zero. A negative score implies a
probability of collapse greater than 100%, which is not possible.
To address this, a Minimum Score, SMIN, is provided. The Minimum Score
was developed by considering the worst possible combination of soil type,
vertical and plan irregularities, and building age, all at once.
3.16

Determining the Final Level 1 Score

The Final Level 1 Score, SL1, is determined for a given building by adding
the circled Score Modifiers for that building to the Basic Score for the
building. The screener should check the sum of Basic Score and Score
Modifiers against the Minimum Score, SMIN, and use the Minimum Score if it
is larger than the sum.
The result is documented on the bottom line of the scoring matrix next to
Final Level 1 Score, SL1.
When the screener is uncertain of the FEMA Building Type, an attempt
should be made to eliminate all unlikely FEMA Building Types. If the
screener is still left with several choices, the screener calculates SL1 for all the
remaining FEMA Building Types and chooses the lowest score. This is a
conservative approach, and has the disadvantage that the assigned score may
indicate that the building presents a greater risk than it actually does.
If the screener has little or no confidence about any choice for the structural
system, as in the case of buildings with uncertain faade treatment (see

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Section 3.14.2), the screener should circle DNK for FEMA Building Type,
which indicates the screener does not know. In this case, no SL1 score is
calculated.
3.17

Documenting the Extent of Review

The Extent of Review portion of the form is provided to document the

thoroughness of the building screening (see Figure 3-47). The screener notes
whether he or she had access to all sides of the exterior of the building and
whether the interior was accessed. There is also a field for the screener to
note any contacts made in the field. It is valuable to know if the screener was
able to talk to the building owner or facility manager, particularly if these
individuals were the source of any information used by the screener in
completing the form.

Figure 3-47

Extent of Review portion of the Level 1 Data Collection Form.

There are also fields to document the resources that were used during pre
field planning. The soil type source, geologic hazards source, and whether
drawings were reviewed should be noted on the form prior to the field visit.
The information collected in this portion of the form reflects on the accuracy
of the buildings score. If fewer sources of information were available, it is
less likely that the FEMA Building Type and the building attributes were
accurately discerned. This information is expected to be valuable to the
Program Manager in the analysis of the RVS results and the Supervising
Engineer during the quality assurance review.
3.18

Documenting the Level 2 Screening Results

If the screener has also completed the optional Level 2 portion of the form,
the results of the Level 2 screening are recorded in this section of the Level 1
form (see Figure 3-48).
3.19

Documenting Other Hazards

Pounding potential, falling hazards from a taller adjacent building, geologic

hazards, and damage or deterioration to the structural system are all
conditions that are not considered in the Level 1 score, but can have a
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3-57

Figure 3-48

Level 2 screening results portion of the Level 1 Data Collection

Form.

negative effect on the performance of the building. If these hazards exist, the
building may be seismically hazardous even if the Level 1 score is greater
than the designated cut-off score. Therefore, a Detailed Structural
Evaluation is required if the screener identifies that any of the following
hazardous conditions exist (see Figure 3-49).
Pounding potential (unless SL2 > cut-off, if known). This box is checked
if Pounding has been checked in the Adjacency section of the form. If
a Level 2 screening has been performed, however, and the Final Level 2
score (which considers pounding) is greater than the cut-off score, then
the box does not need to be checked.
Falling hazards from a taller adjacent building. This box is checked if
the Falling Hazards from Taller Adjacent Building has been checked in
the Adjacency section of the form.
Geologic hazards or Soil Type F. If Yes has been circled for any
geologic hazards in the Geologic Hazards section of the Data Collection
Form or if the building is on Soil Type F, the screener checks this box in
the Other Hazards section. If all of the geologic hazards are noted as
No or as DNK, the screener does not check this box.
Significant damage/deterioration. If the screener has identified any
significant damage or deterioration during the screening, the Significant
damage/deterioration to the structural system box should be checked. A
Detailed Structural Evaluation is recommended of any building with
significant damage or deterioration.

Figure 3-49

3-58

Other Hazards portion of the Level 1 Data Collection Form.

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3.20

Determining the Action Required

The final step to complete the Level 1 Data Collection Form is to indicate the
action required. Based on information collected during the screening, the
screener indicates whether detailed evaluation of the building is required (see
Figure 3-50).

Figure 3-50

Action Required portion of the Level 1 Data Collection Form.

3.20.1 Detailed Structural Evaluation

The screener indicates whether a Detailed Structural Evaluation is required

by checking one of four boxes.
Yes, unknown FEMA Building Type or other building. If the screener has
little or no confidence about any choice for the structural system, or if the
building does not conform to any of the 17 FEMA Building Types
considered on the form, the screening cannot be used to conclude that the
building is not potentially hazardous. Therefore, a Detailed Structural
Evaluation of the building should be conducted by an experienced design
professional. In some cases, the Supervising Engineer or another more
experienced screener may be able to determine the FEMA Building Type
and complete the screening.
Yes, score less than cut-off. If the building receives a score that is less
than the cut-off, it may be seismically hazardous and should receive a
Detailed Structural Evaluation by an experienced design professional.
Yes, other hazards present. If other hazards are present, as indicated in
the Other Hazards section of the form, the building may be seismically
hazardous and should receive a Detailed Structural Evaluation by an
experienced design professional.
No. If the building receives a score greater than the cut-off, and no other
hazards are present, then a Detailed Structural Evaluation is not required.

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3.20.2 Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation

The final step of the screening is to indicate whether a Detailed Nonstructural

Evaluation is recommended.
Yes, nonstructural hazards identified that should be evaluated. This box
is checked if a nonstructural hazard has been observed and further
nonstructural evaluation is recommended to determine whether the
identified potential falling hazard is actually a threat. For example, a
detailed evaluation would be necessary to determine whether a buildings
heavy cladding is properly anchored. If the detailed evaluation reveals
that it is properly anchored, the heavy cladding is no longer considered a
falling hazard.
No, nonstructural hazards exist that may require mitigation, but a
detailed evaluation is not necessary. This box is checked if a
nonstructural hazard that is a known threat has been observed. For
example, an unreinforced brick chimney. In these cases, additional
evaluation is not necessary, although mitigation will be necessary if the
threat is to be reduced. The jurisdiction may decide to make mitigation
of these falling hazards mandatory.
No, no nonstructural hazards identified. If no exterior falling hazards
have been observed during the screening, further nonstructural
evaluation is not necessary.
DNK. A do not know option is also provided if the screener is unable
to determine whether to recommend a detailed nonstructural evaluation.
The screener should note the cause of his or her uncertainty in the
comments box.
The RVS Authority may later use this information as a basis for notifying the
owner of potential problems.

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Chapter 4

Completing the Optional

Level 2 Data Collection Form

4.1

Introduction

This chapter provides instructions on how to complete the optional Level 2

Data Collection Form, shown in Figure 4-1. Level 2 screening should only
be performed by a civil or structural engineering professional, architect, or
graduate student with a background in seismic evaluation or design of
buildings. The statements on the Level 2 form have been designed assuming
this level of training.
It is assumed that the Level 1 form has already been completed, either by the
current screener or previously during an earlier screening. If the Level 1
form was completed by a different screener, the Level 2 screener should
repeat the Level 1 screening, or at least verify the information on the Level 1
form.
The same seismicity region used for the Level 1 screening applies to the
Level 2 screening. If the Level 1 screening was performed using the High
seismicity Level 1 form, the Level 2 screening should be performed using the
High seismicity Level 2 form.
Like the Level 1 form, the screener fills out the Level 2 form beginning at the
top. The screener notes the name of the building, its Level 1 score, and the
irregularity Score Modifiers used on Level 1. The screener then responds to
a series of statements about the building, applying Score Modifiers where
applicable. The Very High, High, Moderately High, Moderate, and Low
seismicity forms differ in the Score Modifier values and in the pounding
criteria. The screener calculates a Level 2 score and transfers this score to
the Level 1 form.
At the bottom of the Level 2 form is a limited nonstructural screening
section. The screener replies to a series of statements regarding common
nonstructural hazards and then makes a judgment about the estimated
nonstructural seismic performance of the building.

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Figure 4-1
4-2

Optional Level 2 Data Collection Form.

4: Completing the Optional Level 2 Data Collection Form

FEMA P-154

4.2

B
uilding Information and Adjusted Baseline Score for
Level 2

The screener records the building name and the Level 1 score, SL1, at the top
of the page. The Level 1 score includes Level 1 Score Modifiers for vertical
and plan irregularities (VL1 and PL1). These Score Modifiers are removed
from the score so that the refined Level 2 Irregularity Score Modifiers (VL2
and PL2) can be used instead. To accomplish this, the screener calculates an
Adjusted Baseline Score, S, by subtracting VL1 and PL1 from SL1. This
Adjusted Baseline Score is the basis for the Level 2 score (see Figure 4-2).

Figure 4-2

Portion of the Level 2 form for recording building name and

calculating adjusted baseline score.

For the purpose of calculating the Adjusted Baseline Score, the Minimum
Score on the Level 1 form should not be considered. The Final Level 1
Score, SL1, shall be taken as the sum of the Basic Score and all applicable
Level 1 Score Modifiers.
4.3

Reviewing the Level 2 Statements and Recording

Score Modifiers

The middle section of the Level 2 form is shown in Figure 4-3. The
statements address vertical and plan irregularities, pounding, and seismic
retrofit. Some statements are specific to particular FEMA Building Types.
For each true statement, the screener circles the Score Modifier. For false
statements, the screener crosses out the Score Modifier. The screener notes
subtotals for VL2 and PL2. These are the effective Level 2 Score Modifiers for
vertical and plan irregularities, respectively. The screener also notes the
subtotal, M, which includes the remainder of the Level 2 Score Modifiers.
The screener can also record comments in this subtotal area.
4.3.1

Vertical Irregularities

The Vertical Irregularity section of the Level 2 form includes statements and
Score Modifiers for each of the vertical irregularities discussed and shown in
Chapter 3 and the Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide in Appendix B. The
sum of Score Modifiers in this section, subject to a cap, is the Level 2
Vertical Irregularity Score Modifier, VL2, and should be noted in the space
provided in the subtotals column. The cap for VL2 is defined on the Level 2
form and varies by seismicity region. A building with a vertical irregularity
will be more vulnerable if there is a second irregularity present; however, the
addition of Vertical Irregularity Score Modifiers (each of which represents a

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Figure 4-3

Portion of the Level 2 High seismicity Data Collection Form for adjusting the baseline score.

logarithmic increase in probability of collapse) overestimates the effect of the

added irregularity. As an approximation of the expected performance of the
structure, the cap is used. See FEMA P-155 for more information about why
VL2 is capped. See Chapter 3 for additional discussion, including
photographs and illustrations of the various types of irregularities.
The Level 2 vertical irregularities are as follows.

Sloping Site
o

4-4

W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one

side of the building to the other. Homes with flexible basement
walls on all sides, such as those with wood frame construction, on
steep hills have performed poorly in past earthquakes, such as the

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FEMA P-154

1994 Northridge earthquake. The downslope side of the structure is

often too weak and flexible to resist earthquake forces. As a result,
the Score Modifier is large for this irregularity. The Score Modifier
does not apply when the foundation walls of the partly below-grade
basement are all constructed of reinforced concrete.
o Non-W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from

one side of the building to the other. The Score Modifier for this
statement is smaller than the Score Modifier for the first statement,
since a sloping site condition has a greater impact on W1 buildings
than other types of buildings.
Weak and/or Soft Story: Several statements on the form capture
conditions related to weak or soft story. Each condition is unique;
however, for certain buildings, more than one of the statements may be
true. To avoid double counting the irregularity, the screener is directed
to circle one at most. If more than one applies to the building, the
screener should select the worst case of the applicable Score Modifiers.
o W1 building cripple wall: An unbraced cripple wall is visible in

the crawl space. A cripple wall is a perimeter stud wall between

the foundation and the floor joists of the lowest occupied floor. A
cripple wall is unbraced if it lacks plywood or oriented strand board
(OSB) structural sheathing. Note that cripple wall damage can be
costly but tends not to greatly threaten life-safety. However, since
the scoring in FEMA P-154 is intended to reflect collapse risk
directly, and life safety only indirectly, this modifier is significant.
o W1 house over garage: Underneath an occupied story, there is a

garage opening without a steel moment frame, and there is less than
8' of wall on the same line (for multiple occupied floors above, use
16' of wall minimum). This question is more specific than the
general description provided in the Vertical Irregularity Reference
Guide in Appendix B. For Level 2, even if there is an occupied story
above the garage opening, the modifier need not be triggered if a
steel moment frame is present at the opening or if there is a shear
wall (i.e., a stud wall sheathed with plywood or OSB) adjacent to the
opening. The minimum wall length increases if there are multiple
occupied floors above the opening.
o W1A building open front: There are openings at the ground story

(such as for parking) over at least 50% of the length of the

building. This question is more specific than the general
description on the Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide in Appendix

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B. This Score Modifier applies if there are door or window openings

along more than 50% of the length of the building. This would
include most buildings with tuckunder parking.
o Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is less than

50% of that at story above or height of any story is more than 2.0
times the height of the story above. In the case of shear walls,
length of the lateral system is the length of shear walls. In the case
of moment frames, the length of the lateral system is measured in
terms of number of bays. The exclusion of W1 is intended to avoid
double-counting of the open-front Score Modifier. An illustration of
a building that meets this definition is shown in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4

Illustration of a building with a ground floor story height

that is twice the height of the stories above.

o Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is between

50% and 75% of that at story above or height of any story is between
1.3 and 2.0 times the height of the story above. This statement
represents a less severe irregularity and has a smaller Score Modifier.
An illustration of a building that meets this definition is shown in
Figure 4-5.
Setback
o Vertical elements of the lateral system at an upper story are

outboard of those at the story below causing the diaphragm to

cantilever at the offset. This condition occurs when the footprint of
the building at a lower level is smaller than at an upper level. This
condition is severe because the diaphragm must cantilever back to

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Figure 4-5

Illustration of a building with a ground floor story height that is

1.5 times the height of the stories above.

the interior of the building, rather than simply span between lateral
elements. If there are columns under the discontinuous upper story
walls, they can undergo large overturning forces from the walls
above and may sustain large drifts from cantilever action of the floor
diaphragm just above them.
o Vertical elements of the lateral system at upper stories are inboard

of those at lower stories. In this case, the upper story is set back
from the lower story such that the footprint of the building at the
lower story is larger than at an upper story.
o There is an in-plane offset of the lateral elements that is greater

than the length of the elements. For example, a braced frame has
braces at Story X+1 in one bay, but the brace in Story X is in a
different bay. In the case of a shear wall, the shear wall in Story X+1
does not overlap with the shear wall in Story X.
Short Column/Pier
o

C1, C2, C3, PC1, PC2, RM1, RM2: At least 20% of columns (or
piers) along a column line in the lateral system have height/depth
ratios less than 50% of the nominal height/depth ratio at that level.
These columns or piers tend to be stiffer and will undergo higher
forces and may suffer severe damage before loads are redistributed
to the other columns or piers. An illustration of a building that meets
this definition is shown in Figure 4-6.

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2 short piers (out of 8 total on this

line) > 20%
Figure 4-6

Illustration of a building with short piers.

o C1, C2, C3, PC1, PC2, RM1, RM2: The column depth (or pier

width) is less than one half of the depth of the spandrel, or there are
infill walls or adjacent floors that shorten the column. The two
conditions described in this statement are less severe than the
condition in the first short column/pier statement. An illustration of
a building that meets this definition is shown in Figure 4-7.

3'-0" deep
piers (typical)

8'-0" deep spandrels

(typical)
Figure 4-7

Illustration of a building with piers that are less than one half as deep
as the spandrels.

Split Level
o There is a split level at one of the floor levels or at the roof. This

condition creates discontinuity in the floor or roof diaphragm.

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 Other Irregularity: The following statements allow the screener to apply

a Score Modifier if a vertical irregularity is observed that is not
considered by the other irregularity statements. This statement may be
triggered by an observed mass irregularity, or an unusual condition such
as a rooftop pool. The screener uses judgment to decide when to use this
and whether the observed irregularity has a severe or moderate effect on
the seismic performance of the building. The screener should describe
the observed irregularity in the comments area.
o There is another observable severe vertical irregularity that

obviously affects the building's seismic performance.

o There is another observable moderate vertical irregularity that may

affect the building's seismic performance.

4.3.2

Plan Irregularities

The Plan Irregularity section of the Level 2 form includes statements and
Score Modifiers for each plan irregularity in the Plan Irregularity Reference
Guide, Table B-5 in Appendix B. The sum of Score Modifiers in this
section, subject to a cap, is the Level 2 Plan Irregularity Score Modifier, PL2,
and should be noted in the space provided in the subtotals column. The cap
for PL2 is defined on the Level 2 form and is the same value as the Plan
Irregularity Score Modifier on the Level 1 form, PL1. The cap is used as an
approximation of the expected performance of the structure. See FEMA P155 for more information about why PL2 is capped. The Level 2 plan
irregularities are as follows. See Chapter 3 for additional discussion,
including photographs and illustrations of the various types of irregularities.
Torsional irregularity: Lateral system does not appear relatively well
distributed in plan in either or both directions. (Do not include the W1A
open front irregularity listed above.) W1A with an open front is
excluded because the penalty has already been applied in the vertical
irregularity section and need not be double counted.
Non-parallel systems: There are one or more major vertical elements of
the lateral system that are not orthogonal to each other. This means
that column lines or shear walls do not meet at right angles. This is
considered to be only a moderate irregularity.
Reentrant corner: Both projections from an interior corner exceed
25% of the overall plan dimension in that direction. This is considered
to be only a moderate irregularity. Damage tends to concentrate at the
reentrant corner, but overall collapse is expected to be less likely than a
building that is torsionally irregular. An illustration of a building that

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meets this definition is shown in Figure 4-8. Additional considerations

should be made for rigid wall, flexible diaphragm buildings where
smaller reentrant offsets may initiate local building damage or partial
collapse. An example would be a large rectangular building, as shown in
Figure 4-9, with a small midspan offset where the tributary loads to the
wall would generate large overturning and drag/collector forces that may
not have been adequately provided for in the buildings design.
264'-0"

288'-0"

216'-0"
projection >
25% of overall
plan dimension
Figure 4-8

168'-0"
projection >
25% of
overall plan
dimension

Illustration of a building with a reentrant corner.

Diaphragm opening: There is an opening in the diaphragm with a

width over 50% of the total diaphragm width at that level. This is
considered to be only a moderate irregularity, with less impact than a
reentrant corner.
C1, C2 building out-of-plane offset: The exterior beams do not align
with the columns in plan. This irregularity has a relatively high Score
Modifier because it can lead to joint damage and potential collapse when
the beam-to-column connection is inadequately reinforced. In older
buildings this is likely to be the case. The impact of the condition varies
with how great the offset of the centerline of the beam is from the
centerline of the column. In the most severe case, the beam is entirely
outside of the depth of the column. Only one Score Modifier is provided
to capture all cases. This is for simplicity and because it will often only
be possible to see the front face of the beam and column during the
screening.
Other irregularity: There is another observable plan irregularity that
obviously affects the building's seismic performance. This statement
allows the screener to apply a Score Modifier if a plan irregularity is

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Figure 4-9

Rigid wall, flexible diaphragm building with short wall at small reentrant
corner.

observed that is not considered by the other irregularity statements. The

screener uses judgment to decide when to use this. If such an irregularity
is observed, the screener should describe it in the comments area.
4.3.3

Redundancy

Buildings that have more seismic force-resisting elements have greater

redundancy and are expected to perform better in an earthquake than
buildings with fewer seismic force-resisting elements. If the building has at
least two bays of seismic force-resisting elements on each side of the
building in each direction, there is a sufficient level of redundancy, the
statement on the form is true, and the screener applies a positive Score
Modifier. For buildings with shear walls, if the number of bays is not clear,
then a bay can be defined as at least the height of the story.
4.3.4

Pounding

In the Level 2 screening, pounding is considered in the structural score. This

is different than the Level 1 screening where, if there is pounding potential,
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the score is not adjusted, but a Detailed Structural Evaluation is

automatically triggered.
In Very High seismicity regions, if the building being screened is separated
from an adjacent structure by less than 1.50% of the height of the shorter of
the building and adjacent structure, pounding may be an issue. This is
reduced to 1.00% in High seismicity, 0.50% in Moderately High seismicity,
0.25% in Moderate seismicity, and 0.10% in Low seismicity regions. The
separation values are based on considerations of worst-case modal
displacement at the upper end of the range for that seismicity region. See
FEMA P-155 for more information on the basis of the separation thresholds.
The Pounding Score Modifier varies according to the severity of type of
pounding condition that exists. Where the separation gap is less than the
threshold, three conditions are considered. Each of the conditions is stated
and illustrated below. For each true statement, the screener circles the
associated Score Modifier. For each false statement, the screener crosses out
the associated Score Modifier. More than one of the pounding conditions
may apply for a given building. In this case, the applicable Score Modifiers
are summed, but need not exceed the cap indicated on the Level 2 form.
The floors do not align vertically within 2 feet. Illustrated in Figure
4-10.

Figure 4-10

Illustration of floors not aligning vertically.

One of the buildings is two or more stories taller than the other.
Illustrated in Figure 4-11.
The building is at the end of the block. This statement is applicable for
a building at the end of a row of three or more buildings. Illustrated in
Figure 4-12.

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Figure 4-11

Illustration of a building that is two or more stories taller than

the adjacent building.

Figure 4-12

Illustration of end buildings.

4.3.5

Consideration of Building Additions

The Level 2 screening form does not have statements specific to building
additions. Instead, the effect of different addition configurations on the
seismic performance of the building is addressed by considering vertical or
plan irregularities, or some combination of these depending on the
configuration of the addition. See Section 3.14.5 for a general discussion
regarding additions and the screening approach used in Level 1.
For Level 2 screening, the Building Additions Reference Guide in Table 4-1
(also repeated in Appendix B) provides guidance for considering additions.
Based on the characteristics of the addition, the guide directs the screener to
consider the original building and addition either as a single building or as
two separate buildings and perform two separate screenings. However, if the
addition is separated from the original building with an obvious gap, the
building and the addition should be screened as two separate buildings and
both scores should be recorded. Pounding criteria in Section 4.3.4 should be
considered in this case.
In a Level 2 screening, a vertical addition is evaluated for its effect on the
presence of a vertical irregularity. A vertical addition is defined as the
addition of one or more stories to a building after the initial construction.

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Table 4-1

Building Additions Reference Guide

Addition
Orientation

Type of Addition

Example

RVS Screening
Recommendation

Notes and Additional

Instructions

Vertical

Single story addition has a

smaller footprint than the
original building

Evaluate as a single
building using the total
number of stories of
the original building
and addition and
indicate a setback
vertical irregularity.

Vertical setback
irregularity applies if
the area of the
addition is less than 90
percent of the area of
the story below or if
two or more walls of
the addition are not
aligned with the walls
below.

Vertical

Single or multiple story

addition with similar
footprint and seismic
force-resisting system as
the original building

Evaluate as a single
building using the total
number of stories of
the building plus the
addition.

If the vertical elements

of the seismic forceresisting system of the
addition do not align
with the vertical
elements of the seismic
force-resisting system
below, apply the
setback vertical
irregularity.

Vertical

Single or multiple story

addition in which the
addition has a different
seismic force-resisting
system

Evaluate as a single
building with another
observable moderate
vertical irregularity.

If the footprint of the

addition is less than 90
percent of the story
below or if two or
more walls of the
addition are not
aligned with the walls
below, a setback
vertical irregularity
should also be
indicated.

Horizontal

Addition with same

construction type and
number of stories as
original and horizontal
dimension of the narrower
building at the interface is
less than or equal to 50%
of the length of the wider
building

Evaluate as a single
building with a
torsional irregularity
plan irregularity.

If the difference in
horizontal dimension is
between 50% and
75%, indicate a
reentrant corner
irregularity. If the floor
heights are not aligned
within 2 feet, presence
of pounding is
indicated.

Horizontal

Addition with a different

height than the original
building

Evaluate as a single
building using the
height of the taller
building and indicate a
Pounding Score
Modifier if the heights
of the buildings differ
by more than 2 stories
or if the floors do not
align with 2 feet.

If the horizontal
dimension of the
narrower of the two
buildings along the
interface is less than
75% of the dimension
of the wider, the
reentrant corner plan
irregularity should be
indicated.

The above horizontal addition scenarios assume that there is not an obvious separation gap between the addition and the
original building.

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Table 4-1

Building Additions Reference Guide (continued)

Addition
Orientation

Type of Addition

Example

RVS Screening
Recommendation

Notes and Additional

Instructions

Horizontal

Addition with different

FEMA Building Type
than original

Evaluate a single
building with torsional
irregularity using the
FEMA Building Type
with the lower Basic
Score.

If the floors do not

align within 2 feet or
the number of stories
differs by more than 2
stories, also indicate
the appropriate
Pounding Score
Modifier.

Horizontal

Small addition where

the addition relies on
the original building for
gravity support

Evaluate as a single
building. Evaluate for
the presence of a
setback irregularity if
there is a difference in
the number of stories
and plan irregularity if
there is a difference in
horizontal dimension
of the original building
and addition along the
interface.

If the construction type

of the addition is
different than the
original building,
evaluate as two
buildings with the
addition as having an
observable severe
vertical irregularity.

The above horizontal addition scenarios assume that there is not an obvious separation gap between the addition and the
original building.

Buildings originally constructed with different building types over their

height, as is typical with wood framed residential buildings constructed over
a concrete podium structure, should not be considered as having an addition.
If a vertical addition is observed and there is a significant difference (more
than 10%) in the plan area of a vertical addition compared to the plan area of
the original building, a setback irregularity should be indicated on the Level
2 form. A setback irregularity may also occur where more than one exterior
wall of the addition does not align with an exterior wall below, implying that
there may be an offset in the seismic force-resisting system. A rooftop
penthouse need not be considered a vertical addition if there are no windows
(implying no continuous occupancy) and the plan area is small relative to the
area of the roof.
If there is a difference in the seismic force-resisting system between the
vertical addition and the original building, the weak/soft story evaluation
criteria for the Level 2 form should be used to assess whether the addition
creates a moderate or severe vertical irregularity.
The presence of horizontal building additions can generally be identified by
either vertical changes in the architectural or vertical system over the height
of the building between portions of the building, difference in floor levels
between portions of the building, differences in the seismic force-resisting

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system or construction materials between various parts of the building, or

abrupt differences in the architectural style on two or more sides of the
building.
Horizontal additions that have a smaller or larger horizontal dimension along
the interface than the original building should be evaluated for the presence
of a reentrant corner irregularity using the reentrant corner subcategory of the
Level 2 form. If the seismic force-resisting system of the addition is
different than that of the original building, the torsional irregularity statement
for plan irregularity should be indicated as applicable on the Level 2 form.
Where the height of the horizontal addition is greater than or less than the
height of the original building, a moderate vertical setback irregularity is also
present.
Small horizontal additions may rely on the original building for gravity
support. Small additions constructed with the same FEMA Building Type as
the original building can be considered a single building, but should be
evaluated for the presence of setback and plan irregularities. Where the
addition is of a different FEMA Building Type than the original building, the
structures may respond differently and may become disconnected at the
interface. In this case the addition should be considered as a separate
structure to evaluate whether it has sufficient independent lateral force
resistance.
4.3.6

Building Type Specific Statements

The Level 2 form includes several building type specific statements. These
statements allow the Level 2 screener to modify the building score for
several conditions that are known to affect building performance.
S2 building: K bracing geometry is visible. K bracing is when the
braces intersect the column at mid-height without a horizontal member or
connection to a diaphragm. When one of the braces buckles in
compression, it can place high horizontal demands on the column, and
the column can be at increased risk of failure and collapse.
C1 building: Flat plate serves as the beam in the moment frame. In
many older concrete moment frame buildings, the flat plate floor serves
as an effective beam in the moment frame system. However, the flat
plate is not detailed like a beam with stirrups and does not have a drop
capital like a flat slab. The flat plate can thus be at increased risk of a
punching shear failure, leading to local collapse.
PC1/RM1 building: There are roof-to-wall ties that are visible or
known from drawings that do not rely on cross-grain bending. Do not

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apply this Score Modifier in combination with the post-benchmark or

retrofit Score Modifiers, to avoid double-counting this benefit. Note that
roof-to-wall ties may also be observed in C2 buildings with wood roof
diaphragms. Basic Scores for C2 are based on the more typical condition
where diaphragms are concrete and tied to the concrete walls with
continuous rebar. Thus, an added benefit for anchored wood diaphragms
is not provided.
URM: Gable walls are present. URM gable walls are normally not
braced and are often vulnerable to out-of-plane failure. Because these
walls often provide vertical support for the roof, failure of the gable wall
can result in partial collapse. An illustration of a building with a gable
wall is provided in Figure 4-13.

GableWall

Figure 4-13

Illustration of a URM building with a gable end wall.

MH: There is a supplemental seismic bracing system provided between

the carriage and the ground. The Basic Score for MH type buildings
has been defined assuming that supplemental seismic bracing is absent.
In some cases, the bracing is observed in the field, although this is rare
because MH type buildings commonly have skirts on all sides. More
often, bracing is known to exist only if there are local codes requiring
bracing or the mobile home park in which it is located has specific
bracing requirements.
4.3.7

Retrofits

In the Level 2 screening, the screener may apply a positive Score Modifier
when there is evidence that the building has been retrofitted. The Score
Modifier should only be applied when the retrofit is comprehensive. A

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comprehensive retrofit is one that addresses all of the elements in the lateral
load path. Added elements that mitigate localized hazards, such as added
wall ties or parapet bracing, do not qualify for the Score Modifier.
Partial retrofits and in-progress or incremental retrofits should be noted in the
comments section, without applying the Score Modifier. If the retrofit
appears to effectively counteract an observed deficiency, the screener can
simply apply neither the deficiency nor the retrofit Score Modifier, but
mention both in the comments. The screener can recognize a retrofit that
introduces a deficiency (e.g., by introducing a torsional irregularity) by
applying the appropriate Score Modifier for the deficiency and by
commenting that it is the retrofit that produced it.
In a visual screening, it is unlikely that all elements in a lateral load path can
be observed. However, it is often possible to see the vertical elements of a
seismic retrofit, such as moment frames, braced frames, and sometimes shear
walls. Because of the cost and disruption involved, when these elements are
added, it is likely that these elements are part of a comprehensive retrofit.
For example, when braced frames are added in a URM building, it would be
expected that ties between the diaphragm and walls have been installed, as
well as parapet and gable bracing. Thus, if vertical elements in a retrofit are
observed, the Score Modifier can be applied.
Common observable retrofit measures that are indicative of a sufficiently
comprehensive retrofit include:
Added cripple wall bracing and holdowns in a W1.
Added steel moment frames in a W1 house over garage or W1A open
front building.
Added steel moment frames or braced frames in a S5, C3, or URM.
Ideally, the retrofit will be documented in available construction drawings. In
this case, the pre-field planning should identify whether the Score Modifier is
applicable. If drawings are not available but the screener observes evidence
of a retrofit in the field, the screener may use judgment about the efficacy of
the retrofit. For example, a URM building that has been retrofitted with
small braced frames adjacent to URM walls may not warrant the retrofit
Score Modifier because the braced frame likely has insufficient stiffness to
attract much load away from the URM wall.
The screener should describe the observed retrofit in the comments section.
In general, the value of the Retrofit Score Modifier has been set to be

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equivalent to having mitigated the effects of a plan irregularity. A retrofit

does not guarantee that a building will receive a score above the cut-off.
4.4

Determining the Final Level 2 Score

The Final Level 2 Score, SL2, is calculated by summing the baseline score, S',
and the Level 2 Score Modifiers, VL2, PL2, and M subject to the same
minimum score that applies to the Level 1 Score. In many cases, the Level 2
screening results in a higher score than the Level 1 screening. Because
building attributes are examined in more detail in the Level 2 screening, the
Score Modifiers can be less conservative. The Final Score more accurately
represents the expected performance of the building with less built-in
conservatism.
The Final Level 2 Score is subject to the same minimum, SMIN, as the Level 1
Score.
4.5

Other Observable Conditions

The screener is asked whether there is observable damage or deterioration or

another condition that negatively affects the buildings seismic performance.
If there is such a condition, the screener is given the option to note on the
Level 1 form that a Detailed Structural Evaluation is required, regardless of
the buildings score. This allows for flexibility in the event that the Level 2
screener observes an uncommon condition he or she knows may represent a
significant hazard. The screener should describe the condition in the
comments box. The screener should also take additional photographs of the
condition. This information will be further reviewed by the Supervising
Engineer.
4.5.1

Damage and Deterioration

Suggestions for evaluating damage and deterioration during a Level 1

screening are provided in Section 3.12. The Level 2 screener should review
these same items. The Level 2 screener, however, should use judgment to
distinguish between damage to components of the seismic force-resisting
system and damage that is cosmetic only. The Level 2 screener may be able
to determine whether observed cracks in concrete are due to settlement or are
due to past earthquake damage. Corrosion in steel elements that are primary
members of the gravity load-carrying or seismic force-resisting system is a
greater cause for concern than corrosion in elements that are purely
architectural.

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4.5.2

Other Conditions

If the Level 2 screener observes a condition that indicates the building is

potentially seismically hazardous, even if that condition is not discussed
here, the screener should describe this condition in the comments box and
indicate on the Level 1 form that a Detailed Structural Evaluation is required.
For example, tilt-ups and some S1 and S3 buildings commonly have added
mezzanines with no seismic force-resisting system. As a result, the
mezzanine can be at risk of collapse, or it may be located where it can pound
into the primary seismic force-resisting system of the building, potentially
causing damage or collapse of the building.
4.6

Observable Nonstructural Hazards

The bottom portion of the Level 2 form focuses on nonstructural hazards (see
Figure 4-14). Nonstructural modifiers do not strongly affect collapse
probability, thus these modifiers do not affect the building Final Score.

Figure 4-14

Portion of the Level 2 form for nonstructural hazards.

In areas of low seismicity, nonstructural hazards can be important for lifesafety considerations in a large rare earthquake. Heavy exterior cladding and
parapets have dislodged during past earthquakes and killed passers-by.
Nonstructural ceilings, light fixtures, heavy cabinets, and shelves can also
injure occupants and block exitways. Glass shards from untempered
windows and doors can also be hazardous, particularly if located near
emergency exits.
The statements on this portion of the form primarily relate to falling hazards,
but unlike the Level 1 form, they also include some other nonstructural
hazards as well. The screener notes whether each statement is true and
makes any relevant comments as the statements are reviewed. There are
seven statements addressing exterior falling hazards and two statements
addressing interior falling hazards. These later statements should be
addressed if access to the interior of the building is available. The statements
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on the Level 2 form reflect similar falling hazards as those listed on the Level
1 form, but the Level 2 statements are more specific.
Exterior:
o There is an unbraced unreinforced masonry parapet, or unbraced

unreinforced masonry chimney.

o There is heavy cladding or heavy veneer.
o There is a heavy canopy over exit doors or pedestrian walkways

that appears inadequately supported.

o There is an unreinforced masonry appendage over exit doors or

pedestrian walkways.
o There is a sign posted on the building that indicates hazardous

materials are present.

o There is a taller adjacent building with an unanchored URM wall

or unbraced URM parapet or chimney.

o Other observed exterior nonstructural falling hazard:

Interior:
o There are hollow clay tile or brick partitions at any stair or exit

corridor.
o Other observed interior nonstructural falling hazard:

After reviewing each of the statements, the screener uses judgment to

estimate the nonstructural seismic performance of the building. One of three
boxes is checked:
Potential nonstructural hazards with significant threat to occupant life
safety Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation recommended. This box
should be checked if a potential nonstructural hazard has been identified
and additional evaluation may reveal that the suspected hazard is not
actually a threat to occupant life safety. For example, a detailed
evaluation of a building's heavy cladding may reveal that it is properly
anchored and is not a threat.
Nonstructural hazard identified with significant threat to occupant life
safety But no Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required. This box
should be checked if a nonstructural hazard has been identified and no
additional evaluation is necessary. For example, additional evaluation of
an unbraced unreinforced masonry chimney will not be able to show that
the chimney is not a hazard.

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 Low or no nonstructural hazard threat to occupant life safety No

Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required. This box should be
checked if all of the statements are false. If one of the statements is true
but the screener does not believe that the identified hazard is a threat to
life safety, the screener should check this box and describe in the
comments section why the falling hazard is not a threat.
If the screener is in doubt about whether any of the statements is true, these
doubts should be noted in the comments section. Similarly, the screener
should note any doubts about the estimated nonstructural seismic
performance.
4.7

Comments

A space is provided on the Level 2 form for comments. The screener should
use this area to note any special conditions that have been observed or to
indicate issues that could not be verified in the field. In particular, the
screener should describe in detail any observed damage or deterioration or
any observed other vertical or plan irregularities. If additional space is
needed for notes or sketches, the screener can use the comments section and
the sketch space on the Level 1 form or attach a separate sheet of paper.
4.8

Transferring the Level 2 Results to the Level 1 Form

The Final Level 2 Score, SL2, is transferred to the Level 1 form and
supersedes the Final Level 1 Score. The Level 2 screener should also
indicate on the Level 1 form the results of the Level 2 nonstructural
screening. The screener then completes or revises the Other Hazards and
Action Required portions of the Level 1 form based on these results.

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Chapter 5

5.1

Using the RVS Procedure

Results

Using the RVS Procedure Results

The rapid visual screening (RVS) procedure presented in this Handbook is

meant to be the preliminary screening phase of a multi-phase procedure for
identifying earthquake-hazardous buildings. Buildings identified by this
procedure as potentially seismically hazardous should be analyzed in more
detail by an experienced seismic design professional. Typically, an
evaluation according to ASCE/SEI 41-13, Seismic Evaluation and Retrofit of
Existing Buildings (ASCE, 2014), will be most appropriate for those
buildings that require a Detailed Structural Evaluation. Where further
nonstructural evaluation is desired based on the results of the rapid visual
screening, FEMA E-74, Reducing the Risks of Nonstructural Earthquake
Damage A Practical Guide, Fourth Edition (FEMA, 2012e), is
recommended. Based on more detailed evaluation, some of the buildings
identified as potentially hazardous by the RVS procedure will prove to be
adequate. The procedure is designed to catch as many of the potentially
hazardous buildings as possible, but, because rapid visual screening is
designed to be performed from the street, with interior inspection not always
possible, hazardous details may not always be visible, and some seismically
hazardous buildings may not be identified as such.
Since the original publication of FEMA 154 in 1988, the RVS procedure has
been widely used by local communities and government agencies. A critical
issue in the implementation of FEMA 154 has been the interpretation of the
Final Score, SL1 or SL2 (combined as S for this chapter), and the selection of a
cut-off score, below which a Detailed Structural Evaluation of the building
by a design professional experienced in seismic design is required.
This chapter discusses: (1) interpretation and selection of the cut-off score;
(2) prior uses of the FEMA 154 RVS procedure, including decisions
regarding the cut-off score; (3) using the RVS program for seismic advocacy;
and (4) other possible uses of the RVS procedure, including resources needed
for the various possible uses. These discussions are intended to illuminate
both the limitations and potential applications of the RVS procedure.

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5.2

Interpretation of RVS Score

Having employed the RVS procedure and determined the buildings Final
Score, S, which is based on the Basic Score and Score Modifiers associated
with the various performance attributes, the RVS Authority is faced with the
question of what these S scores mean. Fundamentally, the final S score is an
estimate of the collapse probability (as described in Chapter 1) if an
earthquake occurs with ground motions called the risk-targeted maximum
considered earthquake, MCER, as described in Chapter 2. These estimates of
the score are based on limited observed and analytical data, and the
probability of collapse is therefore approximate.
A Final Score, S, of 3 implies there is a chance of 1 in 103, or 1 in 1,000, that
the building will collapse if such ground motions occur. A Final Score, S, of
2 implies there is a chance of 1 in 102, or 1 in 100, that the building will
collapse if such ground motions occur. (Additional information about the
basis for the RVS scoring system is provided in the third edition companion
FEMA P-155 Report, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential
Seismic Hazards: Supporting Documentation.) An understanding of the
physical essence of the scoring system, as described above, will facilitate the
interpretation of results from implementation of the RVS procedure
5.3

Selection of RVS Cut-Off Score

One of the most difficult issues pertaining to rapid visual screening is

answering the question, What is an acceptable Final Score, S? This is a
question for the community that involves the costs of safety versus the
benefits. The costs of safety include:
the costs of reviewing and investigating in detail hundreds or thousands
of buildings in order to identify some fraction of those that would
actually sustain major damage in an earthquake; and
the costs associated with retrofitting those buildings finally determined to
be unacceptably weak.
The most compelling benefit is the saving of lives and prevention of injuries
due to reduced damage in those buildings that are retrofitted. This reduced
damage includes not only less material damage, but fewer major disruptions
to daily lives and businesses. The identification of hazardous buildings and
the mitigation of their hazards are critical because there are thousands of
existing buildings in all parts of the United States that may suffer severe
damage or possible collapse in the event of strong ground shaking. Such

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damage or collapse can be accompanied by loss of life and serious injury. In

a great earthquake, deaths could number in the thousands.
Each community or RVS Authority needs to engage in some consideration of
these costs and benefits of seismic safety, and decide what value of S is an
appropriate cut-off for their situation. The final decision involves many
non-technical factors, such as determining the acceptable level of risk for the
community, and is not straightforward. A study quantifying the risk inherent
in modern building codes, conducted by the National Bureau of Standards
(NBS, 1980), observed: In selecting the target reliability it was decided,
after carefully examining the resulting reliability indices for the many design
situations, that a 0 =3 is a representative average value for many frequently
used structural elements when they are subjected to gravity loading, while 0
=2.5 and 0 =1.75 are representative values for loads that include wind and
earthquake, respectively. Note that 0, as used in the National Bureau of
Standards study, is approximately equivalent to S 1 as used herein.
More recently, FEMA P-695, Quantification of Building Seismic
Performance Factors (FEMA, 2009b), which established consistent and
rational building system performance and response parameters for the linear
design methods traditionally used in current building codes, concluded that it
is acceptable that: The probability of collapse due to MCE ground motions
applied to a population of [buildings of the same type] is limited to 10%, on
average. The 10% figure is an upper bound. After accounting for how
conservative it is, that is, how the average real new building behaves rather
than the upper limit, and accounting for the fraction of the building area that
collapses, one can estimate that new buildings might realistically have an
average S = 2.5. (See FEMA P-155 Chapter 8 for more details on this
estimate.) Assuming that existing buildings can reasonably have a somewhat
lower value of S than new buildings, the authors of the present work suggest
that the acceptable probability of collapse in existing buildings is again
roughly equivalent to a value of S of about 2.0.
Thus, an S value of about 2.0 is a reasonable preliminary value to use within
the context of RVS to differentiate adequate buildings from those potentially
inadequate and requiring detailed review. This is the value that has
traditionally been used by RVS programs in the past. Use of a higher cut-off
S value implies greater desired safety but increased community-wide costs
for evaluations and rehabilitation; use of a lower value of S equates to
increased seismic risk and lower short-term community-wide costs for
evaluations and rehabilitation (prior to an earthquake).

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It is important to keep in mind that the final S score relates specifically to the
probability of collapse. Use of a higher cut-off score implies less probability
of collapse, but it does not ensure that other performance objectives, such as
continued operation after an earthquake, will be met. If higher performance
objectives are desired, for example for special structures such as hospitals,
the use of a more detailed structural evaluation, along with a nonstructural
evaluation, is necessary.
Further guidance on cost and other societal implications of seismic
rehabilitation of hazardous buildings is available in other publications of the
FEMA report series on existing buildings. See FEMA 156 and FEMA 157,
Typical Costs for Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings, 2nd Edition, Volumes
1 and 2 (FEMA, 1994a and FEMA, 1995), and FEMA 255 and FEMA 256,
Seismic Rehabilitation of Federal Buildings A Benefit/Cost Model,
Volumes 1 and 2 (FEMA, 1994b and FEMA, 1994c).
5.4

Prior Uses of the RVS Procedure

Following publication of the first edition of the FEMA 154 Handbook, the
rapid visual screening procedure was used by private-sector organizations
and government agencies to evaluate more than 70,000 buildings nationwide
(FEMA, 2002b). As reported at the FEMA 154 Users Workshop in San
Francisco in September 2000 (see second edition of FEMA 155 report for
additional information), these applications included surveys of the following
buildings: (1) commercial buildings in Beverly Hills, California; (2) National
Park Service facilities; (3) public buildings and designated shelters in
southern Illinois; (4) U. S. Army facilities; (5) facilities of the U. S.
Department of the Interior; and (6) buildings in other local communities and
for other government agencies. The results from some of these efforts are
described below.
In its screening of 11,500 buildings using the FEMA 154 RVS procedure, the
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Civil Engineering Research Laboratory
(CERL) used a cut-off score of 2.5, rather than 2.0 (S. Sweeney, oral
communication, September 2000), with the specific intent of using a more
conservative approach. As a result of the FEMA 154 screening,
approximately 5,000 buildings had final S scores less than 2.5. These
buildings, along with a subset of buildings that had FEMA 154 scores higher
than 2.5, but were of concern for other reasons, were further evaluated in
detail using the FEMA 178 report, NEHRP Handbook for the Seismic
Evaluation of Existing Buildings (FEMA, 1992). Results from the
subsequent FEMA 178 evaluations indicated that some buildings that failed
the FEMA 154 RVS procedure (that is, had scores less than 2.5) passed the

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FEMA 178 evaluations and that some that passed the FEMA 154 RVS
procedure (with scores higher than 2.5) failed the FEMA 178 evaluation (that
is, were found to have inadequate seismic resistance). This finding
emphasizes the concern identified at the beginning of this chapter that the use
of FEMA 154 may not always identify potentially earthquake hazardous
buildings as such, and that buildings identified as potentially hazardous may
prove to be adequate.
Other conclusions and recommendations pertaining to the use of the FEMA
154 RVS procedure that emanated from these early applications included the
following:
Involve design professionals in RVS implementation whenever possible
to ensure that the seismic force-resisting systems are correctly identified
(such identification is particularly difficult in buildings that have been
remodeled and added to over the years);
Conduct intensive training for screeners so that they fully understand
how to implement the methodology, in all of its aspects;
Inspect both the exterior and, if at all possible, the interior of the
building;
Review construction drawings when available as part of the screening
process;
Review soils information prior to implementation of the methodology in
the field; and
Interpret the results from FEMA 154 screenings in a manner consistent
with the level of resources available for the screening (for example, cutoff scores may be dictated by budget constraints).
Most of these recommendations were incorporated into the second edition of
the Handbook. In this Third Edition, the recommendation to involve a
design professional in RVS implementation has been further stressed with
the introduction of the Supervising Engineer. See Chapter 2 for more details.
More recent uses of the RVS procedure include several efforts in Oregon and
Utah.
The state of Oregon has conducted many assessments of the vulnerability of
facilities using the rapid visual screening method based upon the second
edition of FEMA 154. One example is for Clackamas County where all the
schools and emergency facilities were screened, which helped lead to a
statewide assessment (Wang et al., 2004).

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In Oregon, a series of bills were passed in 2005 to assess the states

vulnerability to earthquakes on critical buildings. Of these, the 2005 Senate
Bill 2 directed Oregons Department of Geology and Mineral Industries
(DOGAMI) to create a seismic survey of K-12 public school buildings,
community college buildings with an occupancy of 250 persons or more,
hospitals with acute inpatient care facilities, fire stations, police stations,
sheriffs offices, and other law enforcement agency buildings. DOGAMI
used a modified version of FEMA 154 Second Edition report by developing
an enhanced RVS methodology called the E-RVS methodology. The results
for all screened sites in each county are available at
http://www.oregongeology.org/sub/projects/rvs/county/county-sites.htm.
This E-RVS method has also been integrated into the Oregon Seismic
Rehabilitation Grant Program, which requires that benefit cost analysis
methods incorporate E-RVS (http://www.oregon.gov/OMD/OEM/Pages
/plans_train/SRGP.aspx; and Wang and Goettel (2007)).
The survey was performed on 3,352 pre-1994 unretrofitted buildings by
experienced university engineering and architecture professors from Oregon,
along with selected students. DOGAMI senior staff and project leaders
reviewed and verified the findings to produce the final results. The project
identified over 60% of the buildings screened as having moderate to very
high collapse potential with a score of 2.0 or below. The survey included
buildings of all ages and is considered to be a representative example of the
classes of buildings considered by FEMA 154.
In Utah, given that a significant number of schools pre-dated the 1975 advent
of lateral design in the states adopted code, the Utah Seismic Safety
Commission together with the Structural Engineers Association of Utah
(SEAU) recognized that Utah schools represent an important class of
buildings that deserve special consideration for seismic safety. Beginning in
2008, they supported legislation to perform RVS on schools. In 2010, a pilot
project was undertaken to support HB 279 (Rep. Wiley, L., 2012 Legislative
session) using FEMA P-154 Rapid Observation of Vulnerability and
Estimation of Risk (ROVER) (FEMA, 2014), an electronic version of FEMA
154, by trained structural engineers on a sampling of 128 schools.
The findings, published in the report Utah Students at Risk (Utah Seismic
Safety Commission and Structural Engineers Association of Utah, 2011)
showed that 60% of the sample buildings surveyed were at danger of
collapse during a major earthquake along the Wasatch fault. The project
sampled buildings in all age groups and was distributed proportionally
throughout the state. Additionally, buildings were selected in four major
building categories: elementary, middle, high and charter schools. The report
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was used to support continuing legislative efforts to inventory all Utah

schools.
During the 2013 legislative session, lawmakers approved two measures to
help advance the seismic safety of Utahs school buildings. The School
Building Earthquake Inspection program is a $150,000 one-time budget item
championed by Utahs governor to perform FEMA P-154 Rapid Visual
Screening on all Utah schools. Additionally, House Bill HB278S01 Public
Schools Seismic Studies requires that school districts requesting bond monies
perform FEMA P-154 Rapid Visual Screening or more detailed studies on all
of their buildings constructed before 1975 and provide the results to the Utah
Seismic Safety Commission (USSC). The costs for these studies would be
paid for out of the general obligation bonds. If a district has already
performed a seismic safety evaluation on the affected buildings within the
last 25 years, the district need only submit the information to the USSC.
Both programs anticipate using the FEMA P-154 ROVER tool for data
collection and evaluation purposes.
In 2011, the SEAU received a grant from the FEMA to provide a survey of
2,500 buildings in Salt Lake County. The purpose of the work was to assist
in the development of the states catastrophic earthquake support plan. The
project involved the use of 50 structural engineers over a period of several
months. Buildings for the survey were selected from Salt Lake county
assessor data and were refined to include buildings with brick exterior older
than 1975 and occupancy categories that would reflect the greatest threat to
human life and mutually benefit FEMA and state response and mitigation
planning.
Results from the survey revealed that approximately 72% of the buildings
were deemed to need additional detailed evaluation with scores equal or
below 2.0. FEMAs HAZUS software [whose methodology is documented
in the Multi-hazard Loss Estimation Methodology, HAZUS-MH MR4
Technical Manual (FEMA, 2009a)] was used to assess potential impacts
using the results from the survey and a magnitude 7.0 scenario earthquake
and published online in FEMAs GeoPlatform: http://bit.ly/13Y5w6L. The
1,228 buildings that scored below 1.5 were specifically flagged for Urban
Search and Rescue (USAR) planning. Additionally, it was found that the
actual number of unreinforced masonry buildings was somewhat less than
had been estimated using the 1975 benchmark date and those described as
brick exterior, thereby providing a better estimate of vulnerability.

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5.5

RVS and Seismic Advocacy

5.5.1

Overview

As noted in the foreword to the first edition of FEMA 155, The publication
is one of a series that FEMA is sponsoring to encourage local decision
makers, the design professions, and other interested groups to undertake a
program of mitigating risks that would be posed by existing hazardous
buildings in case of an earthquake.
Perhaps one of the primary reasons for performing rapid visual screening of
buildings is to advocate for greater seismic safety in our communities. An
uninformed public cannot be expected to make decisions about risk without
fully realizing the impact inaction may have on the quality of life following
an earthquake. Recognizing the potential impacts and planning to reduce
them only comes when good information is available and that understanding
starts with rapid visual screening.
Finding support for performing RVS can often be a challenging task.
Identifying vulnerable buildings in communities is sometimes seen as a
liability with the inherent responsibility to fix or eliminate the danger. But
these concerns can often be assuaged by noting that the RVS survey points
toward the need for additional investigation to better determine the
vulnerability of the identified buildings. If public buildings are the focus of
the survey, specific language can often be added to legislation that
effectively limits the liability associated with identifying dangerous buildings
and creates a form of governmental immunity from lawsuits.
If surveys are performed on public buildings, strong consideration should be
given to making the information directly available to the general public.
When doing so, the information should be clearly explained, including the
limitations of the assessment and that it is a first step in identifying
vulnerable buildings.
Rapid visual screening can provide better information when developing
seismic rehabilitation programs that benefit communities in becoming more
resilient to the effects of earthquakes. Surveys will help quantify the
problem and help communities make informed decisions about their risk.
Rehabilitation programs will inevitably require accepting some portion of
risk and knowing the potential extent of damage to buildings through RVS
will provide support for those decisions.
Pilot programs that sample a small percentage of buildings have been
effectively used in Utah to promote the need for an inventory of all Utah

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school buildings. In Oregon, a comprehensive survey has helped guide that

states investment in seismic mitigation of high-risk buildings. In short, RVS
is an effective tool when addressing large portfolio building owners.
5.5.2

Audience Types

Information such as that provided by a rapid visual screening program will

have value to a variety of audience types. It is important to identify the
target audiences when constructing an RVS program so that the results will
meet the desired goals.
Local elected and appointed officials as well as design professionals will
benefit not only from the engineering and technical results, but it may also
bolster their efforts to help shape public policy through designing mitigation
programs and identifying a communitys seismic rehabilitation needs.
Another benefit to this group will be in helping to understand the postearthquake inspection needs in terms of inspectors and the time frame for
recovery.
Emergency management personnel will benefit from the use of more
accurate building inventories incorporated into their regional earthquake
damage and loss estimate projections. Additionally, temporary housing and
medical and emergency response facility needs can be better understood once
the extent of vulnerable buildings and its impact on the region are estimated
and understood.
Building owners, facility managers, financial managers, and risk managers
can use the RVS results to better assess ways to reduce financial exposure
from the effects of earthquakes on their buildings.
Planners and development professionals can benefit from the use of RVS
surveys as they consider land use policies appropriate for existing and new
construction.
Lastly, the public will benefit from inventories identifying the vulnerable
building stocks in their communities. This is one of the most under-utilized
benefits of RVS in that an informed public is perhaps the best advocate for
advancing seismic safety in our communities.
5.5.3

RVS Program Types

As noted in the previous section, there are a number of potential audiences

that will benefit from a rapid visual screening program. Keeping the goal of
the RVS survey in mind will help shape the extent of resources needed.

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The RVS program described in this Handbook assumes a comprehensive

approach to researching and examining the building stock as the primary
goal. There are, however, many pieces of information, which may either not
be available, or provide contradictory data which will establish the level of
credibility of the findings. For instance, the availability of construction
drawings adds significant confidence to the identification of the FEMA
Building Type in the Data Collection Forms. Also, field confirmation of
construction quality can add a valuable component in estimating building
vulnerability during an earthquake.
Given that not all the necessary attributes to a full RVS survey will be
known when the process is started, it may be particularly hard to commit to
the quality of the survey until well into the process. This aspect should be
tracked by the Program Manager and documented in the final
recommendations.
There are, however, steps during the determination of the purpose of the
RVS survey and the desired audiences to address that can help shape the
extent of investigation needed.
For instance, surveys intended to help shape the development of retrofit
ordinances need to be fairly comprehensive since the number of buildings
captured and the economic effects of policies will be a significant factor in
setting the thresholds and priority criteria in legislation.
For loss estimation purposes, rapid visual screening surveys can sample
significant portions of the building stock and extrapolate data to make likely
projections of vulnerability within a community.
Lastly, when beginning to look for specific dangerous building types within a
community, such as unreinforced masonry or nonductile concrete
construction, surveys that capture numbers of instances are often more useful
than specific ratings. Results of these surveys are often used as an indication
that appropriate seismic mitigation action is necessary.
Some programs may wish to conduct screening programs that are as simple
as possible, and may wish to base screening scores solely on the Basic Score
associated with each building being screened, or similarly, the Minimum
Score. This simplified approach is not recommended and is not expected to
provide the RVS Authority with meaningful or accurate data on the seismic
hazard of their building stock.

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5.5.4 Use of RVS Inventories in Advocating Seismic Safety

Developing mitigation programs generally starts with determining the scope

and number of targeted building types. This crucial first step is necessary to
develop interest and support for any necessary action a community may
desire to reduce their risk.
Inventories can often form the backbone of support for legislation such as
improving the performance of public school buildings during earthquakes.
Identifying poor and questionable performers often raises significant support
for greater accountability for seismic safety in public buildings. RVS is a
relatively simple method of identifying the extent of potentially inadequate
seismic performance of a large inventory of buildings.
In particular, an electronic database of building information can help with
advocating for seismic safety by providing visibility. Information collected
during an RVS program can be downloaded into Geographic Information
Systems (GIS) and displayed visually in reports or presentations. Use of a
program, such as FEMA P-154 ROVER, makes this process easier. These
visual depictions are helpful in persuading decision-makers since they put a
face on the problems or issues related to poor buildings in our communities.
Inventories can also be made publically available on the web and searchable
for specific information. These uses generally require full agreement by the
building owners and often are most easily agreed to if they involve public
buildings. An example of this is the Oregon Statewide Seismic Needs
Assessment Using Rapid Visual Screening (RVS) reports, available at
http://www.oregongeology.org/sub/projects/rvs/county/county-sites.htm.
5.5.5

Using RVS Results in Advocating for Seismic Safety

Rapid visual screening can be a valuable tool for supporting efforts to raise
awareness about building vulnerabilities in communities. Information can be
gathered both in advance of seeking support and as the result of wanting to
better assess and plan for the needs for mitigation efforts. The following
examples illustrate these two approaches.
The findings of the 2010 pilot study conducted by USSC and SEAU
surveying school buildings were used in legislative committee hearings to
help substantiate the need for a complete survey. As a result, FEMA
provided a grant to survey 2,500 additional buildings in the county.
In Oregon, the results of the RVS program directed by DOGAMI in 2005
were later used to create a grant program for local communities to strengthen

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the most vulnerable schools and emergency facilities as directed through

Senate Bill 3.
5.5.6

Additional FEMA Tools for Supporting Mitigation Programs

Once an RVS program has helped establish the need for consideration of
seismic vulnerabilities in a community, there are a number of additional tools
available to promote mitigation efforts.
The Seismic Rehabilitation Cost Estimator (SRCE) provides a simple way to
estimate approximate rehabilitation costs by answering a series of questions
about the building(s) being evaluated. This can be valuable in determining
orders of magnitude costs when discussing the implications of a mitigation
program.
When advocating for seismic mitigation programs, actual rehabilitation costs
are often stumbling blocks if perceived as single stage expenses. FEMA has
developed the Incremental Seismic Rehabilitation series of documents to
address alternative ways to integrate seismic improvements over extended
periods of time by integrating seismic work into regular and planned
maintenance and improvement projects.
The SRCE and the Incremental Seismic Rehabilitation series of documents
are both available from FEMAs website (www.fema.gov/earthquake).
When RVS data include information on numbers of occupants and square
footage, FEMAs HAZUS Advanced Engineering Building Module (FEMA,
2003) could further help characterize impacts into estimated casualties, as
well as structural and nonstructural economic losses. This information
greatly helps in translating vulnerability into easily understood potential
impacts and can be used to further prioritize additional evaluation and
mitigation strategies.
A further step could involve use of FEMA P-58, Seismic Performance
Assessment of Buildings, Volume 1 The Methodology (FEMA, 2012d), to
evaluate selected buildings that do not meet the cut-off score to provide
refined estimates of deaths and injuries, repair and replacement costs, repair
time and post-earthquake safety evaluation tagging or placarding status.
Additionally, advocates may consider other resources such as FEMA state
earthquake programs that support funding of RVS surveys to determine
seismic vulnerability.

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5.6

Other Possible Uses of the RVS Procedure

In addition to identifying potentially seismically hazardous buildings needing

further evaluation, results from RVS surveys can also be used for other
purposes, including: (1) designing seismic hazard mitigation programs for a
community (or agency); (2) ranking a communitys (or agencys) seismic
rehabilitation needs; (3) developing inventories of buildings for use in
regional earthquake damage and loss impact assessments; (4) developing
inventories of buildings for use in planning post earthquake building safety
evaluation efforts; (5) monitoring buildings for the occurrence of earthquakes
to improve post-earthquake response (e.g., USGS ShakeCast); and (6)
developing building-specific seismic vulnerability information for purposes
such as insurance rating, decision making during building ownership
transfers, and possible triggering of remodeling requirements during the
permitting process.
Following are descriptions of how RVS results could be used for several of
these purposes.
5.6.1

Using RVS Scores as a Basis for Hazardous Building

Mitigation Programs

Communities need to develop hazard mitigation plans to establish a solid

foundation for the detailed seismic evaluation and rehabilitation of buildings.
In developing any hazardous buildings mitigation program, the cost
effectiveness of the seismic evaluation and rehabilitation work must be
determined. The costs should be evaluated against the direct benefits of the
seismic rehabilitation program (that is, reduced physical damage, reduced
injuries and loss of life). Additionally, secondary benefits to the community
should be considered with the direct benefits. These secondary benefits are
difficult to quantify in dollars, but must be considered. Secondary benefits
are those that apply to the community as a whole. Examples include:
reduced interruption to business and services;
reduced potential for secondary damage (for example, fires) that could
impact otherwise undamaged structures;
reduced potential for traffic flow problems around areas of significant
damage;
increased resiliency and reduced recovery times; and
other reduced economic impacts.

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The process of selecting buildings to be retrofitted begins with the

determination of the cut-off Final Score, S, below which a Detailed Structural
Evaluation is required (e.g., by use of the ASCE/SE1 41-13 procedures).
Such a determination allows estimates to be made on the costs of additional
seismic evaluation and rehabilitation work. From this, the benefits are
determined. The most cost-effective solution will be the one where the least
amount is spent in direct costs to gain the greatest direct and secondary
benefits.
After the RVS Authority establishes the appropriate cut-off score and
completes the screening process, it needs to determine the best way to notify
building owners of the need for more review of buildings that score less than
the cut-off (if the authority is not the owner of the buildings being screened).
At the same time, the community needs to develop the appropriate standards
(for example, adoption of ASCE/SEI 41-13) to accomplish the goal of the
mitigation program. Ultimately, the mitigation program needs to address
those buildings that represent the largest potential threat to life safety and the
community. Timelines for compliance with the new standards and the
mitigation program should be developed on a priority basis, such that the first
priority actions relate to those buildings posing the most significant risk, after
which those posing a lesser risk are addressed.
Finally, every hazardous building mitigation program will be a compromise
of good intentions. The hard decisions regarding whether to mandate
compliance, allow for voluntary compliance, or set community goals for
future compliance may change as the scope of the risk and effects on the
community become apparent.
5.6.2

Using RVS Data in Community Building Inventory

Development

Rapid visual screening data can be used to establish building inventories that
characterize a communitys seismic risk. For example, RVS data could be
used to improve the HAZUS characterization of the local inventory, which
has a default level based on population, economic factors, and regional trends
by importing RVS data for use in the HAZUS Advanced Engineering
Building Module. Similarly, RVS data could be incorporated directly into a
communitys GIS, allowing the community to generate electronic and paper
maps that reflect the building stock of the community. Electronic color
coding of the various types of buildings under the RVS Authority, based on
their ultimate vulnerability, allows the community to see at a glance where
the vulnerable areas of the community are found. This information can then
inform comprehensive pre-earthquake evaluation and mitigation efforts.

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5.6.3

Using RVS Data to Plan Postearthquake Building-SafetyEvaluation

In a postearthquake environment, one of the initial response priorities is to

determine rapidly the safety of buildings for continued occupancy. The
procedure most often used is that represented in the ATC-20-1, Field
Manual: Postearthquake Safety Evaluation of Buildings (ATC, 2005). This
procedure is similar in nature to that of the RVS procedure in that initial
rapid evaluations are performed to find those buildings that are obviously
unsafe (red placard) and those that have no damage or damage that does not
pose a threat to continued occupancy (green placard). All other buildings fall
into a condition where occupancy will need to be restricted in some form
(yellow placard).
The database developed following the completion of the RVS process in a
given community will be valuable in setting the priorities of where safety
evaluation will be performed first, after a damaging earthquake. For
example, a community could use HAZUS software, in combination with
RVS-based inventory information, to determine areas where significant
damage may exist for various earthquake scenarios. Similarly, a building
department, or large building owner could use RVS data with the USGS
ShakeCast software to monitor buildings for the occurrence of earthquakes.
When one occurs and affects the buildings in the inventory, ShakeCast (or
the special ShakeCast ROVER Edition) can estimate likely ATC-20 tag
placard colors, which can help prioritize ATC-20 inspections. Or the
community could use an existing GIS containing RVS inventory data and
computer-generated maps of strong ground shaking, such as the ShakeMaps
developed by the USGS, to estimate the location and distribution of damaged
buildings. With such information, community officials would be able to
determine those areas where building safety evaluations should be
conducted.
Later, the data collected during the postearthquake building safety
evaluations could be added to the RVS authoritys RVS-based building
inventory database. Using GIS, maps can then be prepared showing the
damage distribution within the community based on actual building damage.
5.6.4

Resources Needed for the Various Uses of the RVS

Procedure

For most applications of the RVS procedure, the resources needed to

implement the process are similar, consisting principally of an RVS Program
Manager, a Supervising Engineer, a team of screeners, materials to be taken
into the field (e.g., the Handbook and other items listed in Section 2.10), and

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accumulated building information. See Chapter 2 for descriptions of the

recommended qualifications of the Program Manager, Supervising Engineer,
and the screeners. Most applications are assisted by the development and
maintenance of a computerized database for recordkeeping and the use of
GIS.
A matrix showing recommended resources for various FEMA P-154 RVS
applications is provided in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1

Matrix of Recommended Personnel and Material Resources for Various FEMA P-154 RVS
Applications
RVS Manager
and
Supervising
Engineer

Application

5-16

Trained
Screeners

Screening
Equipment
and
Supplies

Accumulated
Building
Information

Computerized
Record
Keeping
System

GIS

Ranking seismic rehabilitation

needs

Designing seismic hazard

mitigation programs

Developing inventories for

regional earthquake damage and
loss studies

Planning postearthquake building

safety evaluation efforts

Developing building specific

vulnerability information

5: Using the RVS Procedure Results

FEMA P-154

Chapter 6

Optional Electronic Scoring

6.1

Introduction

The RVS procedure described in Chapter 3 uses a coarse gradation of the

seismicity by dividing the country into regions of Low, Moderate,
Moderately High, High, and Very High seismicity. In some areas, these
coarse gradations may overestimate or underestimate the seismic hazard,
which in turn affects the building score. This chapter presents an optional
methodology that provides an approach to more accurately assess the
seismicity for a site. Electronic scoring methodologies that use smartphones
or other electronic devices in the field can also reduce the effort and the error
in transferring data from paper forms to a database, as this information can
be directly transferred from the device. The Supervising Engineer should
consider whether the benefits of implementing an electronic scoring
methodology outweigh the cost of resources needed to develop the
methodology.
One existing tool for electronic scoring is the FEMA P-154 Rapid
Observation of Vulnerability and Estimation of Risk (ROVER) software, as
discussed in Section 1.8.
6.2

Changes from and Comparisons with the Paper

Forms

The major difference in the scores between the paper form and an electronic
scoring approach will depend primarily on the difference in seismic hazard at
a specific site and the median response values that were used to generate the
Basic Scores and Score Modifiers on the paper forms. In some geographic
areas, the use of electronic scoring may result in an increase in the building
score compared to the values provided on the paper RVS forms for the
applicable region of seismicity; in many areas, however, the building score
will go down. The use of electronic scoring can make the difference between
a building having a Final Score below or above the cut-off score. Example
comparisons are provided in Section 6.5.
6.3

Concepts in Electronic Scoring

Chapter 2 defines five seismicity regions: Low, Moderate, Moderately High,

High, and Very High. The Basic Scores provided on the forms are based on
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the median response value of seismicity for each of these five regions. Many
sites will have a seismic hazard that is different than one of the median
values. For these sites, the difference between the median seismic hazard
and the site-specific seismic hazard will probably affect the score for a given
building. A building that passes the rapid visual screening under the
assumption of the median shaking for the region might not pass when
accounting for local seismicity (an overlooked life-safety problem). Or the
reverse might be true: the building does not pass the RVS methodology, but
it would, if the site-specific hazard was used (an efficiency problem, because
now a Detailed Structural Evaluation is required).
The purpose of the electronic scoring methodology is to use site-specific
seismic hazard data to produce a refined Basic Score. There are many
sources of data available that can be used to develop site-specific information
for providing a better estimate of the seismic hazards for a given building, as
described in the following sections. The geographically referenced data are
generally publically available. A sites geolocation can be estimated as
precisely as ten feet with commonly available Global Positioning System
(GPS) technology. Site-specific seismic hazards can be accurate within
perhaps a few hundred feet, using publically available data from the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS), whereas the location upon which the median
hazard is based may be dozens or more miles away. The available sitespecific hazard precision is generally not necessary as part of a rapid visual
screening, but given the ease with which site-specific soil and hazard can be
estimated with an electronic system, it seems unnecessary to add location
error to other uncertainties in the scoring system.
Optional electronic scoring is not intended as a substitute for more detailed
building evaluations. Electronic scoring is still considered part of a rapid
visual screening methodology. As such, the precision of the results should
be considered to be only moderately more accurate than scores obtained
using the paper-based forms described in Chapter 3. Where large differences
occur, it is typically when a site is near the transition from one seismicity
region to another and thus the assumption of the median seismicity for the
region is less accurate.
Electronic scoring can be implemented using various available technologies
and can be utilized as part of pre-field activities, during the field screening,
or as part of the post-field activities. Some approaches to implementation are
described below in Section 6.4.

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6.3.1

Site-Specific Seismicity

As described in Chapter 2, the seismic hazard for the RVS procedure

corresponds to the risk-targeted Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCER)
adjusted to account for site amplification at the boundary of VS30 between
NEHRP site classes C and D. Site-specific values of seismic hazard can be
obtained based on the location of the site using either the longitude and
latitude or the address using tools available from the USGS, e.g.,
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/designmaps/usapp/.
6.3.2

Soil Type Effects

Soil conditions at a site will affect the seismic shaking at a site. There are
various sources of data for determining the soil type at a site, including
geotechnical engineering reports. As discussed in Chapter 2, VS30 values can
also be used to determine soil type. These values can be obtained from the
U.S. Geological Survey web site or by using a site data viewer application
distributed by OpenSHA at http://www.opensha.org/apps.
6.4

How to Implement the Optional Electronic Scoring

Approach

Electronic scoring can be implemented in a variety of approaches as part of a

rapid visual screening program. The method chosen will depend on the
availability of labor and technology resources. Any electronic scoring
approach should be implemented with the goal of increasing the efficiency of
the data collection and improving the accuracy of the results. The
approaches can vary from development of tables that can be used before,
during, or after the field screening to specialized hardware and software.
This document is not intended to provide a detailed description of any
specific method for implementing electronic scoring. Instead, general
approaches are described and a basic methodology is presented.
A pre-field approach to implementing electronic scoring could involve the
development of tables relating the building Basic Scores to seismicity for a
given region. The tables would be based on the seismicity of the region
included in the RVS program and the range of soil conditions that would be
expected. The tables would provide the Basic Scores and Score Modifiers
for the site-specific seismicity. Maps or other aids would need to be
developed to guide the screeners to use the appropriate Basic Score values
from the tables for each building. The Basic Scores and Score Modifiers
from the tables would then be used in lieu of the Basic Scores and Score
Modifiers on the RVS forms, and the calculation of the Final Score would be
made using the same mathematics as in the RVS forms. The calculation

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could be done manually or with the aid of some form of technology, such as
a smartphone, tablet, or laptop computer.
A post-field approach to implementing electronic scoring could involve the
use of a database or spreadsheet when compiling the RVS screening results.
With this approach, the RVS forms would be filled out in the field using the
standard paper forms and then the results would be compiled electronically
after the field screening. The database, spreadsheet, or other electronic data
file in which the data are compiled could be programmed to determine the
site-specific seismicity and soil class for the building based on the longitude
and latitude. The Basic Score and Score Modifiers determined using the
paper form during the field screening could then be updated using the
electronically-calculated score or other means and then the Final Score
would be re-calculated.
The implementation of electronic scoring could also be accomplished using a
methodology that determines the seismic hazard and soil class while at the
site and then calculates a Basic Score, Score Modifiers, and Final Score
while at the building. This approach requires the use of an electronic device
that has been programmed to perform the necessary calculations and
determine the site location using a GPS device or a service that geolocates
the building based on its street address. An example of such an approach is
FEMA P-154 ROVER (FEMA, 2014). Alternative hardware and software
can also be developed to provide similar functionality as needed. As a
minimum, the hardware and software needs to be able to locate the site,
determine the seismic hazard and soil type based on the sites location, adjust
the Basic Score and Score Modifiers for the building based on the sitespecific hazards and building height, and sum the applicable Score Modifiers
to the Basic Score to produce a Final Score.
6.4.1

General Electronic Scoring Approach

Any approach chosen for electronic scoring should follow the general steps
described below.
1. Determine the site-specific risk-targeted Maximum Considered
Earthquake (MCER) ground motion response acceleration values for Ss
(5%-damped, spectral response acceleration parameter at short period)
and S1 (5%-damped spectral response acceleration parameter at a period
of 1 second).
2. Use Table 6-1 and Table 6-2 to calculate the site coefficients, Fa and Fv,
for the short-period acceleration and the 1-second period acceleration on
Soil Type CD.

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Table 6-1

Site Coefficient Fa
Mapped Spectral Response Acceleration at Short Period

Soil Type

SS 0.25

SS = 0.5

SS = 0.75

SS = 1.0

SS 1.25

1.2

1.2

1.1

1.0

1.0

CD

1.4

1.3

1.15

1.05

1.0

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.1

1.0

Table 6-2

Site Coefficient Fv
Mapped Spectral Response Acceleration at One-Second Period

Soil Type

S1 0.1

S1 = 0.2

S1 = 0.3

S1 = 0.4

S1 0.5

1.7

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

CD

2.05

1.8

1.65

1.5

1.4

2.4

2.0

1.8

1.6

1.5

3. Calculate the MCER, 5%-damped spectral response acceleration

parameter at short periods adjusted for Soil Type CD, SMS, and the
MCER, 5%-damped spectral response acceleration parameter at a period
of 1 second adjusted for Soil Type CD, SM1, using the following
equations.
(6-1)
SMS = Fa Ss
SM1 = Fv S1

(6-2)

4. During the field screening, determine if the building is a low-rise (1 to 3

stories), mid-rise (4 to 7 stories), or high-rise (more than 7 stories).
5. Determine Basic Score and Score Modifiers by interpolating (or
extrapolating) values of SMS and SM1. Spreadsheet programs and other
software can perform the interpolation or extrapolation automatically;
see Chapter 9 of FEMA P-155 (FEMA, 2015) for a more detailed
discussion.
6. Add the Basic Score determined from Step 5 and the applicable Score
Modifiers, including the Soil Type Score Modifiers, obtained during the
field screening to calculate the Final Score for the building.
It should be noted that the procedure described above provides a score for the
building that includes the Basic Score and the effects of the site-specific soil
type.

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6.4.2

Refined Electronic Scoring Approach for Soil Types C

and D

The foregoing approach is reasonable for all site conditions, but if the user
desires additional accuracy for sites whose Soil Type is in the higher half of
the range of VS30 for Soil Type C (1850 ft/sec VS30 < 2500 ft/sec) or in the
lower half of the range of VS30 for Soil Type D (600 ft/sec VS30 < 900
ft/sec), an alternative approach is offered here.
1. Determine the site-specific risk-targeted Maximum Considered
Earthquake (MCER) ground motion response acceleration values for Ss
(5%-damped, spectral response acceleration parameter at short period)
and S1 (5%-damped spectral response acceleration parameter at a period
of 1 second).
2. Use Tables 6-1 and 6-2 to calculate the site coefficients, Fa and Fv, for
the short-period acceleration and the one-second period acceleration on
Soil Type CD, and for the sites Soil Type, denoted here by Fa* and Fv*.
3. Calculate the MCER, 5%-damped spectral response acceleration
parameter at short periods adjusted for Soil Type CD, SMS, and the
MCER, 5%-damped spectral response acceleration parameter at a period
of 1 second adjusted for Soil Type CD, SM1, using Equations 6-1 and 6-2.
4. Calculate the MCER, 5%-damped spectral response acceleration
parameter at short periods adjusted for sites Soil Type, SMS*, and the
MCER, 5%-damped spectral response acceleration parameter at a period
of 1 second adjusted for the sites Soil Type, SM1*, using the following
equations.
(6-3)
SMS* = Fa* SS
SM1* = Fv* S1

(6-4)

5. During the field screening, determine if the building is a low-rise (1 to 3

stories), mid-rise (4 to 7 stories), or high-rise (more than 7 stories).
6. For low-rise buildings, determine the Basic Score and Score Modifiers
using the value of SMS* from Equation 6-3 and an interpolation function
of Basic Score and Score Modifiers versus SMS. For mid-rise and highrise buildings, determine the Basic Score and Score Modifiers for the
building using the value of SM1* from Equation 6-4 and a look-up table or
interpolation function of Basic Score and Score Modifiers versus SM1.
7. Add the Basic Score determined from Step 6 and the applicable Score
Modifiers obtained during the field screening to calculate the Final Score
for the building. Because this refined approach is only for sites with VS30

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in the ranges 1850 ft/sec VS30 < 2500 ft/sec (higher-VS30 Soil Type C) or
600 ft/sec VS30 < 900 ft/sec (lower-VS30 Soil Type D), do not apply a
Score Modifier for Soil Type.
6.5

Comparisons between Electronic Scoring and PaperBased Scoring

The use of electronic scoring is expected often to result in higher Final

Scores for buildings because of the use of site-specific seismic hazard data.
In some cases the use of electronic scoring will result in lower Final Scores,
and in some cases the electronic scoring will result in approximately the
same Final Score. To demonstrate the possible benefit of using electronic
scoring, RVS Final Scores have been calculated for example buildings using
both paper forms and the electronic scoring methodology as described above
(Table 6-3). The buildings are located at the location of the city hall in
selected cities, representing a variety of seismic hazard locations. The
examples have assumed that there are no Score Modifiers, such as
irregularities, that apply. Each of the example buildings is considered to be
low-rise.
Table 6-3

Comparison of Final Scores using Electronic and Paper-Based

Scoring for Soil Type CD

Building
Type

Seismicity

Location

Paper-Based
Final Score

Electronic
Final Score

S1

Moderately High

Sacramento, CA

2.3

2.4

S1

High

Memphis, TN

2.3

2.2

S2

Low

Boston, MA

3.9

3.8

S2

Very High

Emeryville, CA

1.4

1.6

C3

High

Memphis, TN

1.4

1.3

C3

Low

Boston, MA

3.5

3.4

RM1

Very High

Emeryville, CA

1.1

1.3

RM1

Moderate

New York, NY

2.1

2.3

URM

Moderate

New York, NY

1.7

2.0

URM

Moderately High

Sacramento, CA

1.2

1.3

Table 6-3 compares the Final Scores computed using both the forms and the
electronic scoring methodology for five different building types located in
six different cities with Soil Type CD, representing ten different city/building
type combinations. The results show that for six of the ten city/building type
combinations, the Final Scores increased; for four of the city/building type
combinations the scores decreased, and none stayed the same. The
differences are due to the difference between the actual seismicity at the
cities and the median seismicity for which the Basic Scores were derived and
the effects of site conditions.
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The results of these examples should not be generalized to all locations.

Differences in scores using electronic scoring as compared to the paperbased scoring are dependent on the site-specific seismic hazard values. Prior
to implementing electronic scoring, the development of the methodology
used should be overseen by the Supervising Engineer. The Supervising
Engineer should verify that differences between the paper-based scoring and
the electronic scoring are appropriate and rational.

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Chapter 7

7.1

Example Rapid Visual

Screening Programs

Introduction

Presented in this chapter are two illustrative examples of rapid visual

screening programs. In the first scenario, Level 1 screenings are performed
in the hypothetical community of Anyplace, USA. In the second scenario,
Level 1 and Level 2 screenings are performed on K-12 school buildings in
the hypothetical state of Any State, USA. The RVS implementation process
(as depicted in Figure 2-1) is described, from development of program scope
to selection of the appropriate Data Collection Form, to the screening of
individual buildings in the field.
7.2

RVS Program Scenario A: Level 1 Screening in

Anyplace, USA

The city council of Anyplace, USA tasked the local building department with
conducting an RVS program to identify all buildings in the city, excluding
detached single-family and two-family dwellings, that are potentially
seismically hazardous and that should be further evaluated by a design
professional experienced in seismic design (the principal purpose of the RVS
procedure). It was understood that, depending on the results of the RVS
program, the city council might adopt future ordinances that establish policy
on when, how, and by whom low-scoring buildings should be evaluated and
on future seismic rehabilitation requirements. It was desired that the results
from the RVS program be incorporated in the citys geographic information
system (GIS).
In this scenario, the city council was the RVS Authority. The head of the
local building department acted as the Program Manager. An experienced
structural engineer from a local firm was selected to serve as the Supervising
Engineer. The city council was able to provide a budget of $120,000 for the
program.
7.2.1

Step 1: Defining the Scope of the Program

The Program Manager determined there are approximately 1,000 buildings in

the city that are not detached single-family or two-family dwellings and that

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some of the buildings are at least 100 years old. In order to perform
screenings of all 1,000 buildings as quickly as possible, and within the given
budget, Level 2 screenings were not performed as part of this program. The
Program Manager also decided to focus on the downtown sector of Anyplace
during the initial phase of the RVS field work, and to expand to the outlying
areas later.
The Program Manager tasked the Supervising Engineer with selecting and
reviewing the Data Collection Form, determining the code and benchmark
years for the city, and performing quality assurance of the completed forms.
The Supervising Engineer was tasked with attending the training and being
available during the field screening to advise the screeners.
Three building department staff members, as well as 15 architectural and
engineering undergraduates from the local university, received FEMA P-154
training and then served as screeners.
The Program Manager explored possible sources of information about the
citys buildings and decided to commit resources to extracting data from the
citys existing GIS database, permitting files, Sanborn maps, and any
available construction drawings. The information gathered from these
sources during pre-field data acquisition reduced the amount of field time
required and increased the accuracy of the screenings.
An electronic database was created for the RVS program. Pre-field data were
entered into the RVS database and then extracted and placed on Data
Collection Forms to be used by the screeners in the field. After the field
screening, the data collected in the field were entered back into the RVS
database. A building department staff member was tasked with creating the
database and automating the transfer of the pre-field data onto the Data
Collection Forms to be printed and used in the field.
Electronic scoring was not used.
7.2.2

Step 2: Budget and Cost Estimation

Costs to conduct the RVS program were estimated per Table 7-1. The entire
process was scheduled to take 6 months.
7.2.3

Step 3: Pre-Field Planning

During the pre-field planning process, the Program Manager confirmed that
the citys existing GIS was capable of being expanded to include RVSrelated information and results. A member of the building departments staff
extracted street addresses and parcel numbers for most of the properties in

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Table 7-1

RVS Budget for Anyplace, USA

Hours

Task

Task Description

Program
Manager
$120/hr

Select and review Data Collection Form; establish code

and benchmark years

Structural
Engineer
$150/hr

Cost
Staff
$60/hr

Task
Cost

40

$6,000

Create RVS database from GIS database; overlay soils and

extract soil type for each building

40

$2,400

Review and extract building Information from permitting

files (500 buildings x 30 minutes/building)

250

$15,000

Review and extract building information from Sanborn

maps (200 buildings x 45 minutes/building)

150

$9,000

Review and extract Building Information from

construction documents (100 buildings x 30
minutes/building)

50

$3,000

Create individual Data Collection Forms from the

database

40

$2,400

Training (Program Manager, Supervising Engineer, 3

Building Dept. Staff, and 15 student volunteers attend 8
hour training)

24

120

$3,600

Field Screening (Total of Days 1-8 below)

16

40

160

880

$17,520

Day 1: 5 groups x 6 buildings/group (Project Manager +

Struc. Eng. + 3 staff each with 3 student volunteers)

24

120

Day 2: 5 groups x 6 buildings/group (Project Manager +

Struc. Eng. + 3 staff each with 3 student volunteers)

24

120

Day 3: 18 screeners x 10 buildings/screener =

180 buildings (3 staff + 15 student volunteers)

24

120

Day 4: 18 screeners x 10 buildings/screener =

180 buildings (3 staff + 15 student volunteers)

24

120

Day 5: 18 screeners x 10 buildings/screener =

180 buildings (3 staff + 15 student volunteers)

24

120

Day 6: 18 screeners x 10 buildings/screener =

180 buildings (3 staff + 15 student volunteers)

24

120

Day 7: 11 screeners x 10 buildings/screener =

110 buildings (1 staff + 10 student volunteers)

80

Day 8: 11 screeners x 10 buildings/screener =

110 buildings (1 staff + 10 student volunteers)

80

Quality assurance on completed forms (250 buildings x

15 minutes/building); quality assurance on compiled data
Enter field data into database + verification (1,000
buildings x 12 minutes/building [2 people, 6 minutes
each]); photograph and sketch management (1,000
buildings x 12 minutes/building [once only])

20

100

$17,400
400

Subtotal Cost

$24,000

$100,320

Program Management (10% of subtotal)

Total Cost
1

Screeners
(no cost1)

$10,032
$110,352

Volunteer student screeners are assumed. Alternatively, if screeners are paid at a rate of $60/hr, the total program cost
increases to $176,352.

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the city (developed earlier from the tax assessors files) from the existing
GIS and imported them into a standard off-the-shelf electronic database as a
table. See Figure 7-1 for a screen capture of GIS display showing parcel
number and other available information for an example site.

Figure 7-1

Property information at example site in citys geographic

information system (FEMA, 2002a).

To facilitate later use in the GIS, the street addresses were subdivided into
the following fields: the numeric part of the address; the street prefix (for
example, North); the street name; and the street suffix (for example,
Drive). A zip code field was added, zip codes for each street address were
obtained using zip code lists available from the U.S. Postal Service, and these
data were also added to the database. This process yielded 950 street
addresses, with parcel number and zip code, and established the initial
information in Anyplaces electronic Building RVS Database. Additional
fields were added to this new database for RVS-related information such as
date of construction, number of stories, soil type, FEMA Building Type, and
RVS score.
Next, the Supervising Engineer confirmed that sufficient soil information
was available from the State Geologist to develop an overlay for the GIS
containing soils information for the entire city. The Supervising Engineer
concluded that GIS overlays for geologic hazards were not warranted since
the city included only isolated pockets of low liquefaction potential, and no
areas with landslide or fault rupture potential.

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7.2.4

Step 4: Selection and Review of the Data Collection Form

Based on the seismicity maps in Appendix A, Anyplace, USA is located in a

High seismicity region. The Supervising Engineer elected to also check the
seismicity of the city using Method 2, as described in Section 2.6.1. The
longitude and latitude corresponding to the approximate center of the city
were entered into the USGS website (http://earthquake.usgs.gov
/designmaps/us/application.php). The design code was set to 2013 ASCE
41, the earthquake hazard level was set to BSE-2N, and the site soil
classification was set to Site Class B - Rock. Spectral acceleration values
for 0.2 second, SS, and 1.0 second, S1, for BSE-2N (or MCER) ground
motions were reported as 1.372g and 0.497g, respectively. Figure 7-2 shows
the USGS generated summary report for the site.

Figure 7-2

USGS web page showing SS and S1 values for MCER ground motions
(USGS, 2013a).

These values were compared to the criteria in Table 2-2. It was determined
that the ground motions at the city center meet the High seismicity criteria
for both short-period and long-period motions (that is, 1.372g is greater than
1.000g and less than 1.500g for the 0.2 second [short-period] motions, and
0.497g is greater than 0.400g and less than 0.600g for the 1.0 second [long-

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period] motions). Further, by reviewing ground motions at other locations

across the city, the Supervising Engineer determined that that the entire city
is a High seismicity region and that all buildings being surveyed in
Anyplaces RVS program should use the Level 1 Data Collection Form for
High seismicity.
The Program Manager and the Supervising Engineer downloaded the
editable versions of the forms from www.atcouncil.org and then reviewed
them to determine if any changes to the form should be made for the unique
needs of the program. Since each building in the city was to be identified by
Parcel Number, they revised the Other Identifiers field to Parcel
Number. Since no geologic hazards are present in the city, they decided to
replace the list of geologic hazards and Yes/No/DNK fields with None.
They determined that the occupancy categories on the form were useful for
their purposes and decided not to change them. The values of the Basic
Scores and Score Modifiers were not changed. The customized Level 1 Data
Collection Form for Anyplace, USA is shown in Figure 7-3.
The Supervising Engineer conferred with the Chief Building Official, the
departments plan checkers, and local design professionals to establish key
seismic code adoption dates for the various FEMA Building Types and for
anchorage of heavy cladding. It was determined that Anyplace has a history
of both adopting and enforcing the latest versions of the UBC. The code year
was therefore set as 1941 for all FEMA Building Types except PC1, for
which the code year was set as 1973, and URM, for which seismic codes
were never adopted (after 1933, URMs were no longer permitted to be built).
Because Anyplace has been consistently adopting the Uniform Building
Code, benchmark years for all FEMA Building Types, except URM, were
taken from the UBC column in Table 2-3. The year in which seismic
anchorage requirements for heavy cladding were adopted was determined to
be 1967. These findings are presented in Table 7-2.
The Program Manager and the Supervising Engineer decided that 2.0 would
be an appropriate cut-off score.
7.2.5

Step 5: Acquisition and Review of Pre-Field Data

Permitting files, which contained data on buildings constructed or remodeled

within the last 30 years (including parcel number), were reviewed to obtain
information on building name (if available), use, building height (height in
feet and number of stories), total floor area, age (year built), and structural
system. This process yielded information (from paper file folders) on
approximately 500 buildings. Fields were added to Anyplaces Building

7-6

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

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Figure 7-3
FEMA P-154

Customized Level 1 Data Collection Form for Anyplace, USA.

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-7

Table 7-2

Customized Quick Reference Guide for Anyplace, USA

FEMA Building Type

Year Seismic
Codes Initially
Adopted and
Enforced

Benchmark Year
when Codes
Improved

W1

Light wood frame single- or multiple-family dwellings

1941

1976

W1A

Light wood frame multi-unit, multi-story residential buildings

with plan areas on each floor of greater than 3,000 sqft

1941

1997

W2

Wood frame commercial and industrial buildings > 5,000 sqft

1941

1976

S1

Steel moment-resisting frame

1941

1994

S2

Braced steel frame

1941

1997

S3

Light metal frame

1941

None

S4

Steel frame with cast-in-place concrete shear walls

1941

1994

S5

Steel frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls

1941

None

C1

Concrete moment-resisting frame

1941

1994

C2

Concrete shear wall

1941

1994

C3

Concrete frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls

1941

None

PC1

Tilt-up construction

1973

1997

PC2

Precast concrete frame

1941

None

RM1

Reinforced masonry with flexible floor and roof diaphragms

1941

1997

RM2

Reinforced masonry with rigid floor and roof diaphragms

1941

1994

URM

Unreinforced masonry bearing-wall buildings

None

None

MH

Manufactured housing

1941

None

Anchorage of Heavy Cladding

Year in which seismic anchorage requirements were adopted:

1967

RVS Database for each of these attributes, and data were added to the
appropriate records (based on parcel number) in the database; in the case of
structure type, the entry included an asterisk to denote uncertainty. If an
address was missing in the database, a new record containing that address
and related data was added. On average, 30 minutes per building were
required to extract the correct information from the permitting files and insert
it into the electronic database.
The citys librarian provided copies of available Sanborn maps, which were
reviewed to identify information on number of stories, year built, building
size (square footage), building use, and limited information on structural type
for approximately 200 buildings built prior to 1960. These data were added
to the appropriate record (based on address) in the Building RVS Database;
in the case of structure type, the entry included an asterisk to denote
uncertainty. If an address was missing in the database, a new record
containing that address and related data was added. For this effort, 45
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minutes per building, on average, were required to extract the correct

information from the Sanborn maps and insert it into the electronic database.
During the pre-field data collection and review process, the Program
Manager also obtained an electronic file of soils data (characterized in terms
of the soil types described in Section 2.8.6) from the State Geologist and
created an overlay of this information in the citys GIS system. Points
defined by the addresses in the GIS reference tables (including newly
identified addresses added to the references tables as a result of the abovecited efforts) were combined with the soils type overlay, and soil type was
then assigned to each point (address) by a standard GIS operating procedure.
The soil type information for each address was then transferred back to the
database table as a new field for each buildings soil type.
Based on the above efforts, Anyplaces Building RVS Database was
expanded to include approximately 1,000 records with address, parcel
number, zip code, and soils information, and approximately 700 of these
records also contained information on building name (if any), use, number of
stories, total floor area, year built, and structure type.
7.2.6

Step 6: Review of Construction Documents

Fortuitously, the city had retained many of the microfilm or pdf copies of
building construction documents submitted with each permit filing during the
last 30 years. Copies of these construction documents were available for 100
buildings. Building department plans examiners reviewed these documents
to verify, or identify, the FEMA Building Type for each building. Any new
or revised information on structure type derived as part of this process was
then inserted in the Building RVS Database, in which case previously
existing information in this field, along with the associated asterisk denoting
uncertainty, was removed. On average, this effort required approximately 30
minutes per plan set, including database corrections.
7.2.7

Step 7: Training for Screeners

The screeners for the RVS program included staff from the building
department and architectural and engineering students from the local
university. All of these screeners underwent training obtained through
FEMAs National Earthquake Technical Assistance Program (NETAP). The
Program Manager and the Supervising Engineer attended the training as well.
The training was conducted in a classroom setting and consisted of the
following: (1) discussions of FEMA Building Types and how they behave
when subjected to seismic loads; (2) how to use the Level 1 Data Collection

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Form and the Reference Guides; (3) a review of the Basic Scores and Score
Modifiers; (4) how to identify building irregularities; (5) what to look for in
the field; (6) how to account for uncertainty; and (7) an exercise in which
screeners were shown interior and exterior photographs of buildings and
asked to identify the FEMA Building Type and vertical and plan
irregularities. The training class also included focused group interaction
sessions, principally in relation to the identification of structural systems and
irregularities using exterior and interior photographs. Screeners were also
instructed on items to take into the field.
7.2.8

Step 8: Field Screening of Buildings

Prior to field screening, a staff member at the building department created an

individual Data Collection Form for each record in the Building RVS
Database. All 1,000 Data Collection Forms had street address, parcel
number, zip code, and soil type information. Approximately 700 of the
1,000 forms had additional, but not necessarily verified, information, such as
date of construction and number of stories (see Figure 7-4).

Figure 7-4

Partially completed Building Identification portion of the Data

Collection Form for a sample site for use by the screener.

In those instances where the FEMA Building Type was included in the
database, this information was noted next to the parcel number, with an
asterisk if still uncertain.
Where drawings were reviewed, the drawings reviewed Yes box was
checked. Soil Type and Geologic Hazards sources were noted as State
Geologist.

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Field screening of all 1,000 buildings was scheduled to occur over the course
of eight (nonconsecutive) days. For the first two days, fifteen student
volunteer screeners worked in five teams, each led by the Program Manager,
the Supervising Engineer, or one of the three building department staff
members. Each of these five team leaders was experienced in identifying the
FEMA Building Type and was able to provide oversight and additional
training of the student volunteers during these first days. For the following
six days, the screeners worked individually. The Supervising Engineer
remained available throughout the field screening to advise and consult.
The Data Collection Forms, including blank forms for use with buildings not
yet in the Building RVS Database, were distributed to the RVS screeners
along with their RVS assignments (on a block-by-block basis). Screeners
were advised that the information printed on the form from the database
should be verified in the field, particularly items denoted with an asterisk.
Prior to field work, each screener was reminded to complete the Data
Collection Form at each site before moving on to the next site, including
adding his or her name as the screener and the screening date (in the building
identification section of the form).
Following are several examples illustrating rapid visual screening in the field
and completion of the Data Collection Form. Some examples use forms
containing relatively complete building identification information, including
FEMA Building Type, obtained during the pre-field data acquisition and
review process; others use forms containing less complete building
identification information; and still others use blank forms completely filled
in at the site.
7.2.8.1

Example 1: 3703 Roxbury Street

Upon arriving at the site, the screener observed the building as a whole
(Figure 7-5) and began the process of verifying the information in the
building identification portion of the form (upper right corner), starting with
the street address. The screener added her name and the date and time of the
field screening to the building identification portion of the form.
The FEMA Building Type (S2, steel braced frame) was verified by looking
at the building with binoculars (see Figure 7-6). The number of stories (10)
was confirmed by inspection, and the year built noted on the form (1986)
appeared appropriate. The base dimensions of the building were estimated
by pacing off the distance along each face, assuming 3 feet per stride,
resulting in the determination that it was 75 feet by 100 feet in plan. On this

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basis, the listed square footage of 76,000 square feet was verified as correct.
No additions to the building were observed.

7-12

Figure 7-5

Exterior view of 3703 Roxbury Street.

Figure 7-6

Close-up view of 3703 Roxbury Street exterior showing

perimeter braced steel framing.

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Sketches of the plan and elevation views of the building were drawn in the
Sketch portion of the form. Several digital photographs were taken of the
building, to be added to the form later.
The building use (office) was circled in the Occupancy portion of the form.
No adjacent buildings were observed.
The next step for the screener was to identify any vertical or plan
irregularities. The screener consulted the Vertical and Plan Irregularity
Reference Guides and found that none of the listed irregularities applied to
the building being screened.
No falling hazards were observed, as glass cladding is not considered as
heavy cladding.
The next step in the process was to circle the appropriate Basic Score and the
appropriate Score Modifiers. Having verified the FEMA Building Type as
S2, the screener circled S2 on the form along with the Basic Score beneath
it. No irregularities were observed, so none of the irregularity modifiers was
circled. The screener checked the Quick Reference Guide and found that the
building did not qualify for the Post-Benchmark modifier. Since the building
is on Soil Type D, no soil modifiers were applied. The Final Level 1 Score,
SL1, was determined to be 2.0.
The screener completed the Extent of Review portion of the form, indicating
that she viewed the exterior of the building from all sides, but was not able to
enter the building to inspect the interior. The soil type source and geologic
hazards source were entered during the pre-field phase.
The screener noted that no Level 2 screening was performed. She then
reviewed the Other Hazards portion of the form and did not identify any
other hazards that might trigger a detailed evaluation. Because this score was
equal to the cut-off score of 2.0, the screener checked the Yes box in the
Detailed Structural Evaluation Required field and No in the Detailed
Nonstructural Evaluation Required field as no nonstructural hazards were
identified.
Figure 7-7 shows the completed form for 3703 Roxbury, including the
photograph that was added digitally at a later date.
7.2.8.2

Example 2: 3711 Roxbury Street

Upon arrival at the site, the screener observed the building as a whole (Figure
7-8). Unlike Example 1, there was little information in the building

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Figure 7-7
7-14

Completed Data Collection Form for Example 1, 3703 Roxbury Street.

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-8

Exterior view of 3711 Roxbury Street.

identification portion of the form (only street address, zip code, parcel
number and soil type were provided). The screener determined the number
of stories to be 12and the building use to be commercial and office. He
paced off the building plan dimensions and estimated the plan size as 58 feet
by 50 feet. Based on this information, the total square footage was estimated
to be 34,800 square feet (12 stories by 50 feet by 58 feet), and the number of
stories, use, and square footage were written on the form. Based on a review
of information in Appendix D of this Handbook, the construction era was
estimated to be in the 1940s. The screener wrote in the year of construction
as 1945 and checked the EST box to note that the date was estimated. The
screener circled both Office and Commercial to indicate the observed
occupancies.
The screener noted that an adjacent 11-story building was separated from the
building being screened by only 12 inches. The screener determined the
minimum separation gap for pounding per the Level 1 Pounding Guide (1 1/2
inches per story for 11 stories equals 16.5 inches) and found that the actual
separation was less than the minimum. In addition, the building being

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screened was at the end of the block. Based on these two conditions, the
screener checked the Pounding box in the Adjacency section of the form.
The screener consulted the Vertical and Plan Irregularity Reference Guides
and determined that the four individual towers extending above the base
represented an out-of-plane offset. The screener noted this severe vertical
irregularity,
Sketches of the plan and elevation views of the building were drawn in the
Sketch portion of the form. The cornices at roof level were observed, and
entered on the form.
Noting that it was a 12-story building, a review of the material in Table D-6
(Appendix D), indicated that the likely options for FEMA Building Type
were S1, S2, S5, C1, C2, or C3. On more careful examination of the building
exterior with the use of binoculars (see Figure 7-9), it was determined the
building was Type C3, concrete frame with unreinforced masonry infill, and
this alpha-numeric code, and accompanying Basic Score, were circled on the
Data Collection Form.

Figure 7-9

Close-up view of 3711 Roxbury Street building showing exterior

infill frame construction.

Because the four individual towers extending above the base represented a
vertical irregularity, this modifier was circled. The screener checked the
Quick Reference Guide and compared the estimated date of construction to
the pre-code year for FEMA Building Type C3. Since 1945 was after the
pre-code year of 1941, the screener did not circle the pre-code modifier.

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Noting that the soil is Type E, as determined during the pre-field data
acquisition phase, and that the number of stories was 12, the modifier for Soil
Type E (> 3 stories) was circled. The total of the Basic Score plus applicable
Score Modifiers was 1.2 - 0.7 - 0.3 = 0.2. Noting that this is less than the
minimum score, SMIN = 0.3, the screener indicated that the Final Level 1
Score, SL1, was 0.3.
Under Extent of Review, the screener noted that he was not able to view all
sides of the building by checking the Partial box under Exterior. He
indicated that he was not able to view the interior of the building by checking
None under Interior.
Under Other Hazards, he noted that pounding potential of the building with
its neighbor triggers a Detailed Structural Evaluation.
Because the buildings Final Score was less than the cut-off score of 2.0, and
because of the other hazards present (pounding), the building required a
Detailed Structural Evaluation by an experienced seismic design
professional. Because of the cornices, the building required a Detailed
Nonstructural Evaluation. A completed version of the form, including
photographs attached at a later date, is provided in Figure 7-10.
7.2.8.3

Example 3: 5020 Ebony Drive

Example 3 was a high-rise residential building (Figure 7-11) in a new part of

the city in which new development had begun within the last few years. The
building was not included in the electronic Building RVS Database;
consequently, there was not a partially prepared Data Collection Form for
this building. The screeners wrote the address of the building on a blank
form along with their names and date and time of the screening.
Based on visual inspection, the screeners determined that the building had 22
stories above grade, including a tall occupied penthouse story, and 2
additional stories of parking below grade. They determined that it had no
additions, estimated that it was designed after 2000, and concluded that its
use was both commercial (in the first story) and residential in the upper
stories. The screeners paced off the building plan dimensions to estimate the
plan size to be approximately 270 feet by 180 feet. Based on this
information and considering the symmetric but non-rectangular floor plan,
the total square footage was estimated to be 712,800 square feet. The
building uses (Commercial and Residential) were circled in the Occupancy
portion.
The screeners photographed the building and drew a sketch of a portion of

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7-17

Figure 7-10
7-18

Completed form for 3711 Roxbury Street.

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-11

Exterior view of 5020 Ebony Drive.

the plan view of the building in the space on the form allocated for a
Sketch.
The screeners did not know the soil type, but assumed Soil Type D, based on
the instructions in the Handbook for when soil type is unknown, as well as
their knowledge that an adjacent site only a quarter mile away was on Soil
Type D.
The screeners observed the buildings plan irregularity (reentrant corners)
and noted it on the form.
Given the design date of 2000, the anchorage for the heavy cladding on the
exterior of the building was assumed to have been designed to meet the
anchorage requirements initially adopted in 1967 (per the information
provided in the Quick Reference Guide). No other falling hazards were
observed.
The window spacing in the upper stories and the column spacing at the first
floor level indicated the building was either a steel moment frame building,
or a concrete moment frame building. The screeners attempted to view the
interior but were not provided with permission to do so. They elected to
indicate that the building was either an S1 (steel moment-resisting frame) or
C1 (concrete moment-resisting frame) type on the Data Collection Form and
circled both types, along with their Basic Scores.

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7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-19

In addition, the screeners circled the Post-Benchmark Score Modifiers, given

that the estimated design date (year 2000) occurred after the benchmark years
for both FEMA Building Type S1 and FEMA Building Type C1 (per the
information on the Quick Reference Guide), and the Score Modifiers for plan
irregularity (in both the S1 and C1 columns).
By adding the circled numbers in both the S1 and C1 columns, scores of 2.7
and 2.8 were determined for the two FEMA Building Types. Using the lesser
score of the two, the screener noted the Final Level 1 Score, SL1, as 2.7.
Because this is greater than the cut-off score of 2.0, a Detailed Structural
Evaluation of the building by an experienced seismic design professional was
not required. Before leaving the site, the screeners completed the Extent of
Review, Other Hazards, and Action Required portions of the form. A
completed version of the Data Collection Form is provided in Figure 7-12.
7.2.8.4

Example 4: 1450 Addison Avenue

The building at 1450 Addison Avenue (see Figure 7-13) is a one-story

commercial building designed in 1990, per the information provided in the
building identification portion of the Data Collection Form. By inspection,
the screeners confirmed the address, number of stories, use (commercial),
and year built, as shown on the form in Figure 7-14. The screeners paced off
the building plan dimensions to estimate the plan size (estimated to be 10,125
square feet), confirming the square footage shown on the identification
portion of the form. The L-shaped building was drawn on the form, along
with the dimensions of the various legs.
The buildings commercial use was circled in the Occupancy portion. No
falling hazards were observed.
The FEMA Building Type (W2) was circled on the form along with its Basic
Score. Because the building was L-shaped in plan, the Score Modifier for
plan irregularity was circled. Based on the age of the building, the PostBenchmark Modifier was circled.
By adding the column of circled numbers, a Final Level 1 Score of 4.1 was
determined. Because this score was greater than the cut-off score of 2.0, the
building did not require a Detailed Structural Evaluation by an experienced
seismic design professional. A completed version of the form is provided in
Figure 7-14.
7.2.9

Step 9: Review by the Supervising Engineer

The quality assurance process was shortened due to the Supervising

Engineers presence in the field during the screenings. She decided to review

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7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-12
FEMA P-154

Completed Data Collection form for 5020 Ebony Drive.

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-21

Figure 7-13

Exterior view of 1450 Addison Avenue.

any form that included screener comments indicating some uncertainty. She
also reviewed any form that had more than two FEMA Building Types
circled. She spot checked 10% of the remaining forms. This resulted in
approximately 250 reviews of individual forms.
The Supervising Engineer also reviewed the screening results after they were
compiled into the RVS database to check for systematic errors. As expected,
URMs generally received low scores, and new buildings generally received
passing scores providing confidence that the scores were correctly calculated.
These results were discussed with the Program Manager.
7.2.10 Step 10: Transferring the RVS Field Data to the Electronic
Building RVS Database

The last step in the implementation of rapid visual screening for Anyplace,
USA was transferring the information on the RVS Data Collection Forms
into the relational electronic Building RVS Database. This required that all
photos and sketches on the forms be scanned and numbered (for reference
purposes), and that additional fields (and tables) be added to the database for
those attributes not originally included in the database.
For quality control purposes, data were entered separately into two different
versions of the electronic database, except photographs and sketches, which
were scanned only once. A double-entry data verification process was then
used, whereby the data from one database were compared to the same entries
in the second database to identify those entries that were not exactly the

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7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-14
FEMA P-154

Completed Data Collection Form for 1450 Addison Avenue.

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-23

same. Non-identical entries were examined and corrected as necessary. The

entire process, including scanning of sketches and photographs, required
approximately 45 minutes per Data Collection Form.
After the electronic Building RVS Database was verified, it was imported
into the citys GIS, thereby providing Anyplace with a state-of-the-art
capability to identify and plot building groups based on any set of criteria
desired by the citys policy makers. Photographs and sketches of individual
buildings could also be shown in the GIS simply by clicking on the dot or
symbol used to represent each building and selecting the desired image.
7.3

RVS Program Scenario B: Level 1 and Level 2

Screenings of K-12 School Buildings in Any State, USA

The state legislature, who is in this case the RVS Authority, is interested in
understanding how many of the states K-12 school buildings may be
potentially hazardous in the event of an earthquake. They have partnered
with the states Structural Engineers Association to conduct RVS screenings
of a sample of K-12 school buildings located throughout the state. A project
team consisting of two structural engineers, one architect, and four members
appointed by the State Superintendent has been assembled to plan and
manage the program. The legislature plans to use the results of the RVS
screenings to help prepare a preliminary budget for upgrading the schools.
Since the scope of the program was defined by the legislature, this step is not
discussed here.
7.3.1

Step 1: Budget and Cost Estimation

The project team has determined that there are approximately 1,000 K-12
school buildings within the state. Rapid visual screening will be performed
on a subset of these school buildings to obtain an initial estimate of the
expected performance of the full building stock.
For this subset, the team plans to perform the following: (1) create an
electronic record-keeping system including the capability for electronic
scoring; (2) determine key seismic code adoption dates throughout the state;
(3) acquire and review pre-field data from existing files; (4) review available
building plans prior to field screening; (5) document building location and
other information on the Data Collection Forms prior to field screening; and
(6) perform Level 1 and Level 2 screenings including inspection of the
interiors of buildings whenever possible.
The team has been granted a budget of $80,000 to perform the screening and
present the results to the legislature. Based on this allowance, the team has

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FEMA P-154

decided to use eight engineers to screen 100 of the 1000 total school
buildings in the state. The 100 school buildings are located across the state at
35 different school sites. Members of the project team are assumed to bill at
a rate of $150 per hour. The screeners will all be experienced engineers and
are assumed to bill at a rate of $120 per hour. Administrative tasks will be
performed by personnel at a rate of $60 per hour. The RVS budget was
developed and is shown in Table 7-3.
Table 7-3

RVS Budget for Any State, USA

Task

Hours

Task Description

Project
Team
$150/hr

Staff
$60/hr

Cost
Screeners
$120/hr

Task
Cost

Select building subset

10

$1,500

Create record-keeping system including capability

for electronic scoring

40

$6,000
16

Determine site-specific seismicity and soil type for

each building and enter into record-keeping system
(100 buildings x 10 minutes/building)
Select and review Data Collection Form; establish
code and benchmark years

40

Acquisition and review of pre-field data (100

buildings x 50 minutes/building)

20

Review construction documents (30 buildings x 30

minutes/building)

15

Create individual Data Collection Forms from the

database and distribute to screeners
Training (two team members and 8 engineers
attend 8 hour training)

$6,000
83

$7,980
$2,250

20
16

Field screening (55 minutes per building x 100

buildings, assumes Level 1 and Level 2 screenings
performed with interior of the building typically
accessed, plus 60 minutes of travel time each way
to 35 sites)
Quality assurance on completed forms (100
buildings x 15minutes/building); quality assurance
on compiled data

$960

36

64

$10,080

162

$19,440

$5,400

40

Enter field data into database + verification (100

buildings x 12minutes/building [2 people, 6
minutes each]); Photograph and sketch
management (100 buildings x 12 minutes/building
[once only])

$1,200

$2,400

Calculate electronic scores

$1,200

Prepare of report to State Legislature

40

$6,000

Subtotal Cost

$70,410

Program management (10% of subtotal)

Total Cost

FEMA P-154

$7,041
$77,451

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

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7.3.2

Step 2: Selection of Building Subset

The project team obtained an existing database of information on the states

schools that had been previously created by the states Department of
Education. For each K-12 school in the state, the survey identified the school
district, school name, address, grade levels taught, and site number. For most
of the schools, the individual buildings at the school site were further
described including the date built and number of stories and, occasionally,
the building material.
Using this information and by reviewing photos of the schools from maps
available on the internet, the project team selected 100 buildings that were
approximately representative of the full building stock with respect to date
built, location, FEMA Building Type, and grade level.
7.3.3

Step 3: Pre-Field Planning

A record-keeping system was created for the RVS program using an Excel
spreadsheet. The street address, name, and site number of each of the 100
schools were entered into the spreadsheet.
The site-specific hazard values, SS and S1, were determined using the USGS
tool for each school location based on the school address
(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/designmaps/usapp). The reported values of
latitude and longitude and SS and S1 were entered into the spreadsheet for
each school building.
Vs30 maps for the state were downloaded from the USGS website and were
used to determine the soil type in different parts of the state
(http://earthquake.usgs.gov/hazards/apps/vs30/). It was observed that the
majority of the state has Soil Type B or C with some pockets of Soil Type D.
The map was reviewed for each school building location, and the soil type
was noted in the spreadsheet.
An existing state geologic hazards report indicated liquefaction potential
existed in the westernmost portion of the state. The spreadsheet was updated
to indicate liquefaction potential for the eight school buildings located within
this hazard area.
Electronic scoring was integrated into the spreadsheet, allowing an electronic
score to be calculated based on the site-specific soil type and seismic hazard
and building information collected in the field.

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7.3.4

Step 4: Selection and Review of the Data Collection Form

The spreadsheet included a calculation to determine seismicity region based

on the site-specific seismic hazard values as determined during the pre-field
planning step. A column was included in the spreadsheet to document the
seismicity region at each site based on values of SS and S1 and the criteria in
Table 2-2. Of the 100 school buildings, 62 were located in High seismicity,
36 were located in Moderately High seismicity, and 2 were located in
Moderate seismicity. No schools were located in Very High or Low
seismicity.
High, Moderately High, and Moderate seismicity Data Collection Forms
were downloaded from www.atcouncil.org as pdf files. No modifications to
the form were deemed necessary.
Next, the project team determined key seismic code adoption dates. The
International Building Code (IBC) was adopted statewide in 2001, so
benchmark years were set using the IBC column of Table 2-3. Prior to this,
adoption and enforcement of seismic codes varied by local jurisdiction. The
project team decided to use 1992 as the year that seismic codes were initially
adopted and enforced.
Finally, the project team decided to use a cut-off score of 2.0.
7.3.5

Step 5: Qualifications and Training of Screeners

The project team selected eight experienced engineers from around the state
to perform the screenings. The eight engineers, plus two members of the
project team attended a one-day training session. They learned about the
FEMA P-154 methodology and learned how to complete the Level 1 and
Level 2 Data Collection Forms. Using photographs of actual buildings, they
identified FEMA Building Types and building irregularities. Because of how
common building additions are in older school buildings, special attention
was paid during the training to screening buildings with additions. Buildings
were assigned to screeners based on location to minimize the cost of travel
time.
7.3.6

Step 6: Acquisition and Review of Pre-Field Data

In addition to the database of information that the project team had received
from the states Department of Education, permit files were also obtained at
the local building departments and reviewed for information on the school
buildings. From these permit files, the project team extracted information on
building size, building age, number of stories, and, occasionally, FEMA
Building Type.

FEMA P-154

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-27

Construction drawings were available for approximately a third of the school

buildings. From these, irregularities could be identified and reviewed for
severity.
In one county, schools had previously been screened using the second edition
of FEMA 154. The completed Second Edition forms were used for
additional information.
All of the information obtained during the pre-field data collection process
was entered into the record-keeping spreadsheet. A routine was developed to
automate the transfer of data from the spreadsheet into a pdf for each school
building. Soil Type and Geologic Hazards were noted on the Data Collection
Forms under the Extent of Review field.
7.3.7

Step 7: Field Screening of Buildings

Each building was assigned to a screener located nearest the building. The
pre-filled forms were provided to the assigned screener. Each screener had
three weeks to complete their assigned screenings and send the completed
Data Collection Forms back to the project team.
Following are several examples illustrating rapid visual screening in the field
and completion of the Level 1 and Level 2 Data Collection Forms. All of the
examples are located in High seismicity. Some examples use forms
containing relatively complete building identification information, including
FEMA Building Type, obtained during the pre-field data acquisition and
review process, while others use forms containing less complete building
identification information.
7.3.7.1

Example 1: Main Building at Roosevelt Elementary

School

The screener performed Level 1 and Level 2 screenings of the main

classroom building at Roosevelt Elementary School (shown in Figure 7-15)
using the provided Data Collection Form, which included pre-field
information, such as address, number of stories, year built, and soils
information.
The screener verified the pre-field information. She checked Soil Type D
and indicated liquefaction potential, based on the pre-filled information in the
Extent of Review portion of the form.
After walking around the building and through the interior of the building,
she identified the building as a FEMA Building Type RM2 (reinforced
masonry building with rigid floor and roof diaphragms) and sketched the

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7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-15

Exterior view of modern reinforced brick masonry building at

Roosevelt Elementary School.

plan of the building. All of the interior walls were finished, but she was able
to identify which walls were structural versus nonstructural by tapping on
them. Those walls that sounded solid were deemed structural, and those that
sounded hollow were deemed nonstructural. She added this information to
the sketch.
Using the Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide, she identified the building
as having a short column irregularity due to the presence of infill walls at the
first floor that effectively shortened the length of the columns. Because the
east-west walls were all concentrated at the center of the building, the
screener identified the building as torsionally irregular. Considering the plan
and vertical irregularities, the screener calculated a score of 0.1, but used SMIN
to set the Level 1 Final Score at 0.3.
The screener completed the Level 2 portion of the form, reviewing each of
the Level 2 statements, and the nonstructural portion of the Level 2 form.
The Level 2 Final Score, which included a more modest penalty for short
columns and a positive modifier for redundancy, was calculated as +0.8.
This score was transferred back onto the Level 1 form.
Under Other Hazards, the screener checked the Geologic Hazards or Soil
Type F box to acknowledge that liquefaction potential at the site is a trigger
for a Detailed Structural Evaluation. Under Action Required, the screener
checked both Yes, score less than cut-off and Yes, other hazards present
(because of the liquefaction potential). No exterior falling hazards were
observed in either the Level 1 or the Level 2 screening.
The completed Level 1 Data Collection Form for the main classroom
building is shown in Figure 7-16. The completed Level 2 Data Collection
Form is shown in Figure 7-17. Additional buildings on site, including an
auditorium structure and a cafeteria building, were screened separately.

FEMA P-154

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-29

Figure 7-16
7-30

Completed Level 1 Data Collection Form for the main building at Roosevelt Elementary School.
7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-17
FEMA P-154

Completed Level 2 Data Collection Form for the main building at Roosevelt Elementary School.
7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-31

7.3.7.2

Example 2: Main Building plus Addition at

Washington Middle School

The screener performed Level 1 and Level 2 screenings of the main

classroom building at Washington Middle School (shown in Figure 7-18)
using the provided High seismicity Data Collection Form which included
pre-field information such as address, number of stories, year built, and soils
information. It also indicated that an addition was built in 1994.

Figure 7-18

Photo of exterior of Washington Middle School (from

www.fema.gov).

The screener verified the pre-field information. He checked Soil Type C and
indicated that no geologic hazards were present, based on the pre-filled
information in the Extent of Review portion of the form.
After walking around the building and through the interior of the building, he
identified the original building as a C2 (concrete shear wall). He confirmed
that the walls were concrete and not stucco over metal or wood framing by
knocking on the walls and verifying that they were solid. He observed steel
braces at the addition and concluded that it was an S2 (steel braced frame).
He sketched a plan of the building, including the addition, and an elevation.
He calculated the area of the building and found that the area provided on the
form did not appear to include the area of the addition. He crossed out the
provided area and wrote in a revised value.
The screener consulted the Level 1 Building Additions Reference Guide,
which indicated that because the addition and the original building had
different structural framing, they should be evaluated separately and

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FEMA P-154

pounding should be considered. He checked pounding using the Level 1

Pounding Reference Guide and found that pounding potential does exist
because the roof of the addition does not align with the floor of the original
building. While he could have used a separate form for the addition, he opted
to use a single Level 1 form for both portions of the building. He calculated a
Level 1 score for the original building, and a second Level 1 score for the
addition. The screener did not observe any of the irregularities listed in the
Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide in the main building. Because the
addition has braced frames on only three sides, the screener identified the
addition as torsionally irregular using the Plan Irregularity Reference Guide.
Considering the original building is pre-code, the screener calculated the
Level 1 Score for the original building as 1.3. Considering the plan
irregularity and the soil type, the screener calculated the Level 1 Score for
the addition as 1.3.
Prior to performing the Level 2 portion of the form, the screener consulted
the Level 2 Building Additions Reference Guide. Based on the Level 2
guide, the screener treated the original plus addition as a single building. He
applied (1) the reentrant corner modifier to account for the difference in the
plan dimension between the original and the addition; (2) the setback
modifier to account for the difference in height; and (3) the torsional
irregularity modifier to account for the difference in structural systems. He
also applied modifiers for split level (because the roof of the addition does
not align with any of the original floor levels) and redundancy (because there
are multiple bays of lateral elements in both directions on both sides of the
building. He made sure to apply the appropriate caps to VL2 and PL2 as
instructed on the Level 2 form. The Level 2 score was calculated as -0.3, so
SMIN (for the original building) was used as the Final Level 2 Score, SL2 = 0.3.
This score was transferred back onto the Level 1 form.
No exterior falling hazards were observed in the Level 1 screening. During
the Level 2 screening, however, the screener observed what appeared to be
hollow clay tile partitions. He noted this on the Level 2 form.
The completed Level 1 Data Collection Form for the building is shown in
Figure 7-19. The completed Level 2 Data Collection Form is shown in
Figure 7-20. Additional buildings on site were screened separately.

FEMA P-154

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

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Figure 7-19

7-34

Completed Level 1 Data Collection Form for the main building (original plus addition) at
Washington Middle School.

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-20

FEMA P-154

Completed Level 2 Data Collection Form for the main building (original plus addition) at
Washington Middle School.
7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-35

7.3.7.3

Example 3: Portable Classrooms at New City High

School

While screening the main building and auditorium at New City High School,
the screener noted a group of portable buildings being used as temporary
classrooms. The screener decided to perform Level 1 and Level 2 screenings
of these buildings using a blank Data Collection Form. He extracted soil
type information and geologic hazards from the pre-filled Data Collection
Form for the main building.

Figure 7-21

Exterior view portable classrooms at New City High School

(from www.fema.gov).

The screener counted two rows of five portables, all of apparently identical
size, use, and construction. Because of their uniformity, the screener opted
to complete only one Data Collection Form for all ten of the buildings.
The screener was able to speak directly to the facilities manager of the high
school, who recalled that the portables had been installed in 2006 with
seismic bracing systems. The screener noted this information in the
comments section of the form and included in the name of the facilities
manager on the contact portion of the form. The screener attempted to
confirm the existence of the bracing by looking under the portables, but all of
the portables had continuous skirts that blocked his view.
Using FEMA Building Type MH (manufactured housing), the screener
calculated a Level 1 Final Score of 1.8. He then completed the Level 2
portion of the form, which provides a positive modifier for MH buildings

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FEMA P-154

with seismic bracing systems. The resulting Level 2 Final Score was 3.0.
Based on the Level 2 score, the screener indicated that additional detailed
structural evaluation of the portables was not required. He reviewed each
portable for potential falling hazards, but none were observed.
The completed Level 1 and Level 2 Data Collection Forms are shown in
Figure 7-22 and 7-23, respectively.
7.3.8

Step 8: Review by the Supervising Engineer

Following the completion of the field screening, the screeners scanned their
completed forms and any additional notes or sketches. These scans, along
with photographs of the buildings, were transmitted to the Supervising
Engineers. The two engineers on the project team reviewed the forms,
comparing the photographs and sketches to the building characteristics noted
(such as number of stories, irregularities, and FEMA Building Type), at
times correcting inconsistencies. The score calculations were doublechecked with particular emphasis on reviewing that the proper Basic Score
and Score Modifiers were applied and that the transfer of the Level 2 score to
the Level 1 form was correct. Notes from screeners were carefully reviewed,
particularly where the note indicated the screeners uncertainty. If a screener
indicated uncertainty (such as building age or whether an observed condition
qualified as an irregularity), the Supervising Engineers reviewed the photos
and the sketches to make a determination. Finally, the Supervising Engineer
checked that no Other Hazards were overlooked in determining whether to
require a Detailed Structural Evaluation. In a few cases, the Supervising
Engineer performed a follow-up screening to verify building age and FEMA
Building Type.
When the reviewers were satisfied with the completed forms, the data
recorded on the paper forms were entered into the record-keeping
spreadsheet. Photographs, sketches, and additional pages of notes were
scanned and saved to a file folder.
Electronic scores were calculated within the spreadsheet using the
automation that had previously been developed.
7.3.9

Step 9: Report to State Legislature

The project team discussed the RVS results looking for patterns and
inconsistencies. They presented the results in a report to the State
Legislature. The report summarized methodology and criteria used in the
screening program, and gave findings and conclusions, including scoring
results and trends.

FEMA P-154

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-37

Figure 7-22
7-38

Completed Level 1 Data Collection Form for portable classrooms at New City High School.
7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Figure 7-23
FEMA P-154

Completed Level 2 Data Collection Form for portable classrooms at New City High School.
7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-39

7.3.10

Example Level 1 and Level 2 Screening Using Electronic

Scoring

As an alternative to the use of paper-based scoring, the school buildings were

also evaluated using electronic scoring. During the pre-field planning stage,
site-specific seismic hazard values, Ss and S1, were determined for each
school site from the USGS online tool available at http://earthquake.usgs.gov
/designmaps/usapp/.. Although all of the examples described below are
located in High seismicity regions, the site-specific seismicity varies from
site to site, resulting in variations in the difference between the paper-based
score and the electronic score.
7.3.10.1 Example 1: Roosevelt Elementary School

The site-specific seismic hazard values, Ss and S1, for Roosevelt Elementary
School were determined to be 1.48g and 0.39g, respectively. The school is a
two-story RM2 located on Soil Type D with Severe Vertical and Plan
irregularities. Electronic scores for the school are calculated below using the
guidance presented in Chapter 9 of FEMA P-155 (FEMA, 2015):
1. Building height, H = 2 stories x 12/story = 24
2. Building period, T = 0.025 x H0.75 = 0.27sec
3. SS/S1 = 1.48g/0.39g = 3.79 > T; therefore, interpolate using SS (adjusted
for Soil Type CD). Linear interpolation will be used FEMA P-155
Chapter 9 discusses other types of interpolation that could be used.
4. Adjust SS for Soil Type CD: SS = 1.48g > 1.25g, therefore, Fa = 1.0.
5. Fa SS = 1.0 1.48g = 1.48g (This is between High, Fa SS = 1.21g
with Basic Score for RM2 = 1.7, and Very High, Fa SS = 2.25g with
Basic Score for RM2 = 1.1.)

6. Electronic Basic Score is calculated with the following linear

interpolation formula from Chapter 9 of FEMA P-155:
y
y0
1
= y0
+x
y
x
0 x-x
1 0
y = 1.1 + (1.48 - 2.25) (1.7 - 1.1) / (1.21 - 2.25) = 1.54
7. Similarly, the applicable electronic Level 1 modifiers are calculated as
0.85 (Severe Vertical Irregularity), -0.62 (Plan Irregularity), and 0.3
(Minimum Score).
8. Electronic Level 1 Score = 1.54 - 0.85 - 0.62 = 0.07 < SMIN = 0.3; Use SL1
= 0.3.

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FEMA P-154

9. The applicable electronic Level 2 modifiers are calculated as -0.47 (Short

Column/Pier), -0.65 (Torsional Irregularity), and 0.27 (Redundancy).
10. Electronic Level 2 Score = 1.54 - 0.47 - 0.65 + 0.27 = 0.69 > SMIN.
7.3.10.2 Example 2: Washington Middle School

The site-specific seismic hazard values, Ss and S1, for Washington Middle
School were determined to be 1.21g and 0.54g, respectively. This is close to
the median values used in High seismicity. The main portion of the building
is a three-story C2, while the addition is a one-story S2. The school is located
on Soil Type C.
The Basic Score for Building Type C2 using electronic scoring and
considering the above site-specific seismicity is 1.99, and the Pre-Code Score
Modifier is -0.70. The resulting electronic Level 1 Score is 1.30. The Basic
Score for Building Type S2 using electronic scoring and considering the sitespecific seismicity is also 1.99, and the Plan Irregularity Score Modifier is
0.70. The resulting electronic Level 1 Score for the addition is 1.30. This is
equal to the score for the main portion of the building. Hence, the Final Level
2 Score using electronic scoring is 1.30.
The Final Level 2 Score using electronic scoring considers the pre-code C2
building with irregularities due to the addition. Redundancy is also
considered. The Final Level 2 Score is 1.99 (Basic Score) - 0.70 (Pre-Code)
-0.50 (Vertical Setback) - 0.50 (Split Level) - 0.70 (Torsion) - 0.4 (Reentrant)
+ 0.30 (Redundancy) = -0.51. This is less than the minimum score, hence,
the Final Level 2 Score is taken as 0.30.
7.3.10.3 Example 3: New City High School

The site-specific seismic hazard values, Ss and S1, for New City High School
were determined to be 1.05g and 0.36g, respectively. This indicates a lower
seismicity than at Roosevelt Elementary School or Washington Middle
School sites even though all are in High seismicity. The building is a onestory MH located on Soil Type B.
The Basic Score for Building Type MH using electronic scoring and
considering Soil Type CD is 1.67. The Soil Type B Score Modifier is -0.42.
The Final Level 1 Score using electronic scoring is 1.67 + 0.45 = 2.12.
The Final Level 2 Score is 2.12 (Basic Score plus Soil Type B) + 1.20
(Supplemental Seismic Bracing) = 3.32.
The Final Level 1 and Level 2 paper-based and electronic scores are
summarized in Table 7-4. Where site-specific seismicity is similar to the

FEMA P-154

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

7-41

median seismicity of the region, such as for Washington Middle School, the
electronic scores will be similar to the paper-based scores. Where sitespecific seismicity is greater than the median seismicity of the region, such as
for Roosevelt Elementary School, the electronic scores will be smaller than
the paper-based scores. Finally, where site-specific seismicity is less than the
median seismicity of the region, such as for New City High School, the
electronic scores will be greater than the paper-based scores.
Table 7-4

Summary of Paper-Based and Electronic Scores

Paper-Based Score

School

7-42

Electronic Score

Level 1 Score

Level 2 Score

Level 1 Score

Level 2 Score

Roosevelt
Elementary
School

0.3

0.8

0.3

0.7

Washington
Middle School

1.3

0.3

1.3

0.3

New City High

School

1.5

2.7

2.1

3.3

7: Example Application of Rapid Visual Screening

FEMA P-154

Appendix A

Maps Showing Seismicity

Regions

This appendix provides seismicity region designations of Low, Moderate,

Moderately High, High, and Very High for all counties in the United States,
based on an assumed Soil Type B throughout the county. The seismicity
designation is based on the site-specific values of seismic hazard at a point in
the county considering risk-targeted Maximum Considered Earthquake
(MCER) ground motions. The determination is based on criteria set in Table
2-2 and repeated here as Table A-1. The designation at any county is based
on the highest seismicity expected at any location in the county. A more
accurate determination of the seismicity of a specific site can be made using
the site-specific procedure described in Chapter 2.
Table A-1

Seismicity Region Determination from MCER Spectral

Acceleration Response (from ASCE/SEI 41-13)

Seismicity Region

Spectral Acceleration
Response, SS (short-period, or
0.2 seconds)

Spectral Acceleration
Response, S1 (long-period,
or 1.0 second)

Low

less than 0.250g

less than 0.100g

Moderate

greater than or equal to 0.250g greater than or equal to

but less than 0.500g
0.100g but less than 0.200g

Moderately High

greater than or equal to 0.500g greater than or equal to

but less than 1.000g
0.200g but less than 0.400g

High

greater than or equal to 1.000g greater than or equal to

but less than 1.500g
0.400g but less than 0.600g

Very High

greater than or equal to 1.500g greater than or equal to

0.600g

Notes: g = acceleration of gravity in horizontal direction

The maps have been developed by the U.S. Geological Survey. Figure A-1
provides a map of the seismicity regions in the entire United States. The
following maps in Figure A-2 through Figure A-11 present seismicity
regions in different geographical regions of the United States and its
territories.

FEMA P-154

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

A-1

Figure A-1

A-2

Very High, High, Moderately High, Moderate, and Low seismicity regions in the
United States. A different RVS Data Collection Form has been developed for each of
these regions.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

FEMA P-154

Figure A-2

FEMA P-154

Seismicity regions in California, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

A-3

Figure A-3

A-4

Seismicity regions in Arizona, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

FEMA P-154

Figure A-4

FEMA P-154

Seismicity regions in Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

A-5

Figure A-5

A-6

Seismicity regions in Iowa, Michigan, Nebraska, North Dakota, Minnesota, South Dakota,
and Wisconsin.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

FEMA P-154

Figure A-6

FEMA P-154

Seismicity regions in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

A-7

Figure A-7

A-8

Seismicity regions in Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

FEMA P-154

Figure A-8

FEMA P-154

Seismicity regions in Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York,

Rhode Island, and Vermont.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

A-9

Figure A-9

A-10

Seismicity regions in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West
Virginia.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

FEMA P-154

Figure A-10

FEMA P-154

Seismicity regions in Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Florida.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

A-11

(a)

(b)

Figure A-11

A-12

Seismicity regions in (a) Alaska and (b) Hawaii.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

FEMA P-154

Figure A-12

FEMA P-154

Seismicity regions in U.S. Territories.

A: Maps Showing Seismicity Regions

A-13

Appendix B

Data Collection Forms and

Reference Guides

B.1

Level 1 and Level 2 Forms for Very High, High, Moderately High, Moderate,
and Low Seismicity

Electronic versions of these forms are also available for download at www.atcouncil.org.

FEMA P-154

B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

B-1

Level 1

VERY HIGH Seismicity

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form
Address:

Zip:
Other Identifiers:
Building Name:
Use:
Latitude:
SS:
Screener(s):

PHOTOGRAPH

Longitude:
S 1:
Date/Time:

No. Stories: Above Grade:

Below Grade:
Total Floor Area (sq. ft.):
Additions:
None
Yes, Year(s) Built:
Occupancy:

Assembly
Industrial
Utility

Soil Type:

Commercial
Office
Warehouse

Year Built:
Code Year:

Emer. Services
School
Residential, # Units:

Historic
Government

DNK

Hard
Rock

Avg
Rock

Dense
Soil

Stiff
Soil

Soft
Soil

Poor
Soil

EST

Shelter

If DNK, assume Type D.

Geologic Hazards: Liquefaction: Yes/No/DNK Landslide: Yes/No/DNK Surf. Rupt.: Yes/No/DNK

Adjacency:

Pounding

Irregularities:

Vertical (type/severity)
Plan (type)

Exterior Falling
Hazards:

Unbraced Chimneys
Heavy Cladding or Heavy Veneer
Parapets
Appendages
Other: _______________________________________________

Falling Hazards from Taller Adjacent Building

COMMENTS:

SKETCH

Additional sketches or comments on separate page

BASIC SCORE, MODIFIERS, AND FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1

Do Not
Know

FEMA BUILDING TYPE

Basic Score
Severe Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Moderate Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Plan Irregularity, PL1
Pre-Code
Post-Benchmark
Soil Type A or B
Soil Type E (1-3 stories)
Soil Type E (> 3 stories)
Minimum Score, SMIN

W1

W1A

W2

2.1
-0.9
-0.6
-0.7
-0.3
1.9
0.5
0.0
-0.4
0.7

1.9
-0.9
-0.5
-0.7
-0.3
1.9
0.5
-0.2
-0.4
0.7

1.8
-0.9
-0.5
-0.6
-0.3
2.0
0.4
-0.4
-0.4
0.7

(MRF)

S1

(BR)

(LM)

(RC
SW)

(URM
INF)

(MRF)

(SW)

(URM
INF)

C3

PC1

PC2

RM1

RM2

URM

MH

1.5
-0.8
-0.4
-0.5
-0.3
1.0
0.3
-0.3
-0.3
0.5

1.4
-0.7
-0.4
-0.5
-0.2
1.1
0.3
-0.2
-0.3
0.5

1.6
-0.8
-0.5
-0.6
-0.3
1.1
0.4
-0.2
NA
0.5

1.4
-0.7
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2
1.5
0.3
-0.2
-0.3
0.5

1.2
-0.7
-0.3
-0.4
-0.1
NA
0.2
-0.1
-0.1
0.5

1.0
-0.7
-0.4
-0.4
-0.1
1.4
0.2
-0.1
-0.1
0.3

1.2
-0.8
-0.4
-0.5
-0.2
1.7
0.3
-0.2
-0.3
0.3

0.9
-0.6
-0.3
-0.3
0.0
NA
0.1
0.0
-0.1
0.3

1.1
-0.7
-0.4
-0.5
-0.2
1.5
0.3
-0.2
NA
0.2

1.0
-0.7
-0.4
-0.4
-0.1
1.7
0.2
-0.1
-0.1
0.2

1.1
-0.7
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2
1.6
0.3
-0.2
-0.2
0.3

1.1
-0.7
-0.4
-0.4
-0.2
1.6
0.3
-0.2
-0.2
0.3

0.9
-0.6
-0.3
-0.3
0.0
NA
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.2

1.1
NA
NA
NA
0.0
0.5
0.1
-0.1
NA
1.0

S2

S3

S4

S5

C1

C2

(TU)

(FD)

(RD)

FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1 SMIN:

EXTENT OF REVIEW
Exterior:
Partial
Interior:
None
Drawings Reviewed:
Yes
Soil Type Source:
Geologic Hazards Source:
Contact Person:

All Sides
Visible
No

Aerial
Entered

LEVEL 2 SCREENING PERFORMED?

Yes, Final Level 2 Score, SL2
Nonstructural hazards?
Yes

No
No

OTHER HAZARDS

ACTION REQUIRED

Are There Hazards That Trigger A

Detailed Structural Evaluation?

Detailed Structural Evaluation Required?

Pounding potential (unless SL2 >

cut-off, if known)
Falling hazards from taller adjacent
building
Geologic hazards or Soil Type F
Significant damage/deterioration to
the structural system

Yes, unknown FEMA building type or other building

Yes, score less than cut-off
Yes, other hazards present
No
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation Recommended? (check one)
Yes, nonstructural hazards identified that should be evaluated
No, nonstructural hazards exist that may require mitigation, but a
detailed evaluation is not necessary
No, no nonstructural hazards identified
DNK

Where information cannot be verified, screener shall note the following: EST = Estimated or unreliable data OR DNK = Do Not Know
Legend:

MRF = Moment-resisting frame

BR = Braced frame

RC = Reinforced concrete
SW = Shear wall

URM INF = Unreinforced masonry infill

TU = Tilt up

MH = Manufactured Housing
LM = Light metal

FD = Flexible diaphragm
RD = Rigid diaphragm

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form

Level 2 (Optional)

VERY HIGH Seismicity

Optional Level 2 data collection to be performed by a civil or structural engineering professional, architect, or graduate student with background in seismic evaluation or design of buildings.

Bldg Name:
Screener:
Date/Time:

Final Level 1 Score:

Level 1 Irregularity Modifiers:
ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE:

SL1 =
Vertical Irregularity, VL1 =

(do not consider SMIN)

Plan Irregularity, PL1 =

S = (SL1 VL1 PL1) =

STRUCTURAL MODIFIERS TO ADD TO ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE

Subtotals
Topic
Statement (If statement is true, circle the Yes modifier; otherwise cross out the modifier.)
Yes
Vertical
Sloping
W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-0.9
Irregularity, VL2
Site
Non-W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-0.2
Weak
W1 building cripple wall: An unbraced cripple wall is visible in the crawl space.
-0.5
and/or
W1 house over garage: Underneath an occupied story, there is a garage opening without a steel moment frame,
Soft Story
and there is less than 8' of wall on the same line (for multiple occupied floors above, use 16' of wall minimum).
-0.9
(circle one W1A building open front: There are openings at the ground story (such as for parking) over at least 50% of the
maximum) length of the building.
-0.9
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is less than 50% of that at story above or height of any
story is more than 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-0.7
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is between 50% and 75% of that at story above or height
of any story is between 1.3 and 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-0.4
Setback
Vertical elements of the lateral system at an upper story are outboard of those at the story below causing the

diaphragm to cantilever at the offset.

-0.7
Vertical elements of the lateral system at upper stories are inboard of those at lower stories.
-0.4
There is an in-plane offset of the lateral elements that is greater than the length of the elements.
-0.2
Short
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: At least 20% of columns (or piers) along a column line in the lateral system have
Column/
-0.4
height/depth ratios less than 50% of the nominal height/depth ratio at that level.
Pier
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: The column depth (or pier width) is less than one half of the depth of the spandrel,
or there are infill walls or adjacent floors that shorten the column.
-0.4
Split Level
There is a split level at one of the floor levels or at the roof.
-0.4
Other
There is another observable severe vertical irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-0.7
VL2 = _______
Irregularity There is another observable moderate vertical irregularity that may affect the building's seismic performance.
(Capat 0.9)
-0.4
Plan
Torsional irregularity: Lateral system does not appear relatively well distributed in plan in either or both directions. (Do not
Irregularity, PL2
include the W1A open front irregularity listed above.)
-0.5
Non-parallel system: There are one or more major vertical elements of the lateral system that are not orthogonal to each other.
-0.2
Reentrant corner: Both projections from an interior corner exceed 25% of the overall plan dimension in that direction.
-0.2
Diaphragm opening: There is an opening in the diaphragm with a width over 50% of the total diaphragm width at that level.
-0.2
C1, C2 building out-of-plane offset: The exterior beams do not align with the columns in plan.
-0.2
PL2 = _______
(Capat0.7)
Other irregularity: There is another observable plan irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-0.5
Redundancy
The building has at least two bays of lateral elements on each side of the building in each direction.
+0.2
(Cap total
Pounding
Building is separated from an adjacent structure
The floors do not align vertically within 2 feet.
-0.7
by less than 1.5% of the height of the shorter of
pounding
One building is 2 or more stories taller than the other.
-0.7
the building and adjacent structure and:
modifiers at -0.9)
The building is at the end of the block.
-0.4
S2 Building
K bracing geometry is visible.
-0.7
C1 Building
Flat plate serves as the beam in the moment frame.
-0.3
PC1/RM1 Bldg
There are roof-to-wall ties that are visible or known from drawings that do not rely on cross-grain bending. (Do not combine with
+0.2
post-benchmark or retrofit modifier.)
PC1/RM1 Bldg
The building has closely spaced, full height interior walls (rather than an interior space with few walls such as in a warehouse).
+0.2
URM
Gable walls are present.
-0.3
MH
There is a supplemental seismic bracing system provided between the carriage and the ground.
+0.5
Retrofit
Comprehensive seismic retrofit is visible or known from drawings.
+1.2 M = ________
FINAL LEVEL 2 SCORE, SL2 = (S + VL2 + PL2 + M) SMIN:
(Transfer to Level 1 form)
There is observable damage or deterioration or another condition that negatively affects the building's seismic performance:
Yes
No
If yes, describe the condition in the comment box below and indicate on the Level 1 form that detailed evaluation is required independent of the building's score.
OBSERVABLE NONSTRUCTURAL HAZARDS
Location
Statement (Check Yes or No)
Yes
No
Comment
Exterior
There is an unbraced unreinforced masonry parapet or unbraced unreinforced masonry chimney.
There is heavy cladding or heavy veneer.
There is a heavy canopy over exit doors or pedestrian walkways that appears inadequately supported.
There is an unreinforced masonry appendage over exit doors or pedestrian walkways.
There is a sign posted on the building that indicates hazardous materials are present.
There is a taller adjacent building with an unanchored URM wall or unbraced URM parapet or chimney.
Other observed exterior nonstructural falling hazard:
Interior
There are hollow clay tile or brick partitions at any stair or exit corridor.
Other observed interior nonstructural falling hazard:
Estimated Nonstructural Seismic Performance (Check appropriate box and transfer to Level 1 form conclusions)
Potential nonstructural hazards with significant threat to occupant life safety
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation recommended
Nonstructural hazards identified with significant threat to occupant life safety
But no Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required
Low or no nonstructural hazard threat to occupant life safety
No Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required

Comments:

Level 1

HIGH Seismicity

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form
Address:

Zip:
Other Identifiers:
Building Name:
Use:
Latitude:
SS:
Screener(s):

PHOTOGRAPH

Longitude:
S 1:
Date/Time:

No. Stories: Above Grade:

Below Grade:
Total Floor Area (sq. ft.):
Additions:
None
Yes, Year(s) Built:
Occupancy:

Assembly
Industrial
Utility

Soil Type:

Commercial
Office
Warehouse

Year Built:
Code Year:

Emer. Services
School
Residential, # Units:

Historic
Government

DNK

Hard
Rock

Avg
Rock

Dense
Soil

Stiff
Soil

Soft
Soil

Poor
Soil

EST

Shelter

If DNK, assume Type D.

Geologic Hazards: Liquefaction: Yes/No/DNK Landslide: Yes/No/DNK Surf. Rupt.: Yes/No/DNK

Adjacency:

Pounding

Irregularities:

Vertical (type/severity)
Plan (type)

Exterior Falling
Hazards:

Unbraced Chimneys
Heavy Cladding or Heavy Veneer
Parapets
Appendages
Other: _______________________________________________

Falling Hazards from Taller Adjacent Building

COMMENTS:

SKETCH

Additional sketches or comments on separate page

BASIC SCORE, MODIFIERS, AND FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1

Do Not
Know

FEMA BUILDING TYPE

Basic Score
Severe Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Moderate Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Plan Irregularity, PL1
Pre-Code
Post-Benchmark
Soil Type A or B
Soil Type E (1-3 stories)
Soil Type E (> 3 stories)
Minimum Score, SMIN

W1

W1A

W2

3.6
-1.2
-0.7
-1.1
-1.1
1.6
0.1
0.2
-0.3
1.1

3.2
-1.2
-0.7
-1.0
-1.0
1.9
0.3
0.2
-0.6
0.9

2.9
-1.2
-0.7
-1.0
-0.9
2.2
0.5
0.1
-0.9
0.7

(MRF)

S1

(BR)

(LM)

(RC
SW)

(URM
INF)

(MRF)

(SW)

(URM
INF)

C3

PC1

PC2

RM1

RM2

URM

MH

2.1
-1.0
-0.6
-0.8
-0.6
1.4
0.4
-0.2
-0.6
0.5

2.0
-1.0
-0.6
-0.7
-0.6
1.4
0.6
-0.4
-0.6
0.5

2.6
-1.1
-0.7
-0.9
-0.8
1.1
0.1
0.2
NA
0.6

2.0
-1.0
-0.6
-0.7
-0.6
1.9
0.6
-0.1
-0.6
0.5

1.7
-0.8
-0.5
-0.6
-0.2
NA
0.5
-0.4
-0.4
0.5

1.5
-0.9
-0.5
-0.6
-0.4
1.9
0.4
0.0
-0.5
0.3

2.0
-1.0
-0.6
-0.8
-0.7
2.1
0.5
0.0
-0.7
0.3

1.2
-0.7
-0.4
-0.5
-0.1
NA
0.3
-0.2
-0.3
0.3

1.6
-1.0
-0.6
-0.7
-0.5
2.0
0.6
-0.3
NA
0.2

1.4
-0.9
-0.5
-0.6
-0.3
2.4
0.4
-0.1
-0.4
0.2

1.7
-0.9
-0.5
-0.7
-0.5
2.1
0.5
-0.1
-0.5
0.3

1.7
-0.9
-0.5
-0.7
-0.5
2.1
0.5
-0.1
-0.6
0.3

1.0
-0.7
-0.4
-0.4
0.0
NA
0.3
-0.2
-0.2
0.2

1.5
NA
NA
NA
-0.1
1.2
0.3
-0.4
NA
1.0

S2

S3

S4

S5

C1

C2

(TU)

(FD)

(RD)

FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1 SMIN:

EXTENT OF REVIEW
Exterior:
Partial
Interior:
None
Drawings Reviewed:
Yes
Soil Type Source:
Geologic Hazards Source:
Contact Person:

All Sides
Visible
No

Aerial
Entered

LEVEL 2 SCREENING PERFORMED?

Yes, Final Level 2 Score, SL2
Nonstructural hazards?
Yes

No
No

OTHER HAZARDS

ACTION REQUIRED

Are There Hazards That Trigger A

Detailed Structural Evaluation?

Detailed Structural Evaluation Required?

Pounding potential (unless SL2 >

cut-off, if known)
Falling hazards from taller adjacent
building
Geologic hazards or Soil Type F
Significant damage/deterioration to
the structural system

Yes, unknown FEMA building type or other building

Yes, score less than cut-off
Yes, other hazards present
No
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation Recommended? (check one)
Yes, nonstructural hazards identified that should be evaluated
No, nonstructural hazards exist that may require mitigation, but a
detailed evaluation is not necessary
No, no nonstructural hazards identified
DNK

Where information cannot be verified, screener shall note the following: EST = Estimated or unreliable data OR DNK = Do Not Know
Legend:

MRF = Moment-resisting frame

BR = Braced frame

RC = Reinforced concrete
SW = Shear wall

URM INF = Unreinforced masonry infill

TU = Tilt up

MH = Manufactured Housing
LM = Light metal

FD = Flexible diaphragm
RD = Rigid diaphragm

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form

Level 2 (Optional)

HIGH Seismicity

Optional Level 2 data collection to be performed by a civil or structural engineering professional, architect, or graduate student with background in seismic evaluation or design of buildings.

Bldg Name:
Screener:
Date/Time:

Final Level 1 Score:

Level 1 Irregularity Modifiers:
ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE:

SL1 =
Vertical Irregularity, VL1 =

(do not consider SMIN)

Plan Irregularity, PL1 =

S = (SL1 VL1 PL1) =

STRUCTURAL MODIFIERS TO ADD TO ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE

Subtotals
Topic
Statement (If statement is true, circle the Yes modifier; otherwise cross out the modifier.)
Yes
Vertical
Sloping
W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-1.2
Irregularity, VL2
Site
Non-W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-0.3
Weak
W1 building cripple wall: An unbraced cripple wall is visible in the crawl space.
-0.6
and/or
W1 house over garage: Underneath an occupied story, there is a garage opening without a steel moment frame,
Soft Story
and there is less than 8' of wall on the same line (for multiple occupied floors above, use 16' of wall minimum).
-1.2
(circle one W1A building open front: There are openings at the ground story (such as for parking) over at least 50% of the
maximum) length of the building.
-1.2
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is less than 50% of that at story above or height of any
story is more than 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-0.9
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is between 50% and 75% of that at story above or height
of any story is between 1.3 and 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-0.5
Setback
Vertical elements of the lateral system at an upper story are outboard of those at the story below causing the

diaphragm to cantilever at the offset.

-1.0
Vertical elements of the lateral system at upper stories are inboard of those at lower stories.
-0.5
There is an in-plane offset of the lateral elements that is greater than the length of the elements.
-0.3
Short
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: At least 20% of columns (or piers) along a column line in the lateral system have
Column/
-0.5
height/depth ratios less than 50% of the nominal height/depth ratio at that level.
Pier
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: The column depth (or pier width) is less than one half of the depth of the spandrel,
or there are infill walls or adjacent floors that shorten the column.
-0.5
Split Level
There is a split level at one of the floor levels or at the roof.
-0.5
Other
There is another observable severe vertical irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-1.0
VL2 = _______
Irregularity There is another observable moderate vertical irregularity that may affect the building's seismic performance.
(Capat 1.2)
-0.5
Plan
Torsional irregularity: Lateral system does not appear relatively well distributed in plan in either or both directions. (Do not
Irregularity, PL2
include the W1A open front irregularity listed above.)
-0.7
Non-parallel system: There are one or more major vertical elements of the lateral system that are not orthogonal to each other.
-0.4
Reentrant corner: Both projections from an interior corner exceed 25% of the overall plan dimension in that direction.
-0.4
Diaphragm opening: There is an opening in the diaphragm with a width over 50% of the total diaphragm width at that level.
-0.2
C1, C2 building out-of-plane offset: The exterior beams do not align with the columns in plan.
-0.4
PL2 = _______
(Capat1.1)
Other irregularity: There is another observable plan irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-0.7
Redundancy
The building has at least two bays of lateral elements on each side of the building in each direction.
+0.3
(Cap total
Pounding
Building is separated from an adjacent structure
The floors do not align vertically within 2 feet.
-1.0
by less than 1% of the height of the shorter of the
pounding
One building is 2 or more stories taller than the other.
-1.0
building and adjacent structure and:
modifiers at -1.2)
The building is at the end of the block.
-0.5
S2 Building
K bracing geometry is visible.
-1.0
C1 Building
Flat plate serves as the beam in the moment frame.
-0.4
PC1/RM1 Bldg
+0.3
There are roof-to-wall ties that are visible or known from drawings that do not rely on cross-grain bending. (Do not combine with
post-benchmark or retrofit modifier.)
PC1/RM1 Bldg
The building has closely spaced, full height interior walls (rather than an interior space with few walls such as in a warehouse).
+0.3
URM
Gable walls are present.
-0.4
MH
There is a supplemental seismic bracing system provided between the carriage and the ground.
+1.2
Retrofit
Comprehensive seismic retrofit is visible or known from drawings.
+1.4 M = ________
FINAL LEVEL 2 SCORE, SL2 = (S + VL2 + PL2 + M) SMIN:
(Transfer to Level 1 form)
There is observable damage or deterioration or another condition that negatively affects the building's seismic performance:
Yes
No
If yes, describe the condition in the comment box below and indicate on the Level 1 form that detailed evaluation is required independent of the building's score.
OBSERVABLE NONSTRUCTURAL HAZARDS
Location
Statement (Check Yes or No)
Yes
No
Comment
Exterior
There is an unbraced unreinforced masonry parapet or unbraced unreinforced masonry chimney.
There is heavy cladding or heavy veneer.
There is a heavy canopy over exit doors or pedestrian walkways that appears inadequately supported.
There is an unreinforced masonry appendage over exit doors or pedestrian walkways.
There is a sign posted on the building that indicates hazardous materials are present.
There is a taller adjacent building with an unanchored URM wall or unbraced URM parapet or chimney.
Other observed exterior nonstructural falling hazard:
Interior
There are hollow clay tile or brick partitions at any stair or exit corridor.
Other observed interior nonstructural falling hazard:
Estimated Nonstructural Seismic Performance (Check appropriate box and transfer to Level 1 form conclusions)
Potential nonstructural hazards with significant threat to occupant life safety
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation recommended
Nonstructural hazards identified with significant threat to occupant life safety
But no Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required
Low or no nonstructural hazard threat to occupant life safety No Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required

Comments:

Level 1

MODERATELY HIGH Seismicity

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form
Address:

Zip:
Other Identifiers:
Building Name:
Use:
Latitude:
SS:
Screener(s):

PHOTOGRAPH

Longitude:
S 1:
Date/Time:

No. Stories: Above Grade:

Below Grade:
Total Floor Area (sq. ft.):
Additions:
None
Yes, Year(s) Built:
Occupancy:

Assembly
Industrial
Utility

Soil Type:

Commercial
Office
Warehouse

Year Built:
Code Year:

Emer. Services
School
Residential, # Units:

Historic
Government

DNK

Hard
Rock

Avg
Rock

Dense
Soil

Stiff
Soil

Soft
Soil

Poor
Soil

EST

Shelter

If DNK, assume Type D.

Geologic Hazards: Liquefaction: Yes/No/DNK Landslide: Yes/No/DNK Surf. Rupt.: Yes/No/DNK

Adjacency:

Pounding

Irregularities:

Vertical (type/severity)
Plan (type)

Exterior Falling
Hazards:

Unbraced Chimneys
Heavy Cladding or Heavy Veneer
Parapets
Appendages
Other: _______________________________________________

Falling Hazards from Taller Adjacent Building

COMMENTS:

SKETCH

Additional sketches or comments on separate page

BASIC SCORE, MODIFIERS, AND FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1

Do Not
Know

FEMA BUILDING TYPE

Basic Score
Severe Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Moderate Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Plan Irregularity, PL1
Pre-Code
Post-Benchmark
Soil Type A or B
Soil Type E (1-3 stories)
Soil Type E (> 3 stories)
Minimum Score, SMIN

W1

W1A

W2

4.1
-1.3
-0.8
-1.3
-0.8
1.5
0.3
0.0
-0.5
1.6

3.7
-1.3
-0.8
-1.2
-0.9
1.9
0.6
-0.1
-0.8
1.2

3.2
-1.3
-0.8
-1.1
-0.9
2.3
0.9
-0.3
-1.2
0.8

(MRF)

S1

(BR)

(LM)

(RC
SW)

(URM
INF)

(MRF)

(SW)

(URM
INF)

C3

PC1

PC2

RM1

RM2

URM

MH

2.3
-1.1
-0.7
-0.9
-0.5
1.4
0.6
-0.4
-0.7
0.5

2.2
-1.0
-0.6
-0.8
-0.5
1.4
0.9
-0.5
-0.7
0.5

2.9
-1.2
-0.8
-1.0
-0.7
1.0
0.3
0.0
NA
0.9

2.2
-1.0
-0.6
-0.8
-0.6
1.9
0.9
-0.4
-0.7
0.5

2.0
-0.9
-0.6
-0.7
-0.2
NA
0.9
-0.5
-0.6
0.5

1.7
-1.0
-0.6
-0.7
-0.4
1.9
0.6
-0.2
-0.6
0.3

2.1
-1.1
-0.6
-0.9
-0.7
2.1
0.8
-0.2
-0.8
0.3

1.4
-0.8
-0.5
-0.6
-0.1
NA
0.7
-0.4
-0.4
0.3

1.8
-1.0
-0.6
-0.8
-0.4
2.1
0.9
-0.5
NA
0.3

1.5
-0.9
-0.6
-0.7
-0.3
2.4
0.7
-0.3
-0.5
0.2

1.8
-1.0
-0.6
-0.7
-0.5
2.1
0.8
-0.4
-0.6
0.3

1.8
-1.0
-0.6
-0.7
-0.5
2.1
0.8
-0.4
-0.7
0.3

1.2
-0.8
-0.5
-0.5
-0.1
NA
0.6
-0.3
-0.3
0.2

2.2
NA
NA
NA
-0.3
1.2
0.9
-0.5
NA
1.4

S2

S3

S4

S5

C1

C2

(TU)

(FD)

(RD)

FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1 SMIN:

EXTENT OF REVIEW
Exterior:
Partial
Interior:
None
Drawings Reviewed:
Yes
Soil Type Source:
Geologic Hazards Source:
Contact Person:

All Sides
Visible
No

Aerial
Entered

LEVEL 2 SCREENING PERFORMED?

Yes, Final Level 2 Score, SL2
Nonstructural hazards?
Yes

No
No

OTHER HAZARDS

ACTION REQUIRED

Are There Hazards That Trigger A

Detailed Structural Evaluation?

Detailed Structural Evaluation Required?

Pounding potential (unless SL2 >

cut-off, if known)
Falling hazards from taller adjacent
building
Geologic hazards or Soil Type F
Significant damage/deterioration to
the structural system

Yes, unknown FEMA building type or other building

Yes, score less than cut-off
Yes, other hazards present
No
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation Recommended? (check one)
Yes, nonstructural hazards identified that should be evaluated
No, nonstructural hazards exist that may require mitigation, but a
detailed evaluation is not necessary
No, no nonstructural hazards identified
DNK

Where information cannot be verified, screener shall note the following: EST = Estimated or unreliable data OR DNK = Do Not Know
Legend:

MRF = Moment-resisting frame

BR = Braced frame

RC = Reinforced concrete
SW = Shear wall

URM INF = Unreinforced masonry infill

TU = Tilt up

MH = Manufactured Housing
LM = Light metal

FD = Flexible diaphragm
RD = Rigid diaphragm

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form

Level 2 (Optional)

MODERATELY HIGH Seismicity

Optional Level 2 data collection to be performed by a civil or structural engineering professional, architect, or graduate student with background in seismic evaluation or design of buildings.

Bldg Name:
Screener:
Date/Time:

Final Level 1 Score:

Level 1 Irregularity Modifiers:
ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE:

SL1 =
Vertical Irregularity, VL1 =

(do not consider SMIN)

Plan Irregularity, PL1 =

S = (SL1 VL1 PL1) =

STRUCTURAL MODIFIERS TO ADD TO ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE

Subtotals
Topic
Statement (If statement is true, circle the Yes modifier; otherwise cross out the modifier.)
Yes
Vertical
Sloping
W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-1.3
Irregularity, VL2
Site
Non-W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-0.3
Weak
W1 building cripple wall: An unbraced cripple wall is visible in the crawl space.
-0.6
and/or
W1 house over garage: Underneath an occupied story, there is a garage opening without a steel moment frame,
Soft Story
and there is less than 8' of wall on the same line (for multiple occupied floors above, use 16' of wall minimum).
-1.3
(circle one W1A building open front: There are openings at the ground story (such as for parking) over at least 50% of the
maximum) length of the building.
-1.3
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is less than 50% of that at story above or height of any
story is more than 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-1.0
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is between 50% and 75% of that at story above or height
of any story is between 1.3 and 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-0.5
Setback
Vertical elements of the lateral system at an upper story are outboard of those at the story below causing the

diaphragm to cantilever at the offset.

-1.0
Vertical elements of the lateral system at upper stories are inboard of those at lower stories.
-0.5
There is an in-plane offset of the lateral elements that is greater than the length of the elements.
-0.3
Short
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: At least 20% of columns (or piers) along a column line in the lateral system have
Column/
-0.5
height/depth ratios less than 50% of the nominal height/depth ratio at that level.
Pier
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: The column depth (or pier width) is less than one half of the depth of the spandrel,
or there are infill walls or adjacent floors that shorten the column.
-0.5
Split Level
There is a split level at one of the floor levels or at the roof.
-0.5
Other
There is another observable severe vertical irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-1.0
VL2 = _______
Irregularity There is another observable moderate vertical irregularity that may affect the building's seismic performance.
(Capat 1.3)
-0.5
Plan
Torsional irregularity: Lateral system does not appear relatively well distributed in plan in either or both directions. (Do not
Irregularity, PL2
include the W1A open front irregularity listed above.)
-0.8
Non-parallel system: There are one or more major vertical elements of the lateral system that are not orthogonal to each other.
-0.4
Reentrant corner: Both projections from an interior corner exceed 25% of the overall plan dimension in that direction.
-0.4
Diaphragm opening: There is an opening in the diaphragm with a width over 50% of the total diaphragm width at that level.
-0.3
C1, C2 building out-of-plane offset: The exterior beams do not align with the columns in plan.
-0.4
PL2 = _______
(Capat1.3)
Other irregularity: There is another observable plan irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-0.8
Redundancy
The building has at least two bays of lateral elements on each side of the building in each direction.
+0.3
(Cap total
Pounding
Building is separated from an adjacent structure
The floors do not align vertically within 2 feet.
-1.0
by less than 0.5% of the height of the shorter of
pounding
One building is 2 or more stories taller than the other.
-1.0
the building and adjacent structure and:
modifiers at -1.3)
The building is at the end of the block.
-0.5
S2 Building
K bracing geometry is visible.
-1.0
C1 Building
Flat plate serves as the beam in the moment frame.
-0.5
PC1/RM1 Bldg
+0.3
There are roof-to-wall ties that are visible or known from drawings that do not rely on cross-grain bending. (Do not combine with
post-benchmark or retrofit modifier.)
PC1/RM1 Bldg
The building has closely spaced, full height interior walls (rather than an interior space with few walls such as in a warehouse).
+0.3
URM
Gable walls are present.
-0.4
MH
There is a supplemental seismic bracing system provided between the carriage and the ground.
+1.2
Retrofit
Comprehensive seismic retrofit is visible or known from drawings.
+1.4 M = ________
FINAL LEVEL 2 SCORE, SL2 = (S + VL2 + PL2 + M) SMIN:
(Transfer to Level 1 form)
There is observable damage or deterioration or another condition that negatively affects the building's seismic performance:
Yes
No
If yes, describe the condition in the comment box below and indicate on the Level 1 form that detailed evaluation is required independent of the building's score.
OBSERVABLE NONSTRUCTURAL HAZARDS
Location
Statement (Check Yes or No)
Yes
No
Comment
Exterior
There is an unbraced unreinforced masonry parapet or unbraced unreinforced masonry chimney.
There is heavy cladding or heavy veneer.
There is a heavy canopy over exit doors or pedestrian walkways that appears inadequately supported.
There is an unreinforced masonry appendage over exit doors or pedestrian walkways.
There is a sign posted on the building that indicates hazardous materials are present.
There is a taller adjacent building with an unanchored URM wall or unbraced URM parapet or chimney.
Other observed exterior nonstructural falling hazard:
Interior
There are hollow clay tile or brick partitions at any stair or exit corridor.
Other observed interior nonstructural falling hazard:
Estimated Nonstructural Seismic Performance (Check appropriate box and transfer to Level 1 form conclusions)
Potential nonstructural hazards with significant threat to occupant life safety
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation recommended
Nonstructural hazards identified with significant threat to occupant life safety
But no Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required
Low or no nonstructural hazard threat to occupant life safety
No Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required

Comments:

Level 1

MODERATE Seismicity

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form
Address:

Zip:
Other Identifiers:
Building Name:
Use:
Latitude:
SS:
Screener(s):

PHOTOGRAPH

Longitude:
S 1:
Date/Time:

No. Stories: Above Grade:

Below Grade:
Total Floor Area (sq. ft.):
Additions:
None
Yes, Year(s) Built:
Occupancy:

Assembly
Industrial
Utility

Soil Type:

Commercial
Office
Warehouse

Year Built:
Code Year:

Emer. Services
School
Residential, # Units:

Historic
Government

DNK

Hard
Rock

Avg
Rock

Dense
Soil

Stiff
Soil

Soft
Soil

Poor
Soil

EST

Shelter

If DNK, assume Type D.

Geologic Hazards: Liquefaction: Yes/No/DNK Landslide: Yes/No/DNK Surf. Rupt.: Yes/No/DNK

Adjacency:

Pounding

Irregularities:

Vertical (type/severity)
Plan (type)

Exterior Falling
Hazards:

Unbraced Chimneys
Heavy Cladding or Heavy Veneer
Parapets
Appendages
Other: _______________________________________________

Falling Hazards from Taller Adjacent Building

COMMENTS:

SKETCH

Additional sketches or comments on separate page

BASIC SCORE, MODIFIERS, AND FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1

Do Not
Know

FEMA BUILDING TYPE

Basic Score
Severe Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Moderate Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Plan Irregularity, PL1
Pre-Code
Post-Benchmark
Soil Type A or B
Soil Type E (1-3 stories)
Soil Type E (> 3 stories)
Minimum Score, SMIN

W1

W1A

W2

5.1
-1.4
-0.9
-1.4
-0.3
1.4
0.7
-1.2
-1.8
1.6

4.5
-1.4
-0.9
-1.3
-0.5
2.0
1.2
-1.3
-1.6
1.2

3.8
-1.4
-0.9
-1.2
-0.6
2.5
1.8
-1.4
-1.3
0.9

(MRF)

S1

(BR)

(LM)

(RC
SW)

(URM
INF)

(MRF)

(SW)

(URM
INF)

C3

PC1

PC2

RM1

RM2

URM

MH

2.7
-1.2
-0.8
-1.0
-0.3
1.5
1.1
-0.9
-0.9
0.6

2.6
-1.2
-0.7
-0.9
-0.2
1.5
1.4
-0.9
-0.9
0.6

3.5
-1.4
-0.9
-1.2
-0.2
0.8
0.6
-1.0
NA
0.8

2.5
-1.1
-0.7
-0.9
-0.3
2.1
1.5
-0.9
-0.9
0.6

2.7
-1.2
-0.7
-0.9
-0.3
NA
1.6
-0.9
-1.0
0.6

2.1
-1.1
-0.7
-0.8
-0.3
2.0
1.1
-0.7
-0.8
0.3

2.5
-1.2
-0.7
-1.0
-0.4
2.3
1.5
-1.0
-1.0
0.3

2.0
-1.0
-0.6
-0.8
-0.3
NA
1.3
-0.7
-0.8
0.3

2.1
-1.1
-0.7
-0.9
-0.2
2.1
1.6
-0.8
NA
0.3

1.9
-1.0
-0.6
-0.8
-0.2
2.5
1.3
-0.7
-0.7
0.2

2.1
-1.1
-0.7
-0.8
-0.2
2.3
1.4
-0.8
-0.7
0.3

2.1
-1.1
-0.7
-0.8
-0.2
2.3
1.4
-0.8
-0.8
0.3

1.7
-1.0
-0.6
-0.7
-0.1
NA
1.3
-0.6
-0.6
0.2

2.9
NA
NA
NA
-0.5
1.2
1.6
-0.9
NA
1.5

S2

S3

S4

S5

C1

C2

(TU)

(FD)

(RD)

FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1 SMIN:

EXTENT OF REVIEW
Exterior:
Partial
Interior:
None
Drawings Reviewed:
Yes
Soil Type Source:
Geologic Hazards Source:
Contact Person:

All Sides
Visible
No

Aerial
Entered

LEVEL 2 SCREENING PERFORMED?

Yes, Final Level 2 Score, SL2
Nonstructural hazards?
Yes

No
No

OTHER HAZARDS

ACTION REQUIRED

Are There Hazards That Trigger A

Detailed Structural Evaluation?

Detailed Structural Evaluation Required?

Pounding potential (unless SL2 >

cut-off, if known)
Falling hazards from taller adjacent
building
Geologic hazards or Soil Type F
Significant damage/deterioration to
the structural system

Yes, unknown FEMA building type or other building

Yes, score less than cut-off
Yes, other hazards present
No
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation Recommended? (check one)
Yes, nonstructural hazards identified that should be evaluated
No, nonstructural hazards exist that may require mitigation, but a
detailed evaluation is not necessary
No, no nonstructural hazards identified
DNK

Where information cannot be verified, screener shall note the following: EST = Estimated or unreliable data OR DNK = Do Not Know
Legend:

MRF = Moment-resisting frame

BR = Braced frame

RC = Reinforced concrete
SW = Shear wall

URM INF = Unreinforced masonry infill

TU = Tilt up

MH = Manufactured Housing
LM = Light metal

FD = Flexible diaphragm
RD = Rigid diaphragm

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form

Level 2 (Optional)

MODERATE Seismicity

Optional Level 2 data collection to be performed by a civil or structural engineering professional, architect, or graduate student with background in seismic evaluation or design of buildings.

Bldg Name:
Screener:
Date/Time:

Final Level 1 Score:

Level 1 Irregularity Modifiers:
ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE:

SL1 =
Vertical Irregularity, VL1 =

(do not consider SMIN)

Plan Irregularity, PL1 =

S = (SL1 VL1 PL1) =

STRUCTURAL MODIFIERS TO ADD TO ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE

Subtotals
Topic
Statement (If statement is true, circle the Yes modifier; otherwise cross out the modifier.)
Yes
Vertical
Sloping
W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-1.4
Irregularity, VL2
Site
Non-W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-0.4
Weak
W1 building cripple wall: An unbraced cripple wall is visible in the crawl space.
-0.7
and/or
W1 house over garage: Underneath an occupied story, there is a garage opening without a steel moment frame,
Soft Story
and there is less than 8' of wall on the same line (for multiple occupied floors above, use 16' of wall minimum).
-1.4
(circle one
W1A building open front: There are openings at the ground story (such as for parking) over at least 50% of the
maximum) length of the building.
-1.4
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is less than 50% of that at story above or height of any
story is more than 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-1.1
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is between 50% and 75% of that at story above or height
of any story is between 1.3 and 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-0.6
Setback
Vertical elements of the lateral system at an upper story are outboard of those at the story below causing the

diaphragm to cantilever at the offset.

-1.2
Vertical elements of the lateral system at upper stories are inboard of those at lower stories.
-0.6
There is an in-plane offset of the lateral elements that is greater than the length of the elements.
-0.4
Short
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: At least 20% of columns (or piers) along a column line in the lateral system have
Column/
-0.5
height/depth ratios less than 50% of the nominal height/depth ratio at that level.
Pier
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: The column depth (or pier width) is less than one half of the depth of the
spandrel, or there are infill walls or adjacent floors that shorten the column.
-0.5
Split Level
There is a split level at one of the floor levels or at the roof.
-0.6
Other
There is another observable severe vertical irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-1.2
VL2 = _______
Irregularity There is another observable moderate vertical irregularity that may affect the building's seismic performance.
(Capat 1.4)
-0.6
Plan
Torsional irregularity: Lateral system does not appear relatively well distributed in plan in either or both directions. (Do not
Irregularity, PL2
include the W1A open front irregularity listed above.)
-1.0
Non-parallel system: There are one or more major vertical elements of the lateral system that are not orthogonal to each other.
-0.5
Reentrant corner: Both projections from an interior corner exceed 25% of the overall plan dimension in that direction.
-0.5
Diaphragm opening: There is an opening in the diaphragm with a width over 50% of the total diaphragm width at that level.
-0.3
C1, C2 building out-of-plane offset: The exterior beams do not align with the columns in plan.
-0.4
PL2 = _______
(Capat1.4)
Other irregularity: There is another observable plan irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-1.0
Redundancy
The building has at least two bays of lateral elements on each side of the building in each direction.
+0.4
(Cap total
Pounding
Building is separated from an adjacent structure
The floors do not align vertically within 2 feet.
-1.2
by less than 0.25% of the height of the shorter of
pounding
One building is 2 or more stories taller than the other.
-1.2
the building and adjacent structure and:
modifiers at -1.4)
The building is at the end of the block.
-0.6
S2 Building
K bracing geometry is visible.
-1.2
C1 Building
Flat plate serves as the beam in the moment frame.
-0.5
PC1/RM1 Bldg
There are roof-to-wall ties that are visible or known from drawings that do not rely on cross-grain bending. (Do not combine with
+0.4
post-benchmark or retrofit modifier.)
PC1/RM1 Bldg
The building has closely spaced, full height interior walls (rather than an interior space with few walls such as in a warehouse).
+0.4
URM
Gable walls are present.
-0.5
MH
There is a supplemental seismic bracing system provided between the carriage and the ground.
+1.2
Retrofit
Comprehensive seismic retrofit is visible or known from drawings.
+1.4 M = ________
FINAL LEVEL 2 SCORE, SL2 = (S + VL2 + PL2 + M) SMIN:
(Transfer to Level 1 form)
There is observable damage or deterioration or another condition that negatively affects the building's seismic performance:
Yes
No
If yes, describe the condition in the comment box below and indicate on the Level 1 form that detailed evaluation is required independent of the building's score.
OBSERVABLE NONSTRUCTURAL HAZARDS
Location
Statement (Check Yes or No)
Yes
No
Comment
Exterior
There is an unbraced unreinforced masonry parapet or unbraced unreinforced masonry chimney.
There is heavy cladding or heavy veneer.
There is a heavy canopy over exit doors or pedestrian walkways that appears inadequately supported.
There is an unreinforced masonry appendage over exit doors or pedestrian walkways.
There is a sign posted on the building that indicates hazardous materials are present.
There is a taller adjacent building with an unanchored URM wall or unbraced URM parapet or chimney.
Other observed exterior nonstructural falling hazard:
Interior
There are hollow clay tile or brick partitions at any stair or exit corridor.
Other observed interior nonstructural falling hazard:
Estimated Nonstructural Seismic Performance (Check appropriate box and transfer to Level 1 form conclusions)
Potential nonstructural hazards with significant threat to occupant life safety
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation recommended
Nonstructural hazards identified with significant threat to occupant life safety
But no Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required
Low or no nonstructural hazard threat to occupant life safety
No Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required

Comments:

Level 1

LOW Seismicity

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form
Address:

Zip:
Other Identifiers:
Building Name:
Use:
Latitude:
SS:
Screener(s):

PHOTOGRAPH

Longitude:
S 1:
Date/Time:

No. Stories: Above Grade:

Below Grade:
Total Floor Area (sq. ft.):
Additions:
None
Yes, Year(s) Built:
Occupancy:

Assembly
Industrial
Utility

Soil Type:

Commercial
Office
Warehouse

Year Built:
Code Year:

Emer. Services
School
Residential, # Units:

Historic
Government

DNK

Hard
Rock

Avg
Rock

Dense
Soil

Stiff
Soil

Soft
Soil

Poor
Soil

EST

Shelter

If DNK, assume Type D.

Geologic Hazards: Liquefaction: Yes/No/DNK Landslide: Yes/No/DNK Surf. Rupt.: Yes/No/DNK

Adjacency:

Pounding

Irregularities:

Vertical (type/severity)
Plan (type)

Exterior Falling
Hazards:

Unbraced Chimneys
Heavy Cladding or Heavy Veneer
Parapets
Appendages
Other: _______________________________________________

Falling Hazards from Taller Adjacent Building

COMMENTS:

SKETCH

Additional sketches or comments on separate page

BASIC SCORE, MODIFIERS, AND FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1

Do Not
Know

FEMA BUILDING TYPE

Basic Score
Severe Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Moderate Vertical Irregularity, VL1
Plan Irregularity, PL1
Pre-Code
Post-Benchmark
Soil Type A or B
Soil Type E (1-3 stories)
Soil Type E (> 3 stories)
Minimum Score, SMIN

W1

W1A

W2

6.2
-1.5
-1.0
-1.6
NA
2.2
0.9
-1.2
-1.7
2.7

5.9
-1.5
-0.9
-1.4
NA
2.4
1.1
-1.7
-2.0
2.1

5.7
-1.5
-0.9
-1.3
NA
2.5
1.3
-2.3
-2.2
1.5

(MRF)

S1

(BR)

(LM)

(RC
SW)

(URM
INF)

(MRF)

(SW)

(URM
INF)

C3

PC1

PC2

RM1

RM2

URM

MH

3.8
-1.4
-0.9
-1.2
NA
2.0
1.0
-1.2
-1.2
0.9

3.9
-1.3
-0.8
-1.1
NA
1.6
1.2
-1.4
-1.4
0.8

4.4
-1.6
-1.0
-1.4
NA
1.4
0.8
-1.0
NA
1.2

4.1
-1.2
-0.7
-1.0
NA
2.1
1.3
-1.7
-1.7
0.8

4.5
-1.3
-0.7
-1.1
NA
NA
1.4
-2.0
-1.9
0.9

3.3
-1.3
-0.7
-1.0
NA
2.3
0.9
-1.4
-1.3
0.5

4.2
-1.2
-0.7
-1.0
NA
2.2
1.2
-2.0
-1.9
0.6

3.5
-1.1
-0.6
-0.9
NA
NA
1.2
-1.6
-1.6
0.5

3.8
-1.3
-0.8
-1.2
NA
1.9
1.3
-1.7
NA
0.6

3.3
-1.1
-0.6
-0.9
NA
2.6
1.3
-1.6
-1.6
0.4

3.7
-1.1
-0.6
-0.9
NA
2.3
1.4
-1.7
-1.6
0.6

3.7
-1.1
-0.6
-0.9
NA
2.3
1.4
-1.7
-1.7
0.5

3.2
-1.2
-0.7
-1.0
NA
NA
1.3
-1.5
-1.4
0.4

4.6
NA
NA
NA
NA
1.8
0.9
-2.1
NA
2.5

S2

S3

S4

S5

C1

C2

(TU)

(FD)

(RD)

FINAL LEVEL 1 SCORE, SL1 SMIN:

EXTENT OF REVIEW
Exterior:
Partial
Interior:
None
Drawings Reviewed:
Yes
Soil Type Source:
Geologic Hazards Source:
Contact Person:

All Sides
Visible
No

Aerial
Entered

LEVEL 2 SCREENING PERFORMED?

Yes, Final Level 2 Score, SL2
Nonstructural hazards?
Yes

No
No

OTHER HAZARDS

ACTION REQUIRED

Are There Hazards That Trigger A

Detailed Structural Evaluation?

Detailed Structural Evaluation Required?

Pounding potential (unless SL2 >

cut-off, if known)
Falling hazards from taller adjacent
building
Geologic hazards or Soil Type F
Significant damage/deterioration to
the structural system

Yes, unknown FEMA building type or other building

Yes, score less than cut-off
Yes, other hazards present
No
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation Recommended? (check one)
Yes, nonstructural hazards identified that should be evaluated
No, nonstructural hazards exist that may require mitigation, but a
detailed evaluation is not necessary
No, no nonstructural hazards identified
DNK

Where information cannot be verified, screener shall note the following: EST = Estimated or unreliable data OR DNK = Do Not Know
Legend:

MRF = Moment-resisting frame

BR = Braced frame

RC = Reinforced concrete
SW = Shear wall

URM INF = Unreinforced masonry infill

TU = Tilt up

MH = Manufactured Housing
LM = Light metal

FD = Flexible diaphragm
RD = Rigid diaphragm

Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards

FEMA P-154 Data Collection Form

Level 2 (Optional)

LOW Seismicity

Optional Level 2 data collection to be performed by a civil or structural engineering professional, architect, or graduate student with background in seismic evaluation or design of buildings.

Bldg Name:
Screener:
Date/Time:

Final Level 1 Score:

Level 1 Irregularity Modifiers:
ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE:

SL1 =
Vertical Irregularity, VL1 =

(do not consider SMIN)

Plan Irregularity, PL1 =

S = (SL1 VL1 PL1) =

STRUCTURAL MODIFIERS TO ADD TO ADJUSTED BASELINE SCORE

Subtotals
Topic
Statement (If statement is true, circle the Yes modifier; otherwise cross out the modifier.)
Yes
Vertical
Sloping
W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-1.5
Irregularity, VL2
Site
Non-W1 building: There is at least a full story grade change from one side of the building to the other.
-0.4
Weak
W1 building cripple wall: An unbraced cripple wall is visible in the crawl space.
-0.7
and/or
W1 house over garage: Underneath an occupied story, there is a garage opening without a steel moment frame,
Soft Story
and there is less than 8' of wall on the same line (for multiple occupied floors above, use 16' of wall minimum).
-1.5
(circle one
W1A building open front: There are openings at the ground story (such as for parking) over at least 50% of the
maximum) length of the building.
-1.5
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is less than 50% of that at story above or height of any
story is more than 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-1.3
Non-W1 building: Length of lateral system at any story is between 50% and 75% of that at story above or height
of any story is between 1.3 and 2.0 times the height of the story above.
-0.6
Setback
Vertical elements of the lateral system at an upper story are outboard of those at the story below causing the

diaphragm to cantilever at the offset.

-1.3
Vertical elements of the lateral system at upper stories are inboard of those at lower stories.
-0.6
There is an in-plane offset of the lateral elements that is greater than the length of the elements.
-0.4
Short
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: At least 20% of columns (or piers) along a column line in the lateral system have
Column/
-0.6
height/depth ratios less than 50% of the nominal height/depth ratio at that level.
Pier
C1,C2,C3,PC1,PC2,RM1,RM2: The column depth (or pier width) is less than one half of the depth of the
spandrel, or there are infill walls or adjacent floors that shorten the column.
-0.6
Split Level
There is a split level at one of the floor levels or at the roof.
-0.6
Other
There is another observable severe vertical irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-1.3
VL2 = _______
Irregularity There is another observable moderate vertical irregularity that may affect the building's seismic performance.
(Capat 1.5)
-0.6
Plan
Torsional irregularity: Lateral system does not appear relatively well distributed in plan in either or both directions. (Do not
Irregularity, PL2
include the W1A open front irregularity listed above.)
-1.1
Non-parallel system: There are one or more major vertical elements of the lateral system that are not orthogonal to each other.
-0.6
Reentrant corner: Both projections from an interior corner exceed 25% of the overall plan dimension in that direction.
-0.6
Diaphragm opening: There is an opening in the diaphragm with a width over 50% of the total diaphragm width at that level.
-0.4
C1, C2 building out-of-plane offset: The exterior beams do not align with the columns in plan.
-0.5
PL2 = _______
(Capat1.6)
Other irregularity: There is another observable plan irregularity that obviously affects the building's seismic performance.
-1.1
Redundancy
The building has at least two bays of lateral elements on each side of the building in each direction.
+0.4
(Cap total
Pounding
Building is separated from an adjacent structure
The floors do not align vertically within 2 feet.
-1.3
by less than 0.1% of the height of the shorter of
pounding
One building is 2 or more stories taller than the other.
-1.3
the building and adjacent structure and:
modifiers at -1.5)
The building is at the end of the block.
-0.6
S2 Building
K bracing geometry is visible.
-1.3
C1 Building
Flat plate serves as the beam in the moment frame.
-0.6
PC1/RM1 Bldg
+0.4
There are roof-to-wall ties that are visible or known from drawings that do not rely on cross-grain bending. (Do not combine with
post-benchmark or retrofit modifier.)
PC1/RM1 Bldg
The building has closely spaced, full height interior walls (rather than an interior space with few walls such as in a warehouse).
+0.4
URM
Gable walls are present.
-0.6
MH
There is a supplemental seismic bracing system provided between the carriage and the ground.
+1.8
Retrofit
Comprehensive seismic retrofit is visible or known from drawings.
+1.6 M = ________
FINAL LEVEL 2 SCORE, SL2 = (S + VL2 + PL2 + M) SMIN:
(Transfer to Level 1 form)
There is observable damage or deterioration or another condition that negatively affects the building's seismic performance:
Yes
No
If yes, describe the condition in the comment box below and indicate on the Level 1 form that detailed evaluation is required independent of the building's score.
OBSERVABLE NONSTRUCTURAL HAZARDS
Location
Statement (Check Yes or No)
Yes
No
Comment
Exterior
There is an unbraced unreinforced masonry parapet or unbraced unreinforced masonry chimney.
There is heavy cladding or heavy veneer.
There is a heavy canopy over exit doors or pedestrian walkways that appears inadequately supported.
There is an unreinforced masonry appendage over exit doors or pedestrian walkways.
There is a sign posted on the building that indicates hazardous materials are present.
There is a taller adjacent building with an unanchored URM wall or unbraced URM parapet or chimney.
Other observed exterior nonstructural falling hazard:
Interior
There are hollow clay tile or brick partitions at any stair or exit corridor.
Other observed interior nonstructural falling hazard:
Estimated Nonstructural Seismic Performance (Check appropriate box and transfer to Level 1 form conclusions)
Potential nonstructural hazards with significant threat to occupant life safety
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation recommended
Nonstructural hazards identified with significant threat to occupant life safety
But no Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required
Low or no nonstructural hazard threat to occupant life safety
No Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation required

Comments:

B.2

Quick Reference Guide

Table B-1

FEMA Building Types and Code Adoption and Enforcement Dates

FEMA Building Type

W1

Light wood frame single- or multiple-family dwellings

W1A

Light wood frame multi-unit, multi-story residential buildings

with plan areas on each floor of greater than 3,000 square feet

W2

Wood frame commercial and industrial buildings > 5,000 sqft

S1

Steel moment-resisting frame

S2

Braced steel frame

S3

Light metal frame

S4

Steel frame with cast-in-place concrete shear walls

S5

Steel frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls

C1

Concrete moment-resisting frame

C2

Concrete shear wall

C3

Concrete frame with unreinforced masonry infill walls

PC1

Tilt-up construction

PC2

Precast concrete frame

RM1

Reinforced masonry with flexible floor and roof diaphragms

RM2

Reinforced masonry with rigid floor and roof diaphragms

URM

Unreinforced masonry bearing-wall buildings

MH

Manufactured housing

Year Seismic
Codes
Initially
Adopted and
Enforced

Benchmark Year
when Codes
Improved

Anchorage of Heavy Cladding

Year in which seismic anchorage requirements were adopted:
Notes:

These tables shall be filled out by the Supervising Engineer. See Section 2.6.3 of the Handbook for additional information.

If seismic codes have never been adopted and enforced in the jurisdiction, apply the Pre-Code Score Modifier regardless of

the buildings date of construction.

Pre-Code:
Building designed and constructed prior to the year in which seismic codes were initially adopted and

enforced in the jurisdiction; pre-code years are not applicable in regions of Low seismicity.
Post-Benchmark: Building designed and constructed after significant improvements in seismic code requirements
(e.g., ductile detailing) were adopted and enforced; the benchmark year when codes improved may be
different for each building type and jurisdiction.
Heavy Cladding: Heavy cladding on buildings designed and constructed prior to the year noted is considered an exterior
falling hazard and should be noted as such on the Level 1 form.

B-12

B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

FEMA P-154

B.3

Level 1 Building Addition Reference Guide

Table B-2

Level 1 Reference Guide for Reviewing Buildings with Horizontal

Additions

Building Addition Screening Criteria

Response

Criterion 1: Does the building have

visible and aligned joints over the entire
height of two exterior walls and across
the roof?

Yes

Determine scores for each

separate building defined by
the joints and consider the
potential for pounding using
the adjacency guidelines in
Section 3.9.

No

See Criterion 2

Yes

Screen as separate buildings

defined by the differences
noted in Criterion 2.
Determine score for each
portion and record the lower
score.

No

Screen as a single building.

Criterion 2: Does the building have any

of the following characteristics:
a) abrupt and noticeable differences in
architectural style that occur on two
sides of the building over the entire
height of the exterior walls?
b) visible differences in structural
framing between distinct portions of the
building?
c) differences in floor elevation
between portions of the building?

FEMA P-154

Screening Guidance

Appendix B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

B-13

B.4

Level 1 Pounding Reference Guide

Table B-3

Level 1 Pounding Reference Guide

Consider pounding when the separation between adjacent buildings is less than:

2 times number of stories in shorter building (in Very High seismicity region)

1 1/2 times number of stories in shorter building (in High seismicity region)

1 times number of stories in shorter building (in Moderately High seismicity region)

1/2 times number of stories in shorter building (in Moderate and Low seismicity regions)
Examples:
a) Two 2-story buildings next to each other in High seismicity region:
Minimum Separation = 1 1/2 x 2 = 3
b) 6-story building next to a 4-story building in Moderate seismicity
region: Minimum Separation = 1/2 x 4 = 2

AND one or more of the following conditions apply:

1.

Floors of adjacent building do not align vertically within two feet:

2.

One building is 2 or more stories taller than the other:

3.

Building is at the end of the block:

B-14

B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

FEMA P-154

B.5

Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide

Table B-4

Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide

Vertical Irregularity

Sloping Site

(a)

(b)

Unbraced
Cripple Wall

Severity

Level 1 Instructions

Varies

Apply if there is more than a one-story

slope from one side of the building to the
other. Evaluate as Severe for W1 buildings
as shown in Figure (a); evaluate as
Moderate for all other building types as
shown in Figure (b).

Moderate

Apply if unbraced cripple walls are

observed in the crawlspace of the
building. This applies to W1 buildings. If
the basement is occupied, consider this
condition as a soft story.

Weak and/or
Soft Story

Out-of-Plane
Setback

FEMA P-154

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(a)

(b)

Severe

Apply:
Figure (a): For a W1 house with occupied
space over a garage with limited or short
wall lengths on both sides of the garage
opening.
Figure (b): For a W1A building with an
open front at the ground story (such as for
parking).
Figure (c): When one of the stories has
less wall or fewer columns than the others
(usually the bottom story).
Figure (d): When one of the stories is taller
than the others (usually the bottom story).

Severe

Apply if the walls of the building do not

stack vertically in plan. This irregularity is
most severe when the vertical elements of
the lateral system at the upper levels are
outboard of those at the lower levels as
shown in Figure (a). The condition in
Figure (b) also triggers this irregularity. If
nonstacking walls are known to be
nonstructural, this irregularity does not
apply.
Apply the setback if greater than or equal
to 2 feet.

Appendix B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

B-15

Table B-4

Vertical Irregularity Reference Guide (continued)

Vertical Irregularity

In-plane
Setback

Short
Column/Pier

(a)

(a)

Severity

Level 1 Instructions

(b)

Moderate

Apply if there is an in-plane offset of the

lateral system. Usually, this is observable in
braced frame (Figure (a)) and shear wall
buildings (Figure (b)).

(b)

Severe

Apply if:
Figure (a): Some columns/piers are much
shorter than the typical columns/piers in
the same line.
Figure (b): The columns/piers are narrow
compared to the depth of the beams.
Figure (c): There are infill walls that shorten
the clear height of the column.
Note this deficiency is typically seen in
older concrete and steel building types.

(c)

Split Levels

B-16

Moderate

Apply if the floors of the building do not

align or if there is a step in the roof level.

B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

FEMA P-154

B.6

Plan Irregularity Reference Guide

Table B-5

Plan Irregularity Reference Guide

Plan Irregularity

Level 1 Instructions

Torsion

(a)

Apply if there is good lateral resistance in one

direction, but not the other, or if there is eccentric
stiffness in plan (as shown in Figures (a) and (b); solid
walls on two or three sides with walls with lots of
openings on the remaining sides).

(b)

Non-Parallel
Systems

Apply if the sides of the building do not form

90-degree angles.

Reentrant
Corner

Apply if there is a reentrant corner, i.e., the building

is L, U, T, or + shaped, with projections of more
than 20 feet. Where possible, check to see if there
are seismic separations where the wings meet. If so,
evaluate for pounding.

Diaphragm
Openings

Apply if there is a opening that has a width of over

50% of the width of the diaphragm at any level.

Beams do
not align
with
columns

Apply if the exterior beams do not align with the

columns in plan. Typically, this applies to concrete
buildings, where the perimeter columns are
outboard of the perimeter beams.

FEMA P-154

Appendix B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

B-17

B.7

Level 2 Building Addition Reference Guide

Table B-6
Addition
Orientation

Level 2 Building Addition Reference Guide

Type of Addition

Example

RVS Screening
Recommendation

Notes and Additional

Instructions

Vertical

Single story addition

has a smaller footprint
than the original
building

Evaluate as a single
building using the total
number of stories of
the original building
and addition and
indicate a setback
vertical irregularity.

Vertical setback irregularity

applies if the area of the
addition is less than 90
percent of the area of the
story below or if two or more
walls of the addition are not
aligned with the walls below.

Vertical

Single or multiple
story addition with
similar footprint and
seismic force-resisting
system as the original
building

Evaluate as a single
building using the total
number of stories of
the building plus the
addition.

If the vertical elements of the

seismic force-resisting system
of the addition do not align
with the vertical elements of
the seismic force-resisting
system below, apply the
setback vertical irregularity.

Vertical

Single or multiple
story addition in
which the addition has
a different seismic
force-resisting system

Evaluate as a single
building with another
observable moderate
vertical irregularity.

If the footprint of the addition

is less than 90 percent of the
story below or if two or more
walls of the addition are not
aligned with the walls below,
a setback vertical irregularity
should also be indicated.

Horizontal

Addition with same

construction type and
number of stories as
original and horizontal
dimension of the
narrower building at
the interface is less
than or equal to 50%
of the length of the
wider building

Evaluate as a single
building with a
torsional irregularity
plan irregularity.

If the difference in horizontal

dimension is between 50%
and 75%, indicate a reentrant
corner irregularity. If the floor
heights are not aligned within
2 feet, presence of pounding
is indicated.

Horizontal

Addition with a
different height than
the original building

Evaluate as a single
building using the
height of the taller
building and indicate
a Pounding Score
Modifier if the heights
of the buildings differ
by more than 2 stories
or if the floors do not
align with 2 feet.

If the horizontal dimension of

the narrower of the two
buildings along the interface is
less than 75% of the
dimension of the wider, the
reentrant corner plan
irregularity should be
indicated.

The above horizontal addition scenarios assume that there is not an obvious separation gap between the addition and the
original building.

B-18

B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

FEMA P-154

Table B-6

Level 2 Building Addition Reference Guide (continued)

Addition
Orientation

Type of Addition

Example

RVS Screening
Recommendation

Notes and Additional

Instructions

Horizontal

Addition with different

building type than
original

Evaluate a single
building with torsional
irregularity using the
building type with the
lower basic score.

If the floors do not align

within 2 feet or the number of
stories differs by more than 2
stories, also indicate the
appropriate Pounding Score
Modifier.

Horizontal

Small addition where

the addition relies on
the original building
for gravity support

Evaluate as a single
building. Evaluate for
the presence of a
setback irregularity if
there is a difference in
the number of stories
and plan irregularity if
there is a difference in
horizontal dimension
of the original building
and addition along the
interface.

If the construction type of the

addition is different than the
original building, evaluate as
two buildings with the
addition as having an
observable severe vertical
irregularity.

The above horizontal addition scenarios assume that there is not an obvious separation gap between the addition and the
original building.

FEMA P-154

Appendix B: Data Collection Forms and Reference Guides

B-19

Appendix C

Review of Design and

Construction Drawings

Drawing styles vary among engineering offices, but the conventions used are
very consistent. The following are some of the common designations:

Around the perimeter of the building, the exterior walls will be shown as
a double line, if the space between the lines is empty, this will usually be
a wood stud wall:

Concrete walls will be shaded or dotted:

or
Masonry walls will be cross hatched or double hatched:
or
Horizontal beams and girders will be shown with a solid line for steel
and wood, and a double solid or dotted line for concrete.
o Steel framing will have a notation of shape, depth, and weight of the

member. The designations will include W, S, I, B and several others

followed by the depth in inches, an x, and the weight in pounds per
lineal foot. An example would be W8x10 (wide flange shape, 8
deep, 10 lbs/ft).
o Wood framing will have the width and depth of the member. An

example would be 4x10 (4 wide and 10 deep). Floor joists and

roof rafters will be shown with the same call-out except not all
members will be shown. A few at each end of the area being framed
will show, and there will be an arrow showing the extent and the
call-out of the size members.
o Concrete framing will have the width and depth. Where steel and

wood are shown as single line, concrete will be shown as a double

line. An example of the call out would be 12x24 (12 wide and 24
deep). Additionally, or in lieu of the number call-out, the member
might be given a letter and number (e.g., B-1, G-1) with a reference
to a schedule for the size and reinforcing, where B stands for beam

FEMA P-154

C: Review of Design and Construction Drawings

C-1


and G stands for girder. Usually, beams are smaller than girders and
span between girders while girders will be larger and frame between
columns.
Columns will be shown on the floor plans as their shape with a shading
designation where appropriate:
o Steel columns will be shown as an H rotated to the correct

orientation for the location on the plan:

or
o Wood columns will be an open square:

o Concrete columns will be either a square or a circle depending on the

column configuration. The square or circle will be shaded or dotted:

or
Steel moment frames will show the columns with a heavy line between
the columns representing the beam or girder. At each end of the beam or
girder at the column will be a small shaded triangle, indicating that the
connection between the beam or girder and the column is fully restrained

Figure C-1 shows an example of a framing plan for floor in a steel S1 or S2

building, and Figure C-2 shows an example for a concrete C2 building.

FEMA P-154

C: Review of Design and Construction Drawings

C-2

Figure C-1

FEMA P-154

Representative construction drawing of a floor plan for an S1 building. S2 detailing also shown.

C: Review of Design and Construction Drawings

C-3

Figure C-2

Representative construction drawing of a floor plan for a C2 building.

FEMA P-154

C: Review of Design and Construction Drawings

C-4

Appendix D

Exterior Screening for Seismic

System and Age

D.1

Introduction

A successful evaluation of a building is dependent on the screeners ability to

identify accurately the construction materials, seismic force-resisting system,
age, and other attributes that would modify its earthquake performance (e.g.,
vertical or plan irregularities). This appendix includes discussions of
inspection techniques that can be used while viewing from the street.
D.2

What to Look For and How to Find It

It may be difficult to identify positively the FEMA Building Type from the
street as building veneers often mask the structural skeleton. For example, a
steel frame and a concrete frame may look similar from the outside. Features
typical of a specific type of structure may give clues for successful
identification. In some cases, there may be more than one type of frame
present in the structure. Should this be the case, the predominant frame type
should be indicated on the form.
Following are attributes that should be considered when trying to determine a
building seismic force-resisting system from the street:
Age. The approximate age of a building can indicate the possible FEMA
Building Type, as well as indicating the seismic design code used during
the building design process. Age is difficult to determine visually, but an
approximation, accurate within perhaps a decade, can be estimated by
looking at the architectural style and detail treatment of the building
exterior, if the faade has not been renovated. If a building has been
renovated, the apparent age is misleading. See Section D.3 for additional
guidance.
Faade Pattern. The type of structure can sometimes be deduced by the
openness of the faade, or the size and pattern of window openings. The
faade material often can give hints to the structure beneath. Newer
faade materials likely indicate that modern construction types were used
in the design and may indicate that certain building types can be
eliminated.

FEMA P-154

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-1

 Height. The number of stories will indicate the possible type of

construction. This is particularly useful for taller buildings, when
combined with knowledge of local building practice. See Section D.4 for
additional guidance.
Original Use. The original use can, at times, give hints as to the FEMA
Building Type. The original use can be inferred from the building
character, if the building has not been renovated. The present use may be
different from the original use. This is especially true in neighborhoods
that have changed in character. A typical example of this is where a
citys central business district has grown rapidly, and engulfed what were
once industrial districts. A buildings use may have changed to mixed
office, commercial or residential (for office workers).
D.3

Identification of Building Age

The ability to identify the age of a building by considering its architectural

style and construction materials requires an extensive knowledge of
architectural history and past construction practice. It is beyond the scope of
this Handbook to discuss the various styles and construction practices.
Persons involved in or interested in buildings often have a general knowledge
of architectural history relevant to their region. Interested readers should refer
to in-depth texts for more specific information.
Photographs, architectural character, and age of residential, commercial, and
mixed use and miscellaneous buildings, are illustrated in Tables D-1 through
D-3, respectively. Photographs of several example steel frame and concrete
frame buildings under construction are provided in Figure D-1. The screener
should study these photographs and characteristics closely to assist in
differentiating architectural styles and faade treatment of various periods.
Faade renovation (see Photos b and c in Figure D-1) can clearly alter the
original appearance. When estimating building age, the screener should look
at the building from all sides as faade renovation often occurs only at the
building front. A new building will seldom look like an old one. That is, a
building is usually at least as old as it looks. Even when designed to look old,
telltale signs of modern techniques can usually be seen in the type of windows,
fixtures, and material used.
D.4

Identification of FEMA Building Type

The most common inspection that will be utilized with the RVS procedure will
be the exterior or sidewalk or streetside survey. First, the evaluation
should be as thorough as possible and performed in a logical manner. The
street-facing front of the building is the starting point and the evaluation

D-2

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

begins at the ground and progressively moves up the exterior wall to the roof
or parapet line.
Table D-1

Photographs, Architectural Characteristics, and Age of Residential Buildings

Examples

Characteristics
Low-Rise Buildings
(1-3 stories):
Typically wood or masonry
May have ground floor or
basement parking, a soft story
Older buildings typically have
more architectural detail,
ornamentation

a. 1965 1980

b. 1965-1980

1950s and later are more

modern,lacking
ornamentation, typically with
more horizontal lines
Common FEMA Building Types:
W1A, W2, C1, C2, RM1, RM2,
URM

Mid-Rise (4-7 stories) and

High-Rise Buildings (8 stories
and higher):

c. 1965-1980

Typically, reinforced concrete

(older, URM)
d. 1960-1975 reinforced concrete
shear wall

May have commercial ground

floor, a soft story
Older buildings typically have
more cornices, architectural
detail, ornamentation
1950s and later are lacking
ornamentation, typically with
stronger vertical or horizontal
lines
Common FEMA Building Types:
W1A, RM1, RM2, URM

e. Pre-1933 URM (rehabilitated)

FEMA P-154

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-3

Table D-2

Illustrations, Architectural Characteristics, and Age of Commercial Structures

Examples

Characteristics
Pre-1950:
Building has flat roof with
cornices, or several
setbacks.
Ornate decorative work
in concrete, terra cotta,
cast stone or iron.
Large bell tower or clock
tower is common.
Simple pattern of
windows on all sides.
Floors are concrete slabs
on steel or concrete
beams.
Exterior is stone, terra
cotta or concrete.

a. Pre-1930 (The New American Library,

1980)

Common FEMA Building

Types: S2, S5, C2, C3
b. 1910-1920

(Steel frame with unreinforced masonry infill

that has been seismically

rehabilitated)

d. 1920-1930

c. 1920-1930

e. 1890-1900

D-4

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

Table D-2

Illustrations, Architectural Characteristics, and Age of Commercial Structures (continued)

Examples

Characteristics
1950-1975:
Flat roof, typically with no
cornice.
Building is square or
rectangular full height, fewer
setbacks.
First story and top story can be
taller than other stories. In
some cases, the top story
could be shorter than others.
g. 1950-1975

Exterior finishes metal or glass,

pre-cast stone or concrete.
Floors are concrete slab over
steel or concrete beams.
Common FEMA Building Types:
S1, S2, S4, C1, C2

f. 44 story, 1960s, L-shape on the

left; 20 story, 1914, with setback
on the right

i. 1950-1975

h. 1940-1950

j. 1950-1975

FEMA P-154

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-5

Table D-2

Illustrations, Architectural Characteristics, and Age of Commercial Structures (continued)

Examples

Characteristics
Post-1975:
Flat roof, typically with no
cornice.
Building is square or
rectangular for its full
height, fewer setbacks.

k. Post-1975
l. Post-1975

First story and top story

can be taller than other
stories. (In some cases,
though, the top story
could be shorter than
others.)
Exterior finishes: metal or
glass, pre-cast stone or
concrete, with little
ornamentation
Floors are concrete slabs
over steel or concrete
beams.
Common FEMA Building
Types: S1, S2, S4, C1, C2

m. Post-1975
n. Post-1975

o. Post-1975

D-6

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

Table D-3

Photographs, Architectural Characteristics, and Age of Miscellaneous Structures

Examples

Characteristics
Mixed use (residential with a
commercial first floor), places of
assembly, theatres, triangular
buildings, halls, parking structures:
Long spans
Tall first story (for commercial
use) - soft or weak story
Atria or irregular floor-to-floor
layout
b. 1920-1950

a. 1920-1930

c. 1990-2000

f. Pre-1930

e. 1920-1930; windows create

coupled shear walls.
d. 1990-2000; airport terminal
g. 1950 1965 parking
structure

h. 1920-1930; theater and shops complex, reinforced concrete

FEMA P-154

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-7

b. Reinforced concrete frame under renovation:

demolition of older faade units.

a. Building above is a high-rise steel dual system: moment

frame (heavy columns and beams on upper faade) with
bracing around elevator core. Fireproofing is being applied
to steel at mid-height (inside the shroud) and precast faade
elements are being attached to frame in lower stories.

Figure D-1

c. New precast faade units being applied to reinforced

concrete frame buildings.

Photos showing basic construction in steel-frame buildings and reinforced concrete-frame buildings.

For taller buildings, a pair of binoculars is useful. When a thorough

inspection of the street-front elevation has been completed, the procedure is
repeated on the next accessible wall. From the exterior, the screener should
be able to determine the approximate age of the building, its original
occupancy, and count the number of stories. With this information, Tables
D-4 through D-7 provide the most likely structural system type, based on
original occupancy and number of stories. These tables are based on expert
judgment and would benefit from verification by design professionals and
building regulatory personnel familiar with local design and construction
D-8

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

Table D-4

Most Likely FEMA Building Types for Pre-1930 Buildings

Number of Stories

Original Occupancy
Residential

1-2

4-6

7-15

W1

W1A

W1A

S5

W1A

URM

S5

C3

URM

15-30

30+

C3
URM

Commercial

W2

W2

S1

S1

S1

S4

S4

S2

S2

S2

S5

S5

S4

S4

S4

C1

C1

S5

S5

S5

C2

C2

C1

C1

C1

C3

C3

C2

C2

C2

URM

URM

C3

C3

C3

URM
Industrial

W2

W2

S1

S1

S2

S2

S3

S5

S5

C1

C1

C2

C2

C3

C3

URM

URM

practices. Note that if it is not possible to identify immediately the FEMA

Building Type for a pre-1930 building, the original occupancy and number of
stories will provide some guidance. The building will need further inspection
for precise identification.
In addition to using information on occupancy and number of stories, as
provided in Tables D-4 through D-7, the following are some locations that the
screener can look, without performing destructive investigations, to gain
insight into the structure type:
In newer frame construction the columns are often exposed on the exterior
in the first story. If the columns are covered with a faade material, they
are most likely steel columns, indicating a steel frame. If the frames are
concrete, they are usually exposed and not covered with a faade. See
Figures D-2 and D-3.

FEMA P-154

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-9

Table D-5

Most Likely FEMA Building Types for 1930-1945 Buildings

Number of Stories

Original Occupancy
Residential

1-2

4-6

7-15

W1

W1A

W1A

S1

W1A

URM

S1

S2

S2

S5

URM

15-30

30+

S5
URM
Commercial

Industrial

D-10

W2

W2

S1

S1

S1

S2

S1

S1

S2

S2

S2

S5

S2

S2

S5

S5

S5

S5

S5

C1

C1

C1

C1

C1

C2

C2

C2

C2

C2

C3

C3

C3

C3

C3

RM1

RM1

RM1

RM2

RM2

RM2

URM

URM

URM

S3

S3

C1

S5

S5

C2

C1

C1

C3

C2

C2

C3

C3

RM1

RM1

RM2

RM2

URM

URM

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

Table D-6

Most Likely FEMA Building Types for 1945-1960 Buildings

Number of Stories

Original Occupancy

1-2

Residential

W1

W1A

W1A
RM

7-15

15-30

30+

S1

S1

S1

S1

RM

S2

S2

S2

S2

URM*

C1

C1

C1

C1

C2

C2

C2

C2

URM*

4-6

RM1
RM2
URM*
Commercial

Industrial

W2

W2

S1

S1

S1

S1

S1

S1

S2

S2

S2

S2

S2

S2

C1

C1

C1

C1

C1

C1

C2

C2

C2

C2

C2

C2

RM1

RM1

RM1

RM2

RM2

RM2

URM*

URM*

URM*

C1

S1

S1

C2

S2

S2

PC1

C1

C1

RM1

C2

C2

RM2

RM1

RM1

URM*

RM2

RM2

URM*

URM*

*By this period, URM was generally not permitted in California or other high-seismicity regions,
so that only in the central or eastern U.S. would buildings of this age be URM.

FEMA P-154

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-11

Table D-7

Most Likely FEMA Building Types for Post-1960 Buildings

Number of Stories

Original Occupancy
Residential

1-2

4-6

7-15

15-30

30+

W1,

W1A

W1A

S1

W1A

S1

S1

S2

S1

S2

S2

C1

S2

C1

C1

C2

C1

C2

C2

PC2

C2

PC2

PC2

RM1

PC2

RM1

RM1

RM2

RM1

RM2

RM2

W2

W2

W2

S1

S1

S1

S1

S1

S1

S2

S2

S2

S2

S2

S2

C1

C1

C1

C1

C1

C1

C2

C2

C2

C2

C2

C2

PC2

PC2

PC1

PC1

PC2

RM1

PC2

PC2

RM1

RM2

RM1

RM1

RM2

RM2

RM2

S1

S1

S1

S1

C1

S2

S2

S2

S2

C2

S3

C1

C1

C1

PC2

C1

C2

C2

C2

C2

PC1

PC2

PC2

PC1

PC2

RM1

PC2

RM1

RM2

RM1

RM2

RM2
Commercial

Industrial

RM2

D-12

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

Figure D-2

Building with exterior columns covered with a faade material.

Figure D-3

Detail of the column faade of Figure D-2.

Some structures use a combination of shear walls in the transverse

direction and frames in the longitudinal direction. This can be seen from
the exterior as the shear walls usually extend through the exterior
longitudinal wall and are exposed there. This is most common in hotels
and other residential structures where balconies are included. See Figure
D-4.

FEMA P-154

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-13

Figure D-4

Building with both shear walls (in the short direction) and frames
(in the long direction).

An inspection of doorways and window framing can determine wall

thickness. When the thickness exceeds approximately 12 inches, the wall
is most likely unreinforced masonry (URM).
If there are vertical joints in the wall, regularly spaced and extending to the
full height, the wall is constructed of concrete, and if three or less stories in
height, the FEMA Building Type is most likely a tilt-up (PC1). See
Figure D-5.

Figure D-5

D-14

Regular, full-height joints in a buildings wall indicate a concrete

tilt-up.

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

 If the building is constructed of brick masonry without header courses

(horizontal rows of visible brick ends), and the wall thickness is
approximately 8 inches, the FEMA Building Type is most likely
reinforced masonry (RM1 or RM2). See Figure D-6.

Figure D-6

Reinforced masonry wall showing no course of header bricks (a

row of visible brick ends).

If the exterior wall shows large concrete block units (approximately 8 to

12 inches high and 12 to 16 inches in length), either smooth or rough
faced, the FEMA Building Type may be reinforced concrete block
masonry (RM1 and RM2). See Figure D-7.

Figure D-7

FEMA P-154

Reinforced masonry building with exterior wall of concrete

masonry units, or concrete blocks.

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-15

Because many buildings have been renovated, the screener should know
where to look for clues to the original construction. Most renovations are
done for commercial retail spaces, as businesses like to have an up-to-date
image. Most exterior renovations are only to the front of the building or to
walls that attract attention. Therefore, the original construction can often be
seen at the sides, or the rear, where people generally do not look. If the
original material is covered in these areas, it is often just painted or lightly
plastered. In this case, the pattern of the older material can often still be seen.
Clues helping identify the original material are apparent if one is looking for
them. Two examples are included here:
Figure D-8 shows a building with a 1970s polished stone and glass faade.
The side of the building indicates that it is a pre-1930 URM bearing-wall
structure.

Figure D-8

A 1970s renovated faade hides a URM bearing wall structure.

Figure D-9 shows a building faade with typical 1960s material. The side
was painted. Showing through the paint, the horizontal board patterns in
the poured-in-place concrete wall of pre-1940 construction could still be
seen.
D.5

Characteristics of Exposed Construction Materials

Accurate identification of the FEMA Building Type often depends on the

ability to recognize the exposed construction material. The screener should
be familiar with how different materials look on existing buildings as well as
how they have been installed.

D-16

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

Figure D-9

A concrete shear wall structure with a 1960s renovated faade.

Brief descriptions of some common materials are included here:

Unreinforced Masonry. Unreinforced masonry walls, when they are not
veneers, are typically several wythes thick (a wythe is a term denoting the
width of one brick). Therefore, header bricks will be apparent in the
exposed surface. Headers are bricks laid with the butt end on the exterior
face, and function to tie wythes of bricks together. Header courses
typically occur every six or seven courses. (See Figures D-10 and D-11.)
Sometimes, URM infill walls will not have header bricks, and the wythes
of brick are held together only by mortar. Needless to say, URM will
look old, and most of the time show wear and weathering. URM may also
have a soft sand-lime mortar which may be detected by scratching with a
knife or key, unless the masonry has been repointed.

Figure D-10

FEMA P-154

URM wall showing header courses (identified by arrows) and two

washer plates indicating wall anchors.

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-17

Figure D-11

Drawing of two types of masonry pattern showing header bricks

(shown with stipples) (Allen, 1985).

Reinforced Masonry. Most reinforced brick walls are constructed using

the hollow grout method. Two wythes of bricks are laid with a hollow
space in between. This space contains the reinforcement steel and is
grouted afterward (see Figure D-12). This method of construction
usually does not include header bricks in the wall surface.

Figure D-12

Diagram of common reinforced masonry construction (Allen,

1985). Bricks are left out of the bottom course at intervals to
create cleanout holes, then inserted before grouting.

Masonry Veneer. Masonry veneers can be of several types, including

prefabricated panels, thin brick texture tiles, and a single wythe of brick
applied onto the structural backing. Figure D-13 shows brick veneer
panels. Note the discontinuity of the brick pattern interrupted by the
vertical gaps. This indicates that the surface is probably a veneer panel.

D-18

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

The scupper opening at the top of the wall, probably to let the rainwater on
the roof to drain, also indicates that this is a thin veneer rather than a solid
masonry wall. Good places to look for the evidence of veneer tile are at
door or window openings where the edge of the tile will usually show.

Figure D-13

Brick veneer panels.

Hollow Clay Tile. The exposed area of a hollow clay tile masonry unit is
approximately 6 inches by 10 inches and often has strip indentations
running the length of the tile. They are fragile, unreinforced, have limited
structural value, and usually are used for non-load-bearing walls, typically
as infill within a concrete or steel frame. Figure D-14 shows a typical
wall panel which has been punctured.

Figure D-14

FEMA P-154

Hollow clay tile wall with punctured tile.

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

D-19

 False Masonry. Masonry pattern sidings can be made from sheet metal,
plastic, or asphalt material (see Figures D-15 and D-16). These sidings
come in sheets and are attached to a structural backing, usually a wood
frame. These sidings can be detected by looking at the edges and by their
sound when tapped.

Figure D-15

Sheet metal siding with masonry pattern.

Figure D-16

Asphalt siding with brick pattern.

Cast-in-Place Concrete. Cast-in-place concrete, before the 1940s, will

likely show horizontal patterns from the wooden formwork. The
formwork was constructed with wood planks, and therefore the concrete
also will often show the wood grain pattern. Since the plank edges were
not smooth, the surface will have horizontal lines approximately 4, 6, 8,
10, or 12 inches apart (see Figure D-17). Newer cast-in-place concrete
comes in various finishes. The most economic finish is that in which the

D-20

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

FEMA P-154

concrete is cast against plywood formwork, which will reflect the wood
grain appearance of plywood, or against metal or plastic-covered wood
forms, which normally do not show a distinctive pattern.

Figure D-17

FEMA P-154

Pre-1940 cast-in-place concrete with formwork pattern.

D: Exterior Screening for Seismic System and Age

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Appendix E

Characteristics and Earthquake

Performance of FEMA Building
Types Used in RVS

E.1

Introduction

For the purpose of the RVS, building structural framing types have been
categorized into the 17 FEMA Building Types listed in Section 3.14 and
shown in Table 3-1. This appendix provides additional information about
each of these structural types, including detailed descriptions of their
characteristics, common types of earthquake damage, and common seismic
retrofitting techniques. See FEMA 547, Techniques for the Seismic
Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings (FEMA, 2006), for detailed discussion of
commonly employed seismic retrofit techniques.
E.2

Wood Frame (W1, W1A, W2)

E.2.1

Characteristics

Wood frame structures are usually detached residential dwellings, small

apartments, commercial buildings or one-story industrial structures. They are
rarely more than three stories tall, although older buildings may be as high as
six stories, in rare instances.
W1 buildings are light wood frame residential and commercial buildings
smaller than or equal to 5,000 square feet. These are most often single family
homes, as shown in Figure E-1. W1A buildings are multistory, multi-unit
residential wood frame buildings, as shown in Figure E-2. In these buildings,
the upper floors are typically residential, while the first story can be used for
residential, commercial, or parking space. W2 buildings are light wood
frame buildings larger than 5,000 square feet as shown in Figure E-3.
Wood stud walls are typically constructed of 2-inch by 4-inch wood members
vertically set about 16 inches apart. See Figures E-4 and E-5. These walls
are braced by plywood or equivalent material, or by diagonals made of wood
or steel. Many detached single family and low-rise multiple family residences
in the United States are of stud wall wood frame construction.

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E-2

Figure E-1

Single family residence (an example of the W1 identifier, light

wood frame single- or multiple-family dwellings of one or more
stories in height).

Figure E-2

Multi-unit, multistory residential wood frame structure with plan

areas on each floor of greater than 3,000 square feet (W1A).

Figure E-3

Larger wood framed structure, typically with room-width spans

(W2, commercial and industrial wood frame buildings greater
than 5,000 square feet).

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Figure E-4

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Drawing of wood stud frame construction (Lagorio et al., 1986).

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Figure E-5

Stud wall, wood framed house.

Post and beam construction, which consists of larger rectangular (6 inch by 6

inch and larger) or sometimes round wood columns framed together with large
wood beams or trusses, is not common and is found mostly in older buildings.
These buildings usually are not residential, but are larger buildings such as
warehouses, churches, and theaters.
Timber pole buildings (Figures E-6 and E-7) are a less common form of
construction found mostly in suburban and rural areas. Generally adequate
seismically when first built, they are more often subject to wood deterioration
due to the exposure of the columns, particularly near the ground surface.
Together with an often-found soft story in this building type, this
deterioration may contribute to unsatisfactory seismic performance.

Figure E-6

E-4

Drawing of timber pole framed house (FEMA, 1987).

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Figure E-7

Timber pole framed house.

In the western United States, it can be assumed that all single detached
residential houses (i.e., houses with rear and sides separate from adjacent
structures) are wood stud frame structures unless visual or supplemental
information indicates otherwise (in the Southwestern United States, for
example, some residential homes are constructed of adobe, rammed earth, and
other non-wood materials). Many houses that appear to have brick exterior
faades are actually wood frame with nonstructural brick veneer or
brick-patterned synthetic siding.
In the central and eastern United States, brick walls are usually not veneer. For
these houses, the brick must be examined closely to verify that it is real brick.
The thickness of the exterior wall is estimated by looking at a window or door
opening. If the wall is more than 9 inches from the interior finish to exterior
surface, then it may be a brick wall. Also, if header bricks exist in the brick
pattern, then it may be a brick wall. If these features all point to a brick wall,
the house can be assumed to be a masonry building, and not a wood frame.
In wetter, humid climates it is common to find homes raised four feet or more
above the outside grade with this space totally exposed (no foundation walls).
This allows air flow under the house, to minimize decay and rot problems
associated with high humidity and enclosed spaces. These houses are
supported on wood posts and small precast concrete pads or piers. A
common name for this construction is post and pier construction.
E.2.2

Typical Earthquake Damage

Stud wall buildings have performed well in past earthquakes due to inherent
qualities of the structural system and because they are lightweight and
low-rise. Cracks in any plaster or stucco may appear, but these seldom

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degrade the strength of the building and are classified as nonstructural

damage. In fact, this type of damage helps dissipate the earthquake-induced
energy of the shaking house. The most common type of structural damage in
older buildings results from a lack of adequate connection between the house
and the foundation. Houses can slide off their foundations if they are not
properly bolted to the foundations. This movement (see Figure E-8) results in
major damage to the building as well as to plumbing and electrical
connections. Overturning of the entire structure is usually not a problem
because of the low-rise geometry. In many municipalities, modern codes
require wood structures to be adequately bolted to their foundations.
However, the year that this practice was adopted will differ from community
to community and should be checked.

Figure E-8

House off its foundation, 1983 Coalinga earthquake.

Many of the older wood stud frame buildings have no foundations or have
weak foundations of unreinforced masonry or poorly reinforced concrete.
These foundations have poor shear resistance to horizontal seismic forces and
can fail.
Another problem in older buildings is the stability of cripple walls. Cripple
walls are short stud walls between the foundation and the first floor level.
Often these have no in- or out-of-plane bracing and thus may collapse when
subjected to horizontal earthquake loading. If the cripple walls collapse, the
house will sustain considerable damage and may collapse. In some older

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homes, plywood sheathing nailed to cripple studs may have been used to
retrofit cripple walls. However, if the sheathing is not nailed adequately to
the studs and foundation sill plate, the cripple walls will still collapse (see
Figure E-9).

Figure E-9

Failed cripple stud wall, 1992 Big Bear earthquake.

Homes with post and pier perimeter foundations, which are constructed to
provide adequate air flow under the structure to minimize the potential for
decay, have little resistance to earthquake forces. When these buildings are
subjected to strong earthquake ground motions, the posts may rotate or slip of
the piers and the home will settle to the ground. As with collapsed cripple
walls, this can be very expensive damage to repair and will result in the home
building red-tagged per the ATC-20 post-earthquake safety evaluation
procedures (ATC, 1995). See Figure E-9.
Garages often have a large door opening in the front wall with little or no
bracing in the remainder of the wall. This wall has almost no resistance to
lateral forces, which is a problem if a heavy load such as a second story is built
on top of the garage. Homes built over garages have sustained damage in past
earthquakes, with many collapses. Therefore, the house-over-garage
configuration, which is found commonly in low-rise apartment complexes and
some newer suburban detached dwellings, should be examined more carefully
and perhaps retrofitted.
Unreinforced masonry chimneys present a life safety problem. They are
often inadequately tied to the house, and therefore fall when strongly shaken.
On the other hand, chimneys of reinforced masonry generally perform well.
Some wood frame structures, especially older buildings in the eastern United
States, have masonry veneers that may represent another hazard. The veneer
usually consists of one wythe of brick (a wythe is a term denoting the width of
one brick) attached to the stud wall. In older buildings, the veneer is either

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insufficiently attached or has poor quality mortar, which often results in

peeling of the veneer during moderate and large earthquakes.
W1A buildings can often have soft stories created by large openings at the
ground floor for commercial space, parking, or other uses. As described in
FEMA 547 (FEMA, 2006), when an open front occurs, the diaphragm is
required to transmit forces to other lines by rotation, creating torsional
building behavior. This behavior is particularly critical when an exterior wall
is provided at upper stories but discontinued in the first story, as this creates a
significant discontinuity in the load path at the lowest story. W1A buildings
with parking at the first floor are sometimes referred to as tuckunders. These
buildings have collapsed in past earthquakes causing loss of life.
If adequately braced, post and beam buildings (not buildings with post and
pier foundations) tend to perform well in earthquakes. However, walls often
do not have sufficient bracing to resist horizontal motion and thus they may
deform excessively.
E.2.3

Common Retrofit Techniques

In recent years, especially as a result of the Northridge earthquake, emphasis

has been placed on addressing the common problems associated with
light-wood framing. This work has concentrated mainly in the western
United States with single-family residences.
The retrofit techniques focus on houses with continuous perimeter foundations
and cripple walls. The retrofit work consists of bolting the house to the
foundation and providing plywood or other wood sheathing materials to the
cripple walls to strengthen them (see Figure E-10). This is the most
cost-effective retrofit work that can be done on a single-family residence.

Figure E-10
E-8

Seismic strengthening of a cripple wall, with plywood sheathing.

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Other common W1 retrofit techniques include bracing of masonry chimneys

and improved anchorage to the foundation, particularly for homes on sloping
hills.
W1A open front buildings can be strengthened by installing steel moment
frames or by enhancing the existing walls and diaphragms.
W2 buildings can be strengthened with braced frames or by adding plywood to
existing walls and diaphragms.
Little work has been done in retrofitting timber pole buildings or post and pier
construction. In timber pole buildings retrofit techniques are focused on
providing resistance to lateral forces by bracing (applying sheathing) to
interior walls, thus creating a continuous load path to the ground. For homes
with post and pier perimeter foundations, the work has focused on providing
partial foundations and bracing to carry the earthquake loads.
E.3

Steel Frames (S1, S2)

E.3.1

Characteristics

Steel frame buildings generally may be classified as either moment-resisting

frames or braced frames, based on their seismic force-resisting systems.
Moment-resisting frames resist lateral loads and deformations by the bending
stiffness of the beams and columns (there is no diagonal bracing). In
concentric braced frames, the diagonal braces are connected, at each end, to
the joints where beams and columns meet. The lateral forces or loads are
resisted by the tensile and compressive strength of the bracing. In eccentric
braced frames, the bracing is slightly offset from the main beam-to-column
connections, and the short section of beam is expected to deform significantly
in bending under major seismic forces, thereby dissipating a considerable
portion of the energy of the vibrating building. Each type of steel frame is
discussed below.
E.3.1.1

Moment-Resisting Steel Frame

Typical steel moment-resisting frame structures usually have similar bay

widths in both the transverse and longitudinal direction, around 20-30 feet
(Figure E-11). The load-bearing frame consists of beams and columns
distributed throughout the building.
The floor diaphragms are usually concrete, sometimes over steel decking.
Moment-resisting frame structures built since 1950 often incorporate
prefabricated panels hung onto the structural frame as the exterior finish.

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Figure E-11

Drawing of steel moment-resisting frame building (Steinbrugge, 1982).

These panels may be precast concrete, stone or masonry veneer, metal, glass or
plastic.
This structural type is used for commercial, institutional, and other public
buildings. It is seldom used for low-rise residential buildings.
Steel frame structures built before 1945 are usually clad or infilled with
unreinforced masonry, such as bricks, hollow clay tiles and terra cotta tiles,
and therefore should be classified as S5 structures (see Section E.6 for a
detailed discussion). Other frame buildings of this period are encased in
concrete. Wood or concrete floor diaphragms are common for these older
buildings.
E.3.1.2

Braced Steel Frame

Braced steel frame structures (Figures E-12 and E-13) have been built since
the late 1800s with similar usage and exterior finish as the steel moment-frame
buildings. Braced frames are sometimes used for long and narrow buildings
because of their stiffness. Although these buildings are braced with diagonal

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members, the bracing members usually cannot be detected from the building
exterior.

Figure E-12

Braced frame configurations (FEMA, 1987).

Figure E-13

Braced steel frame, with chevron and diagonal braces. The braces
and steel frames are usually covered by finish material after the
steel is erected.

From the building exterior, it is usually difficult to tell the difference between
steel moment frames, braced frames, and frames with shear walls. In most
modern buildings, the bracing or shear walls are located in the interior or
covered by cladding material. Figure E-14 shows heavy diagonal bracing
located at the side walls of a high rise building, which will be subsequently
covered by finish materials and will not be apparent. In fact, it is difficult to
differentiate steel frame structures and concrete frame structures from the
exterior. Most of the time, the structural members are clad in finish material.

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Figure E-14

Chevron bracing in steel building under construction.

In older buildings, steel members can also be encased in concrete. There are
no positive ways of distinguishing these various frame types except in the two
cases listed below:
If a building can be determined to be a braced frame, it is probably a steel
structure.
If exposed steel beams and columns can be seen, then the steel frame
structure is apparent. (Especially in older structures, a structural frame
which appears to be concrete may actually be a steel frame encased in
concrete.)
E.3.2

Typical Earthquake Damage

Steel frame buildings tend to be generally satisfactory in their earthquake

resistance, because of their strength, flexibility and lightness. Collapse in
earthquakes has been very rare, although steel frame buildings did collapse,
for example, in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake. In the United States, these
buildings have performed well, and probably will not collapse unless
subjected to sufficiently severe ground shaking. The 1994 Northridge and
1995 Kobe earthquakes showed that steel frame buildings (in particular S1
moment-frame) were vulnerable to severe earthquake damage. Though none
of the damaged buildings collapsed, they were rendered unsafe until repaired.
The damage took the form of broken welded connections between the beams
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and columns. Cracks in the welds began inside the welds where the beam
flanges were welded to the column flanges. These cracks, in some cases,
broke the welds or propagated into the column flange, tearing the flange.
The damage was found in those buildings that experienced ground
accelerations of approximately 20% of gravity (20%g) or greater. Since 1994
Northridge, many cities that experienced large earthquakes in the recent past
have instituted an inspection program to determine if any steel frames were
damaged. Since steel frames are usually covered with a finish material, it is
difficult to find damage to the joints. The process requires removal of the
finishes and removal of fireproofing just to see the joint.
Possible damage includes the following:
Nonstructural damage resulting from excessive deflections in frame
structures can occur to elements such as interior partitions, equipment, and
exterior cladding. Damage to nonstructural elements was the reason for
the discovery of damage to moment frames as a result of the 1994
Northridge earthquake.
Cladding and exterior finish material can fall if insufficiently or
incorrectly connected.
Plastic deformation of structural members can cause permanent
displacements.
Pounding with adjacent structures can occur.
E.3.3

Common Retrofit Techniques

As a result of the 1994 Northridge earthquake many steel frame buildings,

primarily steel moment frames, have been retrofitted to address the problems
discovered. The process is essentially to redo the connections, ensuring that
cracks do not occur in the welds. There is careful inspection of the welding
process and the electrodes during construction. Where possible, existing full
penetration welds of the beams to the columns are changed so more fillet
welding is used. This means that less heat is used in the welding process and
consequently there is less potential for damage. Other methods include
reducing welding to an absolute minimum by developing bolted connections
or ensuring that the connection plates will yield (stretch permanently) before
the welds will break. Other possibilities for retrofitting moment frames are to
convert them to braced frames or add concrete shear walls. Sometimes older
column splices will need strengthening as well.

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The kind of damage discovered was not limited to moment frames, although
they were the most affected. Some braced frames were found to have damage
to the brace connections, especially at lower levels.
Structural types other than steel frames are sometimes retrofitted using steel
frames, as shown for the concrete structure in Figure E-15.

Figure E-15

Retrofit of a concrete parking structure using exterior X-braced

steel frames.

Probably the most common use of steel frames for retrofit is in unreinforced
masonry bearing wall buildings (URM). Steel frames are typically used at
the storefront windows as there is no available horizontal resistance provided
by the windows in their plane. Frames can be used throughout the first floor
perimeter when the floor area needs to be open, as in a restaurant. See Figure
E-16. When a building is encountered with this type of retrofit scheme, the
building is still considered a URM building, but on the Level 2 screening a
Score Modifier for a comprehensive retrofit can be given.
E.4

Light Metal (S3)

E.4.1

Characteristics

Most light metal buildings existing today were built after 1950 (Figure E-17).
They are used for agricultural structures, industrial factories, and warehouses.
They are typically one story in height, sometimes without interior columns,
and often enclose a large floor area. Construction is typically of steel frames

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Figure E-16

Use of a braced frame to rehabilitate an unreinforced masonry

building.

Figure E-17

Drawing of light metal construction.

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spanning the short dimension of the building, resisting lateral forces as

moment frames. Forces in the long direction are usually resisted by diagonal
steel rod bracing. These buildings are usually clad with lightweight metal or
asbestos-reinforced concrete siding, often corrugated.
To identify this construction type, the screener should look for the following
characteristics:

Light metal buildings are typically characterized by industrial corrugated

sheet metal or asbestos-reinforced cement siding. The term, metal
building panels should not be confused with corrugated sheet metal
siding. The former are prefabricated cladding units usually used for
large office buildings. Corrugated sheet metal siding is a thin sheet
material usually fastened to purlins, which in turn span between columns.
If this sheet cladding is present, the screener should examine closely the
fasteners used. If the heads of sheet metal screws can be seen in
horizontal rows, the building is most likely a light metal structure.
Because the typical structural system consists of moment frames in the
transverse direction and frames braced with diagonal steel rods in the
longitudinal direction, light metal buildings often have low-pitched roofs
without parapets or overhangs (Figure E-18). Most of these buildings are
prefabricated, so the buildings tend to be rectangular in plan, without
many corners.

Figure E-18

Prefabricated metal building (S3, light metal building).

These buildings generally have only a few windows, as it is difficult to

detail a window in the sheet metal system.

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 The screener should look for signs of a metal building, and should knock
on the siding to see if it sounds hollow. Door openings should be
inspected for exposed steel members. If a gap, or light, can be seen where
the siding meets the ground, it is certainly light metal or wood frame. For
the best indication, an interior inspection will confirm the structural
skeleton, because most of these buildings do not have interior finishes.
E.4.2

Typical Earthquake Damage

Because these building are low-rise, lightweight, and constructed of steel

members, they usually perform relatively well in earthquakes. Collapses do
not usually occur. Some typical problems are listed below:
Insufficient capacity of tension braces can lead to their elongation or
failure, and, in turn, building damage.
Inadequate connection to the foundation can allow the building columns to
slide.
Loss of the cladding can occur.
E.5

Steel Frame with Concrete Shear Wall (S4)

E.5.1

Characteristics

The construction of this structure type (Figure E-19) is similar to that of the
steel moment-resisting frame in that a matrix of steel columns and girders is
distributed throughout the structure. The joints, however, are not designed
for moment resistance, and the lateral forces are resisted by concrete shear
walls.
It is often difficult to differentiate visually between a steel frame with concrete
shear walls and one without, because interior shear walls will often be covered
by interior finishes and will look like interior nonstructural partitions. For the
purposes of an RVS, unless the shear wall is identifiable from the exterior (i.e.,
a raw concrete finish was part of the architectural aesthetic of the building, and
was left exposed), this building cannot be identified accurately. Figure E-20
shows a structure with such an exposed shear wall. Figure E-21 is a close-up
of shear wall damage.
E.5.2

Typical Earthquake Damage

The shear walls can be part of the elevator and service core or part of the
exterior or interior walls. This type of structure performs as well in
earthquakes as other steel buildings. Some typical types of damage, other
than nonstructural damage and pounding, are:

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E-18

Figure E-19

Drawing of steel frame with interior concrete shear walls

(Steinbrugge, 1982).

Figure E-20

Concrete shear wall on building exterior.

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Figure E-21

Close-up of exterior shear wall damage during a major

earthquake.

Shear cracking and distress that occur around openings in concrete shear
walls.
Wall shear failures that occur at stresses below expected capacity due to
wall construction joints acting as weak planes.
Wall bending failures that occur due to insufficient chord steel lap lengths.
E.5.3

Common Retrofit Techniques

Retrofit techniques for S4 buildings are similar to those for concrete shear wall
buildings (C2).
E.6

Steel Frame with Unreinforced Masonry Infill (S5)

E.6.1

Characteristics

This construction type (Figures E-22 and E-23) consists of a steel structural
frame and walls infilled with unreinforced masonry (URM). In older
buildings, the floor diaphragms are often wood. Later buildings have
reinforced concrete floors. Because of the masonry infill, the structure tends
to be stiff. Because the steel frame in an older building is covered by
unreinforced masonry for fire protection, it is easy to confuse this type of
building with URM bearing wall structures. Further, because the steel
columns are relatively thin, they may be hidden in walls.
An apparently solid masonry wall may enclose a series of steel columns and
girders. These infill walls are usually two or three wythes thick. Therefore,

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Figure E-22

E-20

Drawing of steel frame with URM infill (Lagorio et al., 1986).

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Figure E-23

Example of steel frame with URM infill walls (S5).

header bricks will sometimes be present and thus mislead the screener into
thinking the building is a URM bearing wall structure, rather than infill.
Often in these structures the infill and veneer masonry is exposed. Otherwise,
masonry may be obscured by cladding in buildings, especially those that have
undergone renovation.
When a masonry building is encountered, the screener should first attempt to
determine if the masonry is reinforced, by checking the date of construction,
although this is only a rough guide. A clearer indication of a steel frame
structure with URM infill is when the building exhibits the characteristics of a
frame structure of type S1 or S2. One can assume all frame buildings clad in
brick and constructed prior to about 1940 are of this type.
Older frame buildings may be of several types: steel frame encased with URM,
steel frame encased with concrete, and concrete frame. Sometimes older
buildings have decorative cladding such as terra cotta or stone veneer.
Veneers may obscure all evidence of URM. In that case, the structural type
cannot be determined. However, if there is evidence that a large amount of

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concrete is used in the building (for example, a rear wall constructed of

concrete), then it is unlikely that the building has URM infill.
When the screener cannot be sure if the building is a frame or has bearing
walls, two clues may help: the thickness of the walls and the height. Because
infill walls are constructed of two or three wythes of bricks, they should be
approximately 9 inches thick (2 wythes). Furthermore, the thickness of the
wall will not increase in the lower stories, because the structural frame is
carrying the load. For buildings over six stories tall, URM is infill or veneer,
because URM bearing wall structures are seldom this tall and, if so, they will
have extremely thick walls in the lower stories.
E.6.2

Typical Earthquake Damage

In major earthquakes, the infill walls may suffer substantial cracking and
deterioration from in-plane or out-of-plane deformation, thus reducing the
in-plane wall stiffness. This in turn puts additional demand on the frame.
Some of the walls may fail while others remain intact, which may result in
torsion or soft story problems.
The hazard from falling masonry is significant as these buildings can be taller
than 20 stories. As described below, typical damage results from a variety of
factors.
Infill walls tend to buckle and fall out-of-plane when subjected to strong
lateral forces. Because infill walls are non-load-bearing, they tend to be
thin (around 9) and cannot rely on the additional shear strength that
accompanies vertical compressive loads.
Veneer masonry around columns or beams is usually poorly anchored to
the structural members and can disengage and fall.
Interior infill partitions and other nonstructural elements can be severely
damaged and collapse.
If stories above the first are infilled, but the first is not, then a soft story
exists, and the difference in stiffness creates a large demand at the ground
floor columns, causing structural damage.
When the earthquake forces are sufficiently high, the steel frame itself can
fail locally. Connections between members are usually not designed for
high lateral loads (except in tall buildings) and this can lead to damage of
these connections. Complete collapse has seldom occurred, but cannot
be ruled out.

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E.6.3

Common Retrofit Techniques

Retrofit techniques for this structural type have focused on the expected
damage. By far the most significant problem, and that which is addressed in
most retrofit schemes, is failure of the infill wall out of its plane. This failure
presents a significant life safety hazard to individuals on the exterior of the
building, especially those who manage to exit the building during the
earthquake. To remedy this problem, anchorage connections are developed
to tie the masonry infill to the floors and roof of the structure.
Another significant problem is the inherent lack of shear strength throughout
the building. Some of the retrofit techniques employed include the following:
Shotcrete (with pneumatically placed concrete) the interior faces of the
masonry wall, creating reinforced concrete shear elements.
Provide cross bracing in steel frames or fully strengthen the connections to
create moment frames. In this latter case, the frames are still not
sufficient to resist all the lateral forces, and reliance on the infill walls is
necessary to provide adequate strength.
E.7

Concrete Moment-Resisting Frame (C1)

E.7.1

Characteristics

Concrete moment-resisting frame construction consists of concrete beams and

columns that resist both lateral and vertical loads (see Figure E-24). There
may be a few bays infilled with masonry, but if there is more extensive infill, it
would be categorized as a C3 building type. A fundamental factor in the
seismic performance of concrete moment-resisting frames is the presence or
absence of ductile detailing. Hence, several construction subtypes fall under
this category:
nonductile reinforced-concrete frames with unreinforced infill walls,
nonductile reinforced-concrete frames with reinforced infill walls,
nonductile reinforced-concrete frames, and
ductile reinforced-concrete frames.
Ductile detailing refers to the presence of special steel reinforcing within
concrete beams and columns. The special reinforcement provides
confinement of the concrete, permitting good performance in the members
beyond the elastic capacity, primarily in bending. Due to this confinement,
disintegration of the concrete is delayed, and the concrete retains its strength
for more cycles of loading (i.e., the ductility is increased). See Figure E-25
for a dramatic example of ductility in concrete.
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Figure E-24

E-24

Drawing of concrete moment-resisting frame building (Lagorio et al., 1986).

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Figure E-25

Extreme example of ductility in concrete, 1994 Northridge

earthquake.

Ductile detailing (Figure E-26) has been practiced in high-seismicity areas

since 1967, when ductility requirements were first introduced into the Uniform
Building Code (the adoption and enforcement of ductility requirements in a
given jurisdiction may be later, however). Prior to that time, nonductile or
ordinary concrete moment-resisting frames were the norm (and still are, for
moderate seismic areas). In high-seismicity areas, additional tie reinforcing
was required following the 1971 San Fernando earthquake and appeared in the
Uniform Building Code in 1976. Additional code requirements to improve
ductility were added following the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
In many low-seismicity areas of the United States, nonductile concrete frames
of the first three types continue to be built. This group includes large
multistory commercial, institutional, and residential buildings constructed
using flat slab frames, waffle slab frames, and the standard beam-and-column
frames.
These structures generally are more massive than steel-frame buildings, are
underreinforced (i.e., have insufficient reinforcing steel embedded in the
concrete) and display low ductility.
This building type is difficult to differentiate from steel moment-resisting
frames unless the structural concrete has been left relatively exposed (see
Figure E-27). Although a steel frame may be encased in concrete and appear
to be a concrete frame, this is seldom the case for modern buildings (post
1940s). For the purpose of the RVS procedures, it can be assumed that all
exposed concrete frames are concrete and not steel frames.

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E-26

Figure E-26

Example of ductile reinforced concrete column, 1994 Northridge

earthquake; horizontal ties would need to be closer for greater
demands.

Figure E-27

Concrete moment-resisting frame building (C1) with exposed

concrete, deep beams, wide columns (and with architectural
window framing).

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E.7.2

Typical Earthquake Damage

Under high amplitude cyclic loading, lack of confinement will result in rapid
disintegration of nonductile concrete members, with ensuing brittle failure and
possible building collapse (see Figure E-28).
Causes and types of damage include:
Excessive tie spacing in columns can lead to a lack of concrete
confinement and shear failure.
Placement of inadequate rebar splices all at the same location in a column
can lead to column failure.
Insufficient shear strength in columns can lead to shear failure prior to the
full development of moment hinge capacity.
Insufficient shear tie anchorage can prevent the column from developing
its full shear capacity.
Lack of continuous beam reinforcement can result in unexpected hinge
formation during load reversal.
Inadequate reinforcing of beam-column joints or the positioning of beam
bar splices at columns can lead to failures.

Figure E-28

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Locations of failures at beam-to-column joints in nonductile

frames, 1994 Northridge earthquake.

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E-27

 The relatively low stiffness of the frame can lead to substantial

nonstructural damage.
Pounding damage with adjacent buildings can occur.
E.7.3

Common Retrofit Techniques

Retrofit techniques for reinforced concrete frame buildings depend on the

extent to which the frame meets ductility requirements. The costs associated
with the upgrading an existing, conventional beam-column framing system to
meet the minimum standards for ductility are high, and this approach is
usually not cost-effective. The most practical and cost-effective solution is to
add a system of shear walls or braced frames to provide the required seismic
resistance (ATC, 1992).
In some cases, where only added ductility is needed, columns and/or beams
are wrapped with steel jackets or fiber reinforced polymer material.
Occasionally, this has also been done by added concrete.
The outside cover of concrete (a couple of inches) is removed, exposing the
reinforcing ties. Additional ties are added with their ends embedded into the
core of the column. The exterior concrete is then replaced. This process
results in a detail that provides a reasonable amount of ductility but not as
much as there would have been had the ductility been provided in the original
design.
E.8

Concrete Shear Wall (C2)

E.8.1

Characteristics

This category consists of buildings with a perimeter concrete bearing wall

structural system or frame structures with shear walls (Figure E-29). The
structure, including the usual concrete floor diaphragms, is typically cast in
place. Before the 1940s, bearing wall systems were used in schools,
churches, and industrial buildings. Concrete shear wall buildings constructed
since the early 1950s are institutional, commercial, and residential buildings,
ranging from one to more than thirty stories. Frame buildings with shear
walls tend to be commercial and industrial. A common example of the latter
type is a warehouse with interior frames and perimeter concrete walls.
Residential buildings of this type are often mid-rise towers. The shear walls
in these newer buildings can be located along the perimeter, as interior
partitions, or around the service core.
Frame structures with interior shear walls are difficult to identify positively.
When the building is clearly a box-like bearing wall structure, it is probably a

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Figure E-29

Drawing of concrete shear wall building (Lagorio et al., 1986).

shear wall structure. Concrete shear wall buildings are usually cast in place.
The screener should look for signs of cast-in-place concrete. In concrete
bearing wall structures, the wall thickness ranges from 6 to 10 inches and is
thin in comparison to that of masonry bearing wall structures.

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E.8.2

Typical Types of Earthquake Damage

This building type generally performs better than concrete frame buildings.
The buildings are heavy compared with steel frame buildings, but they are also
stiff due to the presence of the shear walls. Damage commonly observed in
taller buildings is caused by vertical discontinuities, pounding, and irregular
configuration. Other damage specific to this building type includes the
following.
During large seismic events, shear cracking and distress can occur around
openings in concrete shear walls and in spandrel beams and link beams
between shear walls (see Figures E-30 and E-31).
Shear failure can occur at wall construction joints usually at a load level
below the expected capacity.
Bending failures can result from insufficient vertical chord steel and
insufficient lap lengths at the ends of the walls.

Figure E-30

E-30

Tall concrete shear wall building: walls connected by damaged

spandrel beams.

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Figure E-31
E.8.3

Shear wall damage, 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.

Common Retrofit Techniques

Reinforced concrete shear wall buildings can be rehabilitated in a variety of

ways. Techniques include: (1) reinforcing existing walls in shear by applying
a layer of shotcrete or poured concrete; (2) where feasible, filling existing
window or door openings with concrete to add shear strength and eliminate
critical bending stresses at the edge of openings; (3) reinforcing narrow
overstressed shear panels in in-plane bending by adding reinforced boundary
elements; and (4) enhancing the shear strength of the shear walls with a fiber
reinforcing polymer overlay.
E.9

Concrete Frame with Unreinforced Masonry Infill (C3)

E.9.1

Characteristics

These buildings (Figures E-32 and E-33) have been, and continue to be, built
in regions where unreinforced masonry (URM) has not been eliminated by
code. These buildings were generally built before 1940 in high-seismicity
regions and may continue to be built in other regions. Several construction
subtypes fall under this category: nonductile reinforced-concrete frames with
unreinforced infill walls, and nonductile reinforced-concrete frames with
reinforced infill walls.

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Figure E-32

Concrete frame with URM infill.

Figure E-33

C3 building and detail showing concrete frame with URM infill

(left wall), and face brick (right wall).

The first step in identification is to determine if the structure is old enough to

contain URM. In contrast to steel frames with URM infill, concrete frames
with URM infill usually show clear evidence of the concrete frames. This is
particularly true for industrial buildings and can usually be observed at the side

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or rear of commercial buildings. The concrete columns and beams are

relatively large and are usually not covered by masonry but left exposed.
A case in which URM infill cannot be readily identified is the commercial
building with large windows on all sides; these buildings may have interior
URM partitions. Another difficult case occurs when the exterior walls are
covered by decorative tile or stone veneer. The infill material can be URM or
a thin concrete infill.
E.9.2

Typical Earthquake Damage

The hazards of these buildings, which in the western United States are often
older, are similar to and perhaps more severe than those of the newer concrete
frames. Where URM infill is present, a falling hazard exists. The failure
mechanisms of URM infill in a concrete frame are generally the same as URM
infill in a steel frame.
E.9.3

Common Retrofit Techniques

Retrofit of unreinforced masonry infill in a concrete frame is identical to that

of the URM infill in a steel frame. See Section E.6.3. Anchorage of the wall
panels for out-of-plane forces is the key component, followed by providing
sufficient shear strength in the building.
E.10

Tilt-up Structures (PC1)

E.10.1 Characteristics

In traditional tilt-up buildings (Figures E-34 through E-36), concrete wall

panels are cast on the ground and then tilted upward into their final positions.
More recently, wall panels are fabricated off-site and trucked to the site.
Tilt-up buildings are an inexpensive form of light industrial and commercial
construction and have become increasingly popular in the western and central
United States since the 1940s. They are typically one and sometimes two
stories high and typically have a simple rectangular plan. The walls are the
seismic force-resisting system. The roof can be a plywood diaphragm carried
on wood purlins and glued laminated (glulam) wood beams or a light steel
deck and joist system, supported in the interior of the building on steel pipe
columns. The wall panels are attached to concrete cast-in-place pilasters or to
steel columns, or the joint is simply closed with a later concrete pour. These
joints are typically spaced about 20 feet apart.

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Figure E-34

Drawing of tilt-up construction typical of the western United States. Tilt-up construction in
the eastern United States may incorporate a steel frame (Lagorio et al., 1986).

The major defect in existing tilt-ups is a lack of positive anchorage between

wall and diaphragm, which has been corrected since about 1973 in the western
United States.
In the western United States, it can be assumed that all one-story concrete
industrial warehouses with flat roofs built after 1950 are tilt-ups unless
supplementary information indicates otherwise.
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Figure E-35

Tilt-up industrial building, 1970s.

Figure E-36

Tilt-up industrial building, mid- to late-1980s.

E.10.2 Typical Earthquake Damage

Before 1973 in the western United States, many tilt-up buildings did not have
sufficiently strong connections or anchors between the walls and the roof and
floor diaphragms. The anchorage typically was nothing more than the nailing
of the plywood roof sheathing to the wood ledgers supporting the framing.
During an earthquake, the weak anchorage broke the ledgers, resulting in the
panels falling and the supported framing collapsing. When mechanical
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anchors were used, they pulled out of the walls or split the wood members to
which they were attached, causing the floors or roofs to collapse. See Figures
E-37 and E-38. The connections between the concrete panels are also
vulnerable to failure. Without these connections, the building loses much of
its lateral-force-resisting capacity. For these reasons, many tilt-up buildings
were damaged in the 1971 San Fernando earthquake. Since 1973, tilt-up
construction practices have changed in California and other high-seismicity
regions, requiring positive wall-diaphragm connection (Such requirements
may not have yet been made in other regions of the country). However, a
large number of these older, pre-1970s-vintage tilt-up buildings still exist and
have not been rehabilitated to correct this wall-anchor defect. Damage to
these buildings was observed again in the 1987 Whittier earthquake, 1989
Loma Prieta earthquake, and the 1994 Northridge earthquake. These
buildings are a prime source of seismic hazard. In areas of low or moderate
seismicity, inadequate wall anchor details continue to be used. Severe
ground shaking in such an area may produce major damage in tilt-up
buildings.

Figure E-37

Tilt-up construction anchorage failure.

E.10.3 Common Retrofit Techniques

The retrofit of tilt-up buildings is relatively easy and inexpensive. The most
common form of retrofit is to provide a positive anchorage connection at the
roof and wall intersection (see Figure E-39). This is usually done by using
pre-fabricated metal hardware attached to the framing member and to a bolt
that is installed through the wall. On the outside of the wall a large washer
plate is used.
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Figure E-38

Result of failure of the roof beam anchorage to the wall in tilt-up

building.

Accompanying the anchorage retrofit is the addition of ties across the building
to develop the anchorage forces from the wall panels fully into the diaphragm.
This is accomplished by interconnecting framing members from one side of
the building to the other, and then increasing the connections of the diaphragm
(usually wood) to develop the additional forces.
E.11

Precast Concrete Frame (PC2)

E.11.1 Characteristics

Precast concrete frame construction, first developed in the 1930s, was not
widely used until the 1960s. The precast frame (Figure E-40) is essentially a
post and beam system in concrete where columns, beams and slabs are
prefabricated and assembled on site. Various types of members are used.
Vertical-load-carrying elements may be Tsections, cross shapes, or arches
and are often more than one story in height. Beams are often T sections and
double T sections, or rectangular sections. Prestressing of the members,
including pretensioning and post-tensioning, is often employed. The
identification of this structure type cannot rely solely on construction date,
although most precast concrete frame structures were constructed after 1960.
Some typical characteristics are the following:

Precast concrete, in general, is of a higher quality and precision compared

to cast-in-place concrete. It is also available in a greater range of textures
and finishes. Many newer concrete and steel buildings have precast
concrete panels and column covers as an exterior finish (See Figure E-41).

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Figure E-39

Newly installed anchorage of roof beam to wall in tilt-up building.

Thus, the presence of precast concrete does not necessarily mean that it is
a precast concrete frame.
Precast concrete frames are, in essence, post and beam construction in
concrete. Therefore, when a concrete structure displays the features of a
post-and-beam system, it is most likely that it is a precast concrete frame.
It is usually not economical for a conventional cast-in-place concrete
frame to look like a post-and-beam system. Features of a precast
concrete post-and-beam system include:

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Figure E-40

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Drawing of precast concrete frame building (Lagorio et al., 1986).

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Figure E-41

Typical precast column cover on a steel or concrete moment

frame.

o exposed ends of beams and girders that project beyond their supports

or project away from the building surface,

o the absence of small joists, and
o beams sitting on top of girders rather than meeting at a monolithic

joint (see Figure E-42).

Figure E-42

Exposed precast double-Tee sections and overlapping beams are

indicative of precast frames.

The presence of precast structural components is usually a good indication of

this system, although these components are also used in mixed construction.
Precast structural components come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The
most common types are sometimes difficult to detect from the street. Less
common but more obvious examples include the following.

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 T-sections or double Ts. These are deep beams with thin webs and
flanges and with large span capacities. (Figure E-43 shows one end of a
double-T beam as it is lowered onto its seat.)

Figure E-43

Example of precast double T section during installation.

Cross or T-shaped units of partial columns and beams. These are

structural units for constructing moment-resisting frames. They are
usually joined together by field welding of steel connectors cast into the
concrete. Joints should be clearly visible at the mid-span of the beams or
the mid-height of the columns. See Figure E-44.
Precast arches. Precast arches and pedestals are popular in the
architecture of these buildings.
Column. When a column displays a precast finish without an indication
that it has a cover (i.e., no vertical seam can be found), the column is likely
to be a precast structural column.
It is possible that a precast concrete frame may not show any of the above
features.
E.11.2 Typical Earthquake Damage

The earthquake performance of this structural type varies widely and is

sometimes poor. This type of building can perform well if the detailing used
to connect the structural elements has sufficient strength and ductility
(toughness). Because structures of this type often employ cast-in-place

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Figure E-44

Precast structural cross; installation joints are at sections where

bending is minimum during high seismic demand.

concrete or reinforced masonry (brick or block) shear walls for lateral-load

resistance, they experience the same types of damage as other shear wall
building types. Some of the problem areas specific to precast frames are
listed below.
Poorly designed connections between prefabricated elements can fail.
Accumulated stresses can result due to shrinkage and creep and due to
stresses incurred in transportation.
Loss of vertical support can occur due to inadequate bearing area and
insufficient connection between floor elements and columns.
Corrosion of the metal connectors between prefabricated elements can
occur.
E.11.3 Common Retrofit Techniques

Seismic retrofit techniques for precast concrete frame buildings are varied,
depending on the elements being strengthened. Inadequate shear capacity of
floor diaphragms can be addressed by adding reinforced concrete topping to an
untopped system when possible, or adding new shear walls to reduce the
seismic shear forces in the diaphragm. Corbels with inadequate vertical shear
or bending strength can be strengthened by adding epoxied horizontal shear
dowels through the corbel and into the column. Alternatively, vertical shear
capacity can be increased by adding a structural steel bolster under the corbel,
bolted to the column, or a new steel column or reinforced concrete column can
be added (ATC, 1992).

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E.12

Reinforced Masonry (RM1 and RM2)

E.12.1 Characteristics

Reinforced masonry buildings are mostly low-rise structures with perimeter

bearing walls, often with wood diaphragms (RM1 buildings) although precast
concrete is sometimes used (RM2 buildings). Floor and roof assemblies
usually consist of timber joists and beams, glued laminated beams, or light
steel joists. The bearing walls consist of grouted and reinforced hollow or
solid masonry units. Interior supports, if any, are often wood or steel columns,
wood stud frames, or masonry walls. Occupancy varies from small
commercial buildings to residential and industrial buildings. Generally, they
are less than five stories in height although many taller masonry buildings
exist. Reinforced masonry structures are usually basically rectangular
structures (See Figure E-45).

Figure E-45

Modern reinforced brick masonry.

To identify reinforced masonry, one must determine separately if the building

is masonry and if it is reinforced. To obtain information on how to recognize
a masonry structure, see Appendix D, which describes the characteristics of
construction materials. The best way of assessing the reinforcement
condition is to compare the date of construction with the date of code
requirement for the reinforcement of masonry in the local jurisdiction.
The screener also needs to determine if the building is veneered with masonry
or is a masonry building. Wood siding is seldom applied over masonry. If the
front faade appears to be reinforced masonry whereas the side has wood
siding, it is probably a wood frame that has undergone faade renovation.

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The back of the building should be checked for signs of the original
construction type.
If it can be determined that the bearing walls are constructed of concrete
blocks, they may be reinforced. Load-bearing structures using these blocks
are probably reinforced if the local code required it. Concrete blocks come in
a variety of sizes and textures. The most common size is 8 inches wide by 16
inches long by 8 inches high. Their presence is obvious if the concrete blocks
are left as the finish surface.
E.12.2 Typical Earthquake Damage

Reinforced masonry buildings can perform well in moderate earthquakes if

they are adequately reinforced and grouted, and if sufficient diaphragm
anchorage exists. A major problem is control of the workmanship during
construction. Poor construction practice can result in ungrouted and
unreinforced walls. Even where construction practice is adequate,
insufficient reinforcement in the design can be responsible for heavy damage
of the walls. The lack of positive connection of the floor and roof diaphragms
to the wall is also a problem. Some older reinforced masonry buildings have
wall-to-diaphragm tension ties that rely on cross-grain bending of the
perimeter ledger to resist loads, a particularly poor detail for resisting
earthquake loading.
E.12.3 Common Retrofit Techniques

Techniques for seismic retrofit of reinforced masonry bearing wall buildings

are varied, depending on the element. Techniques for retrofitting masonry
walls include: (1) applying a layer of concrete or shotcrete to the existing
walls; (2) adding vertical reinforcing and grouting into ungrouted block walls;
and (3) filling in large or critical openings with reinforced concrete or masonry
dowelled to the surrounding wall. Wood or steel deck diaphragms in RM1
buildings can be rehabilitated by adding an additional layer of plywood to
strengthen and stiffen an existing wood diaphragm, by shear welding between
sections of an existing steel deck or adding flat sheet steel reinforcement, or by
adding additional vertical elements (for example, shear walls or braced
frames) to decrease diaphragm spans and stresses. Wall-to-diaphragm ties in
wood frame construction relying on cross-grain bending can be strengthened
with additional wall anchors and blocking back into the diaphragm to supplant
the existing weak ties. Precast floor diaphragms in RM2 buildings can be
strengthened by adding a layer of concrete topping reinforced with mesh (if
the supporting structure has the capacity to carry the additional vertical dead

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load), or by adding new shear walls to reduce the diaphragm span (ATC,
1992).
E.13

Unreinforced Masonry (URM)

E.13.1 Characteristics

Most unreinforced masonry (URM) bearing wall structures in the western

United States (Figures E-46 through E-50) were built before 1934, although
this construction type was permitted in some jurisdictions having moderate or
high seismicity until the late 1940s or early 1950s (in some jurisdictions URM
may still be a common type of construction, even today). These buildings
usually range from one to six stories in height and function as commercial,
residential, or industrial buildings. The construction varies according to the
type of use, although wood floor and roof diaphragms are common. Smaller
commercial and residential buildings usually have light wood floor joists and
roof joists supported on the typical perimeter URM wall and interior, wood,
load-bearing partitions. Larger buildings, such as industrial warehouses,
have heavier floors and interior columns, usually of wood. The bearing walls
of these industrial buildings tend to be thick, often as much as 25 inches or
more at the base. Wall thicknesses of residential, commercial, and office
buildings range from 9 inches at upper stories to 17 inches at lower stories.
The first step in identifying buildings of this type is to determine if the
structure has bearing walls. Second, the screener should determine the
approximate age of the building. Some indications of unreinforced masonry
are listed below.
Weak mortar was used to bond the masonry units together in much of the
early unreinforced masonry construction in the United States. As the poor
earthquake performance of this mortar type became known in the 1930s,
and as cement mortar became available, this weaker mortar was not used
and thus is not found in more recent masonry buildings. If this soft
mortar is present, it is probably URM. Soft mortar can be scratched with a
hard instrument such as a penknife, screwdriver, or a coin. This scratch
testing, if permitted, should be done in a wall area where the original
structural material is exposed, such as the sides or back of a building.
Newer masonry may be used in renovations and it may look very much
like the old. Older mortar joints can also be repointed (i.e., regular
maintenance of the masonry mortar), or repaired with newer mortar during
renovation. The original construction may also have used a high-quality
mortar. Thus, even if the existence of soft mortar cannot be detected, it
may still be URM.

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Figure E-46

E-46

Drawing of unreinforced masonry bearing wall building, two-story (Lagorio et al., 1986).

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Figure E-47

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Drawing of unreinforced masonry bearing wall building, four-story (Lagorio et al., 1986).

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Figure E-48

E-48

Drawing of unreinforced masonry bearing wall building, six-story (Lagorio et al., 1986).

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Figure E-49

East Coast URM bearing wall building.

Figure E-50

West Coast URM bearing wall building.

An architectural characteristic of older brick bearing wall structures is the

arch and flat arch window heads (see Figure E-51). These arrangements
of masonry units function as a header to carry the load above the opening
to either side. Although masonry-veneered wood frame structures may
have these features, they are much more widely used in URM bearing wall
structures, as they were the most economical method of spanning over a
window opening at the time of construction. Other methods of spanning
are also used, including steel and stone lintels, but these methods are
generally more costly and usually employed in the front faade only.

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Figure E-51

Drawings of typical window head features in URM bearing wall buildings (Packard, 1981).

Some structures of this type will have anchor plates visible at the floor and
roof lines, approximately 6-10 feet on center around the perimeter of the
building. Anchor plates are usually square or diamond-shaped steel
plates approximately 6 inches by 6 inches, with a bolt and nut at the center.
Their presence indicates anchor ties have been placed to tie the walls to the
floors and roof. These are either from the original construction or from
retrofit under local ordinances. Unless the anchors are 6 feet on center or
less, they are not considered effective in earthquakes. If they are closely
spaced, and appear to be recently installed, it indicates that the building
has been rehabilitated. In either case, when these anchors are present all
around the building, the original construction is URM bearing wall.

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 When a building has many exterior solid walls constructed from hollow
clay tile, and no columns of another material can be detected, it is probably
not a URM bearing wall but probably a wood or metal frame structure
with URM infill.
One way to distinguish a reinforced masonry building from an
unreinforced masonry building is to examine the brick pattern closely.
Reinforced masonry usually does not show header bricks in the wall
surface.
If a building does not display the above features, or if the exterior is covered by
other finish material, the building may still be URM.
E.13.2 Typical Earthquake Damage

Unreinforced masonry structures are recognized as the most hazardous

structural type. They have been observed to fail in many modes during past
earthquakes. Typical problems include the following.
Unbraced parapets. Parapets cantilevering up from the roof line are
typically not braced and are usually the first element to fail in an
earthquake. See Figure E-52 for parapet damage.

Figure E-52

Parapet failure leaving an uneven roof line, due to inadequate

anchorage, 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.

Insufficient wall-to-diaphragm ties. Because the perimeter walls are not

positively anchored to the floors and roof, they tend to fall out under
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out-of-plane loading. The collapse of bearing walls can lead to major

building collapses. Some of these buildings have anchors as a part of the
original construction or as a retrofit. These older anchors exhibit
questionable performance.
Inadequate URM wall out-of-plane capacity. URM walls that are
adequately tied to the floor and roof diaphragms span between the
diaphragms under out-of-plane loads perpendicular to the face of the wall.
Walls with high height-to-thickness ratios are more susceptible to
out-of-plane failures.
Inadequate URM wall in-plane capacity. The mortar used in older URM
buildings was often made of lime and sand, with little or no cement, and
had limited shear strength. Wall lines with large openings further reduce
capacity. URM bearing walls can be heavily damaged and collapse
under large loads. See Figure E-53.

Figure E-53

Damaged URM building, 1992 Big Bear earthquake.

Inadequate diaphragm strength and stiffness. The strength and stiffness

of wood diaphragms in wood buildings can be inadequate to take the large
loads generated by the heavy masonry walls. They may lack the strength
to transfer out-of-plane wall loads back through the diaphragm to the
in-plane walls. And the displacements at mid-span of the diaphragm may
amplifying the out-of-plane loads on the walls and exceed the in-plane
capacity of interior partitions. At open front situations, the diaphragm
may be inadequate to transfer the load from URM perimeter walls above
the open front back to other walls that can deliver the loads to the
foundations.
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 Slender Walls. Some of these buildings have tall story heights and thin
walls. This condition, especially in non-load-bearing walls, will result in
buckling out-of-plane under severe lateral load. Failure of a
non-load-bearing wall represents a falling hazard, whereas the collapse of
a load-bearing wall will lead to partial or total collapse of the structure.
E.13.3 Common Retrofit Techniques

Over the last 20 years or more, jurisdictions in California have required that
unreinforced masonry bearing wall buildings be rehabilitated or demolished.
To minimize the economical impact on owners of having to rehabilitate their
buildings, many jurisdictions implemented phased programs such that the
critical items were dealt with first. The following are the key elements
included in a typical retrofit program.
Parapet and chimneys are braced back to the roof.
Roof and floor diaphragms are connected to the walls for both anchorage
forces (out of the plane of the wall) and shear forces (in the plane of the
wall). Anchorage connections are placed at 6 feet spacing or less,
depending on the force requirements. Shear connections are usually
placed at around 2 feet center to center. Anchors consist of bolts installed
through the wall, with 6-inch-square washer plates, and connected to
hardware attached to the wood framing. Shear connections usually are
bolts embedded in the masonry walls in oversized holes filled with either a
non-shrink grout or an epoxy adhesive. See Figure E-54.

Figure E-54

FEMA P-154

Two existing anchors above three new wall anchors at floor line
using decorative washer plates.

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E-53

 In cases when the height-to-thickness ratio of the walls exceeds the limits
of stability, retrofit consists of reducing the spans of the wall to a level that
their thickness can support or adding vertical wood or steel posts
(strongbacks) that are anchored to the wall and span between
diaphragms.
If the building has an open storefront in the first story, resulting in a soft
story, part of the storefront is enclosed with new masonry or a steel frame
is provided there, with new foundations.
Walls are retrofitted by either closing openings with reinforced masonry
or with reinforced shotcrete. Loads to the perimeter walls can be reduced
by adding interior steel braces.
Inadequate diaphragms can be strengthened with plywood overlays and
blocking.
E.14

Manufactured Housing (MH)

E.14.1 Characteristics

The Manufactured Housing building type has been added to the third edition
of FEMA P-154. Manufactured Housing is part of a larger class of
prefabricated structures that includes modular buildings.
Manufactured homes are built in a factory and transported to the site. Mobile
home is an older term for a manufactured home, though mobile home remains
in widespread use. Construction requirements for manufactured homes are
administered by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD), per HUDs Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Standards.
HUD regulation of manufactured housing began in 1976. HUD standards are
published in the Code of Federal Regulations under 24 CFR Part 3280, and
they define a manufactured home as:
a structure, transportable in one or more sections, which in the
traveling mode is 8 body feet or more in width or 40 body feet or more
in length or which when erected on-site is 320 or more square feet,
and which is built on a permanent chassis and designed to be used as
a dwelling with or without a permanent foundation when connected to
the required utilities.
Manufactured homes come in different sizes. A single-wide can be up to 18
feet in width. A double-wide is 20 feet or more in width; it is towed to the site
in two separate units, which are then joined together. Some homes are built
with additional units to create an even larger structure. Manufactured homes
are typically one story. Floors and roofs are usually constructed with
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plywood or oriented strand board, and the outside surfaces are covered with
sheet metal.
At the site, the HAZUS-MH MR4 Technical Manual (FEMA, 2009a) notes that
manufactured homes are typically placed on isolated piers, jack stands, or
masonry block foundations (usually without any positive anchorage).
Earthquake resistant bracing systems (ERBS) are available. A 1995 HUD
brochure (National Conference, 1996) notes that Some bracing systems
simply provide a frame that catches the home if, during an earthquake, the
home falls off its pier. Other more elaborate bracing systems actually
minimize both horizontal and vertical movement of the home through
connections between the bracing system, the home, and the footings.
Modular buildings are also factory built in units or modules, but they do not
have a permanent chassis or axles and must be transported to the site on flatbed
trucks. Using a crane, the modules are set on a foundation and joined together
to make a final structure. They may be multistory. Modular buildings are
governed by local building codes.
Prefabricated structures are used not just as residences, but also for schools
and other occupancies, as well as temporary buildings with many uses.
Portable classrooms are often used on school properties to provide additional
temporary space. In California, permanent foundations are required when the
classroom exceeds 2,160 square feet or has more than one story, per the
Division of State Architects IR 16-1 Design and Construction Requirements
for Relocatable Buildings (DSA, 2011).
The focus for the Manufactured Housing screening category is on buildings
that are mobile, raised up off the ground, not anchored to the ground, and may
or may not have an ERBS. This includes mobile homes and modular
buildings, such as those used for portable classrooms, when they are not
permanently anchored.
Prefabricated structures that are anchored to a foundation and are wood framed
are screened using the RVS procedure for W1 buildings; similarly,
prefabricated structures built with a steel superstructure and anchored to a
foundation are screened with the RVS procedure for S1 buildings.
In a rapid visual screening, it may not always be possible to determine whether
a permanent foundation or an ERBS exists, as there is often a cripple wall or
skirt wall covering the underlying conditions. Unanchored Manufactured
Housing should be assumed unless a permanent foundation or ERBS can be
seen.

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E.14.2 Typical Earthquake Damage

The lightweight superstructure of Manufactured Housing as defined above is

somewhat seismically resilient as it must be designed to be transported and to
resist wind loads. Typical superstructure earthquake damage can include
cracking of partitions and ceilings and racking of walls. Complete failure of
the superstructure due to racking is relatively unlikely. The primary issue of
concern and source of significant damage is due to the lack of a permanent
foundation connection or an ERBS. In moderate shaking, the building can
fall off its supports, and jack stands can penetrate the floor. Connecting utility
lines can be severed, and escaping gas can cause fires. Falling objects,
structural damage, and fire can lead to injuries and fatalities. The cost and
disruption from damage can be significant.
E.14.3 Common Retrofit Techniques

Because the superstructure of Manufactured Housing is relatively seismically

resilient, it is rare for it to undergo seismic retrofitting. However, the addition
of an ERBS is a common retrofit technique if it was not done at the time of
original installation on the site.

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Appendix F

Guidance on Assessing Damage

and Deterioration

F.1

Introduction

The scoring system in FEMA P-154 RVS is established assuming that the
building is constructed of sound materials. Deterioration of structural
elements can have a significant impact on the expected performance of a
building and therefore needs to be captured when performing a survey when
possible. Determination of the potential impact on performance is difficult at
best since not all damage and deterioration is visible, nor is it easy to assess.
Chapter 3 provides guidelines for assessing damage and deterioration during
a Level 1 screening.
The following sections describe some of the important conditions to consider
when evaluating this hazard. The key question is whether the level of
deterioration and damage rises to the level of significant and thus triggers a
Detailed Structural Evaluation. This is best determined by an experienced
engineer, but the guidance below is provided to assist the screener in
conducting RVS.
F.2

Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Wood

Conditions, such as decay, shrinkage, splitting, fire damage, or sagging, may

affect the overall capacity of the seismic force-resisting system. Metal
accessory deterioration, or broken or loose connections, can also contribute
to lateral weaknesses.
Evidence of moisture damage on the building surfaces is a good clue that
hidden damage may exist. Rusted nails, bolts, and fasteners can have a
major impact on the capacity to transfer the loads as intended.
Wood structural panels or shear walls should be checked for evidence of sill
plate damage when the sill is accessible (Figure F-1). Rusted nails or
evidence of decay on the wood framing will suggest that its strength has been
compromised.

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F-1

Figure F-1

Wood decay in cripple wall.

Wood post and bracing systems should be checked for rot, splitting and steel
corrosion (Figures F-2 and F-3). Since these can generally be considered to
provide primary lateral resistance, their integrity is essential to the seismic
resistance of the structure and can warrant a more detailed evaluation to
assure safety.

Figure F-2

F-2

Damaged wood post.

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Figure F-3

Rotted timber column.

Fire-damaged members are often not directly observed; however, when

discovered, their effect should be considered. Reduction of member sizes
and significant charring should be noted and flagged for additional
investigation.
Steel bolts and other metal fasteners that show evidence of deterioration
should be evaluated when they are part of the primary seismic force-resisting
system.
Checking and splitting of wood, water stains on wood elements, and light
rust on metal connection hardware, are common and do not warrant checking
a detailed evaluation. However, if there is noticeable loss of cross section in
wood members or large areas of softness from dryrot or insect damage, and if
there are a substantial number of broken connections or connections with
substantial loss of cross section from rust, then this is considered significant,
and a Detailed Structural Evaluation is recommended.
F.3

Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Steel

Rusting and corrosion of steel members and connections can be an important

indicator of the potential for poor performance in a buildings lateral forceresisting system (Figure F-4). Reduced member size, pitting, scaling, and
other detrimental effects of water intrusion should be evaluated.
Steel members exhibiting notable size reductions or pitting should be
captured in the survey. While the primary concern is for elements

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comprising the seismic force-resisting system, it is helpful to comment on

any member that has this defect.

Figure F-4

Corroded steel fasteners.

Some other considerations include cracking or missing bolts. For the

purposes of RVS, this is most important when it occurs in the seismic forceresisting system.
Steel surface rusting or corrosion may appear severe, but if it does not
significantly reduce the member section then it should not be considered
sufficient to trigger a detailed evaluation. On the other hand, significant loss
of section in important members of the lateral system or significant loss of
section at connections or substantial missing bolts or other connectors is
sufficient to trigger a Detailed Structural Evaluation.
F.4

Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Concrete

Deterioration of concrete materials either as cover for reinforcing steel or due

to cracking should be considered detrimental to the capacity of the individual
members.
Spalling of concrete cover over reinforcing steel can be evidence of moisture
and corrosion issues (Figure F-5). While not always a problem for a
members reduction in capacity, it can be an indicator of hidden reinforcing
steel corrosion that would reduce member strength.

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Figure F-5

Spalled concrete cover.

The benefits of reinforcing steel in concrete members can be significantly

reduced when the steel is compromised through corrosion and deterioration.
Exposed reinforcing steel does not bond to concrete and therefore is
ineffective in transferring forces and consequently should be further
evaluated (Figure F-6).

Figure F-6

Exposed reinforcing steel.

Post-tensioning anchor corrosion can also lead to failure of concrete sections.

If these connections can be examined and they show evidence of significant
loss of section, then this should be reason for further examination of the
structure.

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Precast concrete walls and precast members generally rely upon mechanical
anchorages to fasten them into a system. Examination of these steel elements
for corrosion and loss of section can also lead to concerns about their
capacity to perform adequately during an earthquake. If excessive rust is
observed, then this should be flagged and commented upon on the screening
forms.
Long-term creep, shrinkage or temperature extremes can produce cracking
near connections. For simplicity in rapid visual screening, concrete crack
widths of 1/8 or greater should be considered significant and reported on the
forms.
Concrete walls and columns can also have cracking which may affect the
overall strength of a building (Figure F-7). Crack width and crack type are
both important considerations. For example, flexural cracks or temperature
and shrinkage cracking are typically not considered to be of serious concern.
Cracks representative of shear demands, on the other hand, can be of more
substantial concern. FEMA 306 report, Evaluation and Repair of
Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry Wall Buildings (FEMA,
1999a), provides excellent additional guidance, but is beyond the level of
effort intended for RVS. For the purposes of the rapid visual screening,
crack widths of 1/8 or greater that appear to go fully through the structural
elements and are at least 25% of the length or width of a member are
sufficient to warrant a Detailed Structural Evaluation.

Figure F-7

F-6

Concrete cracks.

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F.5

Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Reinforced Masonry

Reinforced masonry can exhibit cracking from a variety of sources (Figure

F-8). Temperature extremes, inadequate control joints, foundation settlement
and other causes can produce diagonal or joint line cracking that should be
examined and evaluated. Crack widths greater than 1/8 or greater over at
least 25% of the length of a member are sufficient to warrant a Detailed
Structural Evaluation.

Figure F-8

F.6

Stair-step cracking.

Guidance on Assessing Damage and Deterioration of

Unreinforced Masonry

Cracking in unreinforced masonry walls can be detrimental to the overall

expected performance of these types of buildings. Diagonal stair-step or
through-brick cracking with widths greater than 1/8 should be captured for
additional investigation by checking the Significant Damage/Deterioration
to the Structural System box (Figure F-9). Cracks over at least 25% of the
length of a member are sufficient to warrant a Detailed Structural Evaluation.

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F-7

Figure F-9

F-8

Masonry joint separations.

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Appendix G

Earthquakes and How Buildings

Resist Them

G.1

The Nature of Earthquakes

In a global sense, earthquakes result from motion between plates comprising

the earths crust (see Figure G-1). These plates are driven by the convective
motion of the material in the earths mantle between the core and the crust,
which in turn is driven by heat generated at the earths core. Just as in a
heated pot of water, heat from the earths core causes material to rise to the
earths surface. Forces between the rising material and the earths crustal
plates cause the plates to move. The resulting relative motions of the plates
are associated with the generation of earthquakes. Where the plates spread
apart, molten material fills the void. An example is the ridge on the ocean
floor, at the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. This material quickly cools and,
over millions of years, is driven by newer, viscous, fluid material across the
ocean floor.

Figure G-1

The separate tectonic plates comprising the earths crust

superimposed on a map of the world.

These large pieces of the earths surface, termed tectonic plates, move very
slowly and irregularly. Forces build up for decades, centuries, or millennia at
the interfaces (or faults) between plates, until a large releasing movement

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suddenly occurs. This sudden, violent motion produces the nearby shaking
that is felt as an earthquake. Strong shaking produces strong horizontal
forces on structures, which can cause direct damage to buildings, bridges,
and other man-made structures as well as triggering fires, landslides, road
damage, tidal waves (tsunamis), and other damaging phenomena.
A fault is like a tear in the earths crust and its fault surface may be from
one to over one hundred miles deep. In some cases, faults are the physical
expression of the boundary between adjacent tectonic plates and thus are
hundreds of miles long. In addition, there are shorter faults, parallel to, or
branching out from, a main fault zone. Generally, the longer a fault, the
larger magnitude earthquake it can generate. Beyond the main tectonic
plates, there are many smaller sub-plates, platelets and simple blocks of crust
which can move or shift due to the jostling of their neighbors and the major
plates. The known existence of these many sub-plates implies that smaller
but still damaging earthquakes are possible almost anywhere.
With the present understanding of the earthquake generating mechanism, the
times, sizes, and locations of earthquakes cannot be reliably predicted.
Generally, earthquakes will be concentrated in the vicinity of faults, and
certain faults are more likely than others to produce a large event, but the
earthquake generating process is not understood well enough to predict the
exact time of earthquake occurrence. Therefore, communities must be
prepared for an earthquake to occur at any time.
Four major factors can affect the severity of ground shaking and thus
potential damage at a site. These are the magnitude of the earthquake, the
type of earthquake, the distance from the source of the earthquake to the site,
and the hardness or softness of the rock or soil at the site. Larger
earthquakes will shake longer and harder, and thus cause more damage.
Experience has shown that the ground motion can be felt for several seconds
to a minute or longer. In preparing for earthquakes, both horizontal (side to
side) and vertical shaking must be considered.
There are many ways to describe the size and severity of an earthquake and
associated ground shaking. Perhaps the most familiar are earthquake
magnitude and Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI, often simply termed
intensity). Earthquake magnitude is technically known as the Richter
magnitude, a numerical description of the maximum amplitude of ground
movement measured by a seismograph (adjusted to a standard setting). On
the Richter scale, the largest recorded earthquakes have had magnitudes of
about 9.5. It is a logarithmic scale, and a unit increase in magnitude
corresponds to a ten-fold increase in the adjusted ground displacement

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amplitude, and to approximately a thirty-fold increase in total potential strain

energy released by the earthquake.
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) is a subjective scale defining the level of
shaking at specific sites on a scale of I to XII. (MMI is expressed in Roman
numerals, to connote its approximate nature.) For example, slight shaking
that causes few instances of fallen plaster or cracks in chimneys constitutes
MMI VI. It is difficult to find a reliable precise relationship between
magnitude, which is a description of the earthquakes total energy level, and
intensity, which is a subjective description of the level of shaking of the
earthquake at specific sites, because shaking intensity can vary with building
type, design and construction practice, soil type and distance from the event.
The following analogy may be worth remembering: earthquake magnitude
and intensity are similar to a light bulb and the light it emits. A particular
light bulb has only one energy level, or wattage (e.g., 100 watts, analogous to
an earthquakes magnitude). Near the light bulb, the light intensity is very
bright (perhaps 100 foot-candles, analogous to MMI IX), while farther away
the intensity decreases (e.g., 10 foot-candles, MMI V).
A particular earthquake has only one magnitude value, whereas it has
intensity values that differ throughout the surrounding land. MMI is a
subjective measure of seismic intensity at a site, and cannot be measured
using a scientific instrument. Rather, MMI is estimated by scientists based
on observations, such as the degree of disturbance to the ground, the degree
of damage to typical buildings and the behavior of people. A more objective
measure of seismic shaking at a site, which can be measured by instruments,
is a simple structures acceleration in response to the ground motion. In this
Handbook, the level of ground shaking is described by the spectral response
acceleration.
G.2

Seismicity of the United States

Figure G-2 shows the seismicity of the United States based on the 2014
seismicity catalog of the USGS National Seismic Hazard Mapping Project.
The data are based on Petersen et al. (2014), Wesson et al. (2007), and Klein
et al. (2001).
It is evident that some parts of the country have experienced more
earthquakes than others. The boundary between the North American and
Pacific tectonic plates lies along the west coast of the United States and south
of Alaska. The San Andreas fault in California and the Aleutian Trench off
the coast of Alaska are part of this boundary. These active seismic zones
have generated earthquakes with Richter magnitudes greater than 8. Many

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G-3

Figure G-2

G-4

Seismicity data for the United States showing earthquake locations with varying size of circles
depending on the magnitude.

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other smaller fault zones exist throughout the western United States that are
also participating intermittently in releasing the stresses and strains that are
built up as the tectonic plates try to move past one another. Because
earthquakes always occur along faults, the seismic hazard will be greater for
those population centers close to active fault zones.
In California, the earthquake hazard is so significant that special study zones
have been created by the legislature, and named Alquist-Priola Special Study
Zones. These zones cover the larger known faults and require special
geotechnical studies to be performed in order to establish design parameters.
On the east coast of the United States, the sources of earthquakes are less
understood. There is no plate boundary and few locations of faults are
known. Therefore, it is difficult to make statements about where earthquakes
are most likely to occur. Several significant historical earthquakes have
occurred, such as in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1886, New Madrid,
Missouri, in 1811 and 1812, and Mineral, Virginia in 2011, indicating that
there is potential for large earthquakes. However, most earthquakes in the
Eastern United States are smaller magnitude events. Because of regional
geologic differences, specifically, the hardness of the crustal rock, Eastern
and Central United States earthquakes are felt at much greater distances from
their sources than those in the western United States, sometimes at distances
up to a thousand miles.
G.3

Earthquake Effects

Many different types of damage can occur in buildings. Damage can be

divided into two categories: structural and nonstructural, both of which can
be hazardous to building occupants. Structural damage means degradation of
the buildings structural support systems (i.e., vertical- and lateral-forceresisting systems), such as the building frames and walls. Nonstructural
damage refers to any damage that does not affect the integrity of the
structural support systems. Examples of nonstructural damage are collapsed
chimneys, broken windows, or fallen ceilings. The type of damage to be
expected is a complex issue that depends on the structural type and age of the
building, its configuration, construction materials, the site conditions, the
proximity of the building to neighboring buildings, and the type of nonstructural elements.
When strong earthquake shaking occurs, a building is shaken mostly from
side to side, and also up and down. That is, while the ground is violently
moving from side to side, taking the building foundation with it, the building
structure tends to stay at rest, similar to a passenger standing on a bus that

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accelerates quickly. Once the building starts moving, it tends to continue in

the same direction, but the ground moves back in the opposite direction (as if
the bus driver first accelerated quickly, then suddenly braked). Thus, the
building gets thrown back and forth by the motion of the ground, with some
parts of the building lagging behind the foundation movement, and then
moving in the opposite direction. The force F that an upper floor level or
roof level of the building should successfully resist is related to its mass m
and its acceleration a, according to Newtons law, F = ma. The heavier the
building, the more the force is exerted. Therefore, a tall, heavy, reinforcedconcrete building will be subject to more force than a lightweight, one-story,
wood frame house, given the same acceleration.
Damage can be due either to structural members (beams, columns, and walls)
being overloaded or differential movements between different parts of the
structure. If the structure is sufficiently strong to resist these forces or
differential movements, little damage will result. If the structure cannot
resist these forces or differential movements, structural members will be
damaged, and collapse may occur.
Building damage is related to the duration and the severity of the ground
shaking. Larger earthquakes tend to shake longer and harder and therefore
cause more damage to structures. Earthquakes with Richter magnitudes less
than 5 rarely cause significant damage to buildings, since acceleration levels
(except when the site is on the fault) and duration of shaking for these
earthquakes are relatively small.
In addition to damage caused by ground shaking, damage can be caused by
buildings pounding against one another, ground failure that causes the
degradation of the building foundation, landslides, fires and tidal waves
(tsunamis). Most of these indirect forms of damage are not addressed in this
Handbook.
Generally, the farther from the source of an earthquake, the less severe is the
motion. The rate at which motion decreases with distance is a function of the
regional geology, inherent characteristics and details of the earthquake, and
its source location. The underlying geology of the site can also have a
significant effect on the amplitude of the ground motion there. Soft, loose
soils tend to amplify the ground motion and in many cases a resonance effect
can make it last longer. In such circumstances, building damage can be
accentuated. In the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, damage was greater
in the areas where buildings were constructed on loose, man-made fill and
less at the tops of the rocky hills. Even more dramatic was the 1985 Mexico
City earthquake. This earthquake occurred 250 miles from the city, but very

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soft soils beneath the city amplified the ground shaking enough to cause
weak mid-rise buildings to collapse (see Figure G-3). Resonance of the
building frequency with the amplified ground shaking frequency played a
significant role. Sites with rock close to or at the surface will be less likely to
amplify motion. The type of motion felt also changes with distance from the
earthquake. Close to the source the motion tends to be violent rapid shaking,
whereas farther away the motion is normally more of a swaying nature.
Buildings will respond differently to the rapid shaking than to the swaying
motion.

Figure G-3

Mid-rise building collapse, 1985 Mexico City earthquake.

Each building has its own vibrational characteristics that depend on building
height and structural type. Similarly, each earthquake has its own vibrational
characteristics that depend on the geology of the site, distance from the
source, and the type and site of the earthquake source mechanism.
Sometimes a natural resonant frequency of the building and a prominent
frequency of the earthquake motion are similar and cause a sympathetic
response, termed resonance. This causes an increase in the amplitude of the
buildings vibration and consequently increases the potential for damage.
Resonance was a major problem in the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, in
which the total collapse of many mid-rise buildings (Figure G-7) caused
many fatalities. Tall buildings at large distances from the earthquake source
have a small, but finite, probability of being subjected to ground motions
containing frequencies that can cause resonance. Similar effects were seen in
the 2010 Chile earthquake where a number of tall concrete buildings in
Santiago were damaged, even though the epicenter was hundreds of miles
away.
Where taller, more flexible, buildings are susceptible to distant earthquakes
(swaying motion) shorter and stiffer buildings are more susceptible to nearby

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G-7

earthquakes (rapid shaking).

The level of damage that results from a major earthquake depends on how
well a building has been designed and constructed (see Section G.4). The
exact type of damage cannot be predicted because no two buildings undergo
identical motion. However, there are some general trends that have been
observed in many earthquakes.
Newer buildings generally sustain less damage than older buildings
designed to earlier codes.
Common problems in wood frame construction are the collapse of
unreinforced chimneys (Figure G-4), houses sliding off their foundations
(Figure G-5), collapse of wood frame cripple walls (Figure G-6), and
collapse of post and pier foundations (Figure G-7). Although such
damage may be costly to repair, it is not usually life threatening.

G-8

Figure G-4

Collapsed chimney with damaged roof, 1987 Whittier Narrows

earthquake.

Figure G-5

House that slid off foundation, 1994 Northridge earthquake.

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Figure G-6

Collapsed cripple stud walls dropped this house to the ground,

1992 Landers and Big Bear earthquakes.

Figure G-7

Photo of house settled to the ground due to collapse of its post

and pier foundation.

The collapse of load bearing walls that support the floor and roof framing for
the structure is a common form of damage in unreinforced masonry
structures (Figure G-8). This damage commonly occurs due to lack of an
adequate structural connection between the floor and roof framing and the
heavy masonry walls.
Similar types of damage have occurred in many older tilt-up buildings
(Figure G-9).
From a life-safety perspective, vulnerable buildings need to be clearly
identified, and then strengthened or demolished.

FEMA P-154

G: Earthquakes and How Buildings Resist Them

G-9

Figure G-8

Collapse of unreinforced masonry bearing wall, 1933 Long

Beach earthquake.

Figure G-9

Collapse of a tilt-up bearing wall, 1994 Northridge earthquake.

G.4

How Buildings Resist Earthquakes

As described above, buildings experience horizontal distortion when

subjected to earthquake motion. When these distortions get large, the
damage can be catastrophic. Therefore, most buildings are designed with
lateral force-resisting systems (or seismic force-resisting systems), to resist
the effects of earthquake forces. In many cases, seismic systems make a
building stiffer against horizontal forces, and thus minimize the amount of
relative lateral movement and consequently the damage.
The combined action of seismic systems along the width and length of a
building can typically resist earthquake motion from any direction. Seismic
systems differ from building to building because the type of system is
controlled to some extent by the basic layout and structural elements of the

G-10

G: Earthquakes and How Buildings Resist Them

FEMA P-154

building. Basically, seismic systems consist of axial-, shear- and bendingresistant elements.
In wood frame, stud-wall buildings, plywood siding is typically used to
prevent excessive lateral deflection in the plane of the wall. Without the
extra strength provided by the plywood or other structural sheathing, walls
would distort excessively or rack, resulting in broken windows and stuck
doors. In older wood frame houses, this resistance to lateral loads may be
provided by either wood or steel diagonal bracing.
The earthquake-resisting systems in modern steel buildings take many forms.
Many types of diagonal bracing configurations have been used, such as
single diagonal braces, X-bracing, V-bracing, or inverted V-bracing. In
braced frames, horizontal loads are resisted through tension and compression
forces in the braces with resulting changed forces in the beams and columns.
Steel buildings are sometimes constructed with moment-resistant frames in
one direction and braced frames in the other.
Moment-resisting steel frames are capable of resisting lateral loads. In this
type of construction the connections between the beams and the columns are
designed to resist the rotation of the column relative to the beam. Thus, the
beam and the column work together and resist lateral movement and lateral
displacement by bending.
In concrete structures, shear walls are sometimes used to provide lateral
resistance in the plane of the wall, in addition to moment-resisting frames.
Ideally, these shear walls are continuous reinforced-concrete walls extending
from the foundation to the roof of the building. They can be exterior walls or
interior walls. They are interconnected with the rest of the concrete frame,
and thus resist the horizontal motion of one floor relative to another. Shear
walls can also be constructed of reinforced masonry, using bricks or concrete
blocks.

FEMA P-154

G: Earthquakes and How Buildings Resist Them

G-11

Glossary, Abbreviations,
and Symbols
Glossary
Adjusted Baseline Score: The score used at the beginning of the Level 2
page of the Data Collection Form that takes the Final Score on the Level 1
page and subtracts the plan and vertical irregularity Score Modifiers.
Basic Score: Each FEMA Building Type has a Basic Score for each
seismicity region that provides a relative comparison of expected seismic
performance.
Benchmark Year: The year that substantially improved seismic codes were
adopted and enforced. See Chapter 2.
Collapse: Collapse is defined in FEMA P-154 as when the gravity loadcarrying system (such as beams, columns, floors, shear walls) loses the
ability to carry its own weight and the weight of whatever else it supports.
That failure leads to severe structural deformation of a potentially lifethreatening nature, especially falling of all or portions of the structure.
Construction Documents: Drawings and specifications prepared by the
design team that are used by the contractor to build the building. This
includes architectural and structural drawings. These are sometimes referred
to as working drawings.
Cut-off Score: A Final Score established by the RVS Authority to divide
screened buildings into two categories: those that are expected to have
acceptable seismic performance, and those that may be seismically hazardous
and should be studied further. See Chapter 2 and Chapter 5.
Data Collection Form: The form used to document the rapid visual
screening. The first page provides the Level 1 screening. The second page
covers the optional Level 2 screening. Data Collection Forms are available
for the Low, Moderate, Moderately High, High, and Very High seismicity
regions.
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation: Following a rapid visual screening in
FEMA P-154, if potential nonstructural seismic deficiencies are identified, a
Detailed Nonstructural Evaluation is recommended. FEMA E-74 (FEMA,
2012) can be used to conduct the evaluation.

FEMA P-154

H: Glossary, Abbreviations, and Symbols

H-1

Detailed Structural Evaluation: Following a rapid visual screening in

FEMA P-154, if the Final Score is below the cut-off score; the FEMA
Building Type is unknown; or there or other hazards such as pounding
potential with adjacent buildings, falling hazards from adjacent buildings,
geologic hazards, Soil Type F soil, or significant damage/deterioration, then
a Detailed Structural Evaluation is recommended. ASCE/SEI 41-13 (ASCE,
2014) can be used to conduct the evaluation.
FEMA Building Type: A set of standardized building types developed in
FEMA publications to cover the common building types found in the United
States. This is also known in some publications as FEMA Model Building
Type and Model Building Type. See Chapter 3 and Appendix E for more
detail.
Final Score: The Final Score is derived by adding to or subtracting Score
Modifiers from the Basic Score for the FEMA Building Type. Final Scores
typically range from 0 to 7, with higher scores corresponding to better
expected seismic performance and a lower potential for collapse. The Final
Score can also be used to estimate of the probability of building collapse.
The score is an estimate of the negative of the logarithm (base 10) of the
probability of collapse should severe ground shaking occur with at the MCER
level. See FEMA P-155.
Gable Wall: A generally triangularly-shaped wall at the exterior of a
building under a roof.
Geographic Information System (GIS): A system designed to capture,
store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical
data. GIS can provide valuable information about the buildings to be
screened.
High Seismicity Region: A region of high seismicity as defined by Table
2-2.
Level 1 Form: The first page of the Data Collection Form. It must be
completed during the rapid visual screening.
Level 1 Screener: Individual that conducts Level 1 screenings of buildings
who can be an appropriately trained civil or structural engineer, architect,
design professional, building official, construction contractor, facility
manager, firefighter, architectural or engineering student, or another
individual with a general familiarity or background in building design or
construction. See Chapter 2.
Level 2 Form: The second page of the Data Collection Form. Completion is
optional.

H-2

H: Glossary, Abbreviations, and Symbols

FEMA P-154

Level 2 Screener: Individual that conducts both Level 1 and Level 2

screenings of buildings who can be an appropriately trained civil or structural
engineering professional, architect, or graduate student with background in
seismic evaluation or design of buildings. See Chapter 2.
Low Seismicity Region: A region of low seismicity as defined per Table 22.
MCER: Risk-targeted maximum considered earthquake ground motions, as
specified in ASCE/SEI 7-10 (ASCE, 2010) and ASCE/SEI 41-13. These
ground motions are the basis for the Third Edition scores.
Moderate Seismicity Region: A region of moderate seismicity as defined in
Table 2-2.
Moderately High Seismicity Region: A region of moderately high
seismicity as defined in Table 2-2. The Moderately High seismicity region
has stronger seismicity than the Moderate seismicity region and less
seismicity than the High seismicity region.
Post-Benchmark Score Modifier: A Score Modifier applied to buildings
build after the benchmark year.
Pre-Code Score Modifier: A Score Modifier that is used to identify a
building built before the pre-code year.
Pre-Code Year: The year that seismic codes were initially adopted and
enforced. See Chapter 2.
Pre-Field Activities: The portion work in a rapid visual screening program
that occurs before the actual field screening. It includes pre-field planning,
selection and modification of Data Collection Forms, selection and training
of screening personnel, and acquisition and review of pre-field data. See
Chapter 2.
Pre-Field Planning: A subset of pre-field activities that includes selection
and development of a record-keeping system, development of an electronic
scoring tool if desired, compilation and development of seismic hazard maps.
Program Manager: The entity that will manage the RVS program on behalf
of the RVS Authority, such as a building department, qualified technical
branch of government, or outside consultant. See Chapter 2.
ROVER (Rapid Observation of Vulnerability and Estimation of Risk):
Free mobile software for pre- and post-earthquake building safety screening,
developed by FEMA. See Chapter 1.
Rapid Visual Screening (RVS) Authority: The entity that has decided to
conduct an RVS program and will use the results. This could include a state

FEMA P-154

H: Glossary, Abbreviations, and Symbols

H-3

legislature, city council, school district, or private building owner. See

Chapter 2.
Sanborn Map: Maps, published for the insurance industry, that provide
information about building attributes including year built, size and structural
type. See Chapter 2.
Score Modifier: Values that are added (or subtracted) from the Basic Score
to arrive at a Final Score. The Score Modifiers are related to observed
seismic performance attributes.
Seismic Force-Resisting System: That part of the structural system that has
been considered in the design to provide the required resistance to the
seismic forces.
Soil Type: Soil is classified in FEMA P-154 in accordance with ASCE/SEI
7-10. There are six types of soil, ranging from Type A to Type F. Site Class
is an analogous term. See Chapter 2.
Supervising Engineer: The individual that will provide the technical
expertise necessary to run the RVS program. See Chapter 2.
Very High Seismicity Region: A region of seismicity as defined in Table
2-2.
Abbreviations
RVS

Rapid Visual Screening

URM

Unreinforced Masonry

Symbols

H-4

The sum of all Level 2 modifiers except PL2 and VL2. See Chapter 4.

PL1

Level 1 Plan Irregularity Modifier. See Chapter 3.

PL2

Level 2 Plan Irregularity Modifier. See Chapter 4.

Adjusted baseline Score (used in the calculation of the Final Level 2

Score). See Chapter 4.

S1

The spectral acceleration response at a period of 1.0 seconds. See

Chapter 2.

SL1

Final Level 1 Score. See Chapter 3.

SL2

Final Level 2 Score. See Chapter 4.

SMIN

Minimum Score. See Chapter 3.

SS

The spectral acceleration response at a period of 0.2 seconds. See

Chapter 2.

H: Glossary, Abbreviations, and Symbols

FEMA P-154

VL1

Level 1 Vertical Irregularity Modifier. See Chapter 3.

VL2

Level 2 Vertical Irregularity Modifier. See Chapter 4.

VS30

Shear wave velocity in the upper 30 meters of soil. It is used to

determine the soil type. See Chapters 2 and 6.

FEMA P-154

H: Glossary, Abbreviations, and Symbols

H-5

Illustration Credits

Illustration and figure credits are provided below, unless referenced with the
figure. All remaining figures and illustrations were prepared by the project
team.
Credit

Figure Number

Charles Scawthorn

3-5, 3-27, 3-31, 3-33, 3-42, 3-43, 7-8, 7-9, 7-15, D-1,
D-2, D-3, D-4, D-5, E-1, E-3, E-5, E-7, E-8, E-9, E-10,
E-13, E-14, E-15, E-16, E-17, E-18, E-20, E-21, E-23,
E-25, E-26, E-27, E-28, E-31, E-32, E-33, E-35, E-36,
E-37, E-39, E-41, E-43, E-45, E-49, E-50, E-52, E-53,
E-54, F-5, F-8, F-9, F-10, F-12, F-12, G-7, G-8, G-9,
G-10, G-11, G-12, G-13; Figures in Table 3-1, Table
D-1 (except a and b), Table D-2, Table D-3 (except f
and g)

Kit Wong

3-40, 3-41, D-6, D-8, D-9, D-10, D-13, D-14, D-15, D16, D-17, E-42, E-44; Figures in Table D-1 a and b,
Table D-3 f and g

Richard Ranous

7-5, 7-6, 7-11, 7-13, F-11

Sanborn Maps

2-4, 2-5

Robert Bruce

D-7

James Stratta

E-30

FEMA P-154

Illustration Credits

I-1

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Prestandard, FEMA 310, prepared by the American Society of Civil
Engineers for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington,
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FEMA, 1999a, Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry

Wall Buildings: Basic Procedures Manual, FEMA 306, prepared by the
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Agency, Washington, D.C.
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Wall Buildings: Technical Resources, FEMA 307, prepared by the
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Agency, Washington, D.C.
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Wall Buildings, FEMA 308, prepared by the Applied Technology
Council for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington,
D.C.
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Technology Manual, Volume 1, prepared by the National Institute of
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FEMA, 2000b, Prestandard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation
of Buildings, FEMA 356, prepared by the American Society of Civil
Engineers for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington,
D.C.
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Hazards: A Handbook, Second Edition, FEMA 154, prepared by the
Applied Technology Council for the Federal Emergency Management
Agency, Washington, D.C.
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Hazards: Supporting Documentation, Second Edition, FEMA 155,
prepared by the Applied Technology Council for the Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
FEMA, 2003, Multi-hazard Loss Estimation Methodology, Earthquake
Model, HAZUS-MH MR1, Advanced Engineering Building Module,
Technical and Users Manual, developed by the National Institute of
FEMA P-154

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Building Sciences for the Federal Emergency Management Agency,

Washington, D.C.
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Buildings, FEMA 547, developed by Rutherford + Chekene under a
contract with the National Institute of Science and Technology, Federal
Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
FEMA, 2009a, Multi-Hazard Loss Estimation Methodology, Earthquake
Model, HAZUS-MH MR4 Technical Manual, developed by the National
Institute of Building Sciences for the Federal Emergency Management
Agency, Washington, D.C.
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FEMA P-695, prepared by the Applied Technology Council for the
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
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Wood-Frame Dwellings, FEMA P-50, prepared by the Applied
Technology Council for the Federal Emergency Management Agency,
Washington, D.C.
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Wood-Frame Dwellings, FEMA P-50-1, prepared by the Applied
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Buildings With Weak First Stories, FEMA P-807, prepared by the
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Agency, Washington, D.C.
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The Methodology, FEMA P-58-1, prepared by the Applied Technology
Council for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington,
D.C.
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Practical Guide, Fourth Edition, prepared by the Applied Technology
Council for the Federal Emergency Management Agency, FEMA E-74,
Washington, D.C. Available at: http://www.fema.gov
/earthquake-publications/fema-e-74-reducing-risks-nonstructuralearthquake-damage. Last accessed on September 17, 2013.

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FEMA, 2014, Rapid Observation of Vulnerability and Estimation of Risk,

FEMA P-154 ROVER CD Version 2, prepared by the Applied
Technology Council for the Federal Emergency Management Agency,
Washington, D.C.
FEMA, 2015, Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic
Hazards: Supporting Documentation, Third Edition, FEMA P-155,
prepared by the Applied Technology Council for the Federal Emergency
Management Agency, Washington, D.C.
ICBO, 1973, 1994, 1997, Uniform Building Code, International Conference
of Building Officials, Whittier, California.
ICC, 2012, 2012 International Building Code, International Code Council,
Washington, D.C.
Klein, F.W., Frankel, A.D., Mueller, C.S., Wesson, R.L., and Okubo, P.G.,
2001, Seismic hazard in Hawaii: High rate of large earthquakes and
probabilistic ground motion maps, Bulleting of the Seismological
Society of America, Vol. 91, pp. 479-498.
Lagorio, H., Friedman, H., and Wong, K., 1986, Issues for Seismic
Strengthening of Existing Buildings: A Practical Guide for Architects,
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of Geology and Mineral Industries, Open File Report 07-020, 2007.
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/default.htm. Last accessed on September 17, 2013.
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Minimizing Damage and Repair Costs to Manufactured Homes During
an Earthquake, prepared by the National Conference of States on
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Packard, R.T., editor, 1981, Ramsay/Sleeper Architectural Graphic

Standards, Seventh Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
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N., Chen, R., Rukstales, K.S., Luco, N., Wheeler, R.L., Williams, R.A.,
and Olsen, A.H., 2014, Documentation for the 2014 Update of the United
States National Seismic Hazard Maps, U.S. Geological Survey OpenFile Report 20141091, 243 p.
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Vulnerability, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, New
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of Hazards, Skandia American Group, New York.
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/designmaps/usapp/. Last accessed September 17, 2013.
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Seismic Hazard Maps for Alaska, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File

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FEMA P-154

J: References

J-7

Project Participants

ATC Management and Oversight

Christopher Rojahn (Program Executive)

Applied Technology Council

201 Redwood Shores Parkway, Suite 240

Redwood City, California 94065

Ayse Hortacsu (Project Manager)

Applied Technology Council

201 Redwood Shores Parkway, Suite 240

Redwood City, California 94065

Jon A. Heintz (Program Manager)

Applied Technology Council

201 Redwood Shores Parkway, Suite 240

Redwood City, California 94065

Thomas McLane (Project Manager)

Applied Technology Council

201 Redwood Shores Parkway, Suite 240

Redwood City, California 94065

FEMA Oversight
Mike Mahoney (Project Officer)

Federal Emergency Management Agency

500 C Street, SW, Room 416

Washington, DC 20472

Erin Walsh (Task Monitor)

Federal Emergency Management Agency

500 C Street, SW, Room 416

Washington, DC 20472

Mai Tong (Task Monitor)

Federal Emergency Management Agency

500 C Street, SW, Room 416

Washington, DC 20472

John Gillengerten (Technical Monitor)

5155 Holly Drive

Shingle Springs, California 95682

Project Technical Committee

Bret Lizundia (Project Technical Director)

Rutherford + Chekene Consulting Engineers

55 Second Street, Suite 600

San Francisco, California 94105

Brian Kehoe

Wiss Janney Elstner Associates, Inc.

2000 Powell Street, Suite 1650

Emeryville, California 94608

Michael Griffin

CCS Group, Inc.

1415 Elbridge Payne Rd., Suite 265

Chesterfield, Missouri 63017

Keith Porter

SPA Risk, LLC

2501 Bellaire Street

Denver, Colorado 80207

William T. Holmes

Rutherford + Chekene Consulting Engineers

55 Second Street, Suite 600

San Francisco, California 94105

FEMA P-154

Barry Welliver

BHW Engineers

13623 South Bridle Trail Road

Draper, Utah 84020

K: Project Participants

K-1

Project Review Panel

Stephanie King
1045 Fulton Street
Palo Alto, California 94301

T. Charles Scawthorn (Chair)

SPA Risk LLC
P.O. Box 3326
San Francisco, California 94119

John Osteraas
Exponent
149 Commonwealth Drive
Menlo Park, California 94025

Timothy Brown
Bureau of Reclamation
P.O. Box 25007, Mail Code 86-68110
Denver, Colorado 80225

Steven Sweeney
U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development
Center Construction Engineering Research
Laboratory
P.O. Box 9005
Champaign, Illinois 61826

Melvyn Green
Melvyn Green & Associates
21311 Hawthorne Blvd., Suite 230
Torrance, California 90503
Laura Kelly
U.S. Coast Guard Base
Kodiak Cape Sarichef St., N38
PO Box 195025
Kodiak, Alaska 99619

Christine Theodoropoulos
Cal Poly San Luis Obispo
College of Architecture & Env. Design
San Luis Obispo, California 94407

Project Working Group

Sarah Durphy
Rutherford + Chekene Consulting Engineers
55 Second Street, Suite 600
San Francisco, California 94105
Charles A. Kircher
Kircher & Associates
1121 San Antonio Road, Suite D-202
Palo Alto, California 94303

Nicolas Luco

Geologic Hazards Science Center

U.S. Geological Survey

P.O. Box 25046, MS 966

Lakewood, Colorado 80225

Kenneth Rukstales

Geologic Hazards Science Center

U.S. Geologic Survey

P.O. Box 25046, MS 966

Lakewood, Colorado 80225

Illustrators
Andrew Bishop
Wiss Janney Elstner Associates, Inc.
2000 Powell Street, Suite 1650
Emeryville, California 94608

Scott Hiner

Creative Marketing Resources

447 Sheridan Circle

Livermore, California 94551

Workshop Participants
John Aho
CH2M Hill, Inc.
2015 Shepherdia Drive
Anchorage, Alaska 99508

K-2

Rebecca Collins

Coughlin Porter Lundeen, Inc.

413 Pine Street, Suite 300

Seattle, Washington 98101

K: Project Participants

FEMA P-154

Murat Saatcioglu
University of Ottawa,
Dept. of Civil Engineering
161 Louis Pasteur Street
Ottawa, Ontario, K1N 6N5 Canada
Alan Scott
KPFF Consulting Engineers
1630 Des Peres Road, Suite 100
St. Louis, Missouri 63131
Hope Seligson
MMI Engineering
2100 Main Street, Suite 150
Huntington Beach, California 92648

FEMA P-154

Nilesh Shome
Risk Management Solutions
1133 Langton Drive
San Ramon, California 94582
Jeff Soulages
Intel Corp.
2501 NW 229th Street, MS: RS6-101
Hillsboro, Oregon 97124
Yumei Wang
Oregon Dept. of Geology & Mineral Industries
800 NE Oregon Street, #28
Portland, Oregon 97232

K: Project Participants

K-3

FEMA P-154
Catalog No. 08211-2