1.
2 Theoretical approaches to the study of consumer behaviour
A number of different approaches have been adopted in the study
of decision making, drawing on differing traditions of
psychology. Writers suggest different typological classifications
of these works with five major approaches emerging. Each of
these five approaches posit alternate models of man, and
emphasise the need to examine quite different variables (Foxall
1990); they will briefly be introduced in turn.
Economic Man
Psychodynamic
Behaviourist
Cognitive
Humanistic
1.3 Economic Man
As identified in section 1.1, early research regarded man as
entirely rational and self interested, making decisions based upon
the ability to maximise utility whilst expending the minimum
effort. While work in this area began around 300 years ago
(Richarme 2007), the term economic man (or even Homo
economicus (Persky 1995)) was first used in the late 19 th century
(Persky 1995) at the start of more sustained research in the area.
In order to behave rationally in the economic sense, as this
approach suggests, a consumer would have to be aware of all the
available consumption options, be capable of correctly rating
each alternative and be available to select the optimum course of
action (Schiffman ANDKanuk 2007). These steps are no longer
seen to be a realistic account of human decision making, as
consumers rarely have adequate information, motivation or time
to make such a perfect decision and are often acted upon by less
rational influences such as social relationships and values (Simon
1997). Furthermore, individuals are often described as seeking
satisfactory rather than optimum choices, as highlighted by
Herbert Simons Satisficing Theory (Simon 1997), or Kahneman
and Tverskys Prospect Theory (Kahneman ANDTversky 1979)
which embrace bounded rationality (Simon 1991).
1.4 Psychodynamic Approach
The psychodynamic tradition within psychology is widely
attributed to the work of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) (Stewart
1994). This view posits that behaviour is subject to biological
influence through instinctive forces or drives which act
outside of conscious thought (Arnold,Robertson et al. 1991).
While Freud identified three facets of the psyche, namely the Id,
the Ego and the Superego (Freud 1923), other theorists working
within this tradition, most notably Jung, identified different
drives (Ribeaux ANDPoppleton 1978).
The key tenet of the psychodynamic approach is that behaviour is
determined by biological drives, rather than individual cognition,
or environmental stimuli.
1.5 Behaviourist Approach
In 1920 John B. Watson published a landmark study into
behaviour which became known as Little Albert (Watson
ANDRayner 1920). This study involved teaching a small child
(Albert) to fear otherwise benign objects through repeated
pairing with loud noises. The study proved that behaviour can be
learned by external events and thus largely discredited the
Psychodynamic approach that was predominant at the time.
Essentially Behaviourism is a family of philosophies stating that
behaviour is explained by external events, and that all things that
organisms do, including actions, thoughts and feelings can be
regarded as behaviours. The causation of behaviour is attributed
to factors external to the individual. The most influential
proponents of the behavioural approach were Ivan Pavlov (18491936) who investigated classical conditioning, John Watson
(1878-1958) who rejected introspective methods and Burrhus
Skinner (1904-1990) who developed operant conditioning. Each
of these developments relied heavily on logical positivism
purporting that objective and empirical methods used in the
physical sciences can be applied to the study of consumer
behaviour (Eysenck ANDKeane 2000).
There are a number of branches of research that conform to the
major tenets of behaviourism, but differ subtly in other ways.
Initially Classical Behaviourism, established by John Watson,
required the entirely objective study of behaviour, with no mental
life or internal states being accepted. Human thoughts were
regarded by Watson as covert speech (Sternberg 1996), and
strict monism was adhered to (Foxall 1990). Between 1930 and
1950
Skinner
founded
Radical
Behaviourism
which
acknowledges the existence of feelings, states of mind and
introspection,
however
still
regards
these
factors
as
epiphenomenal (Skinner 1938);(Nye 1979). The assumed role of
internal processes continued to evolve in subsequent decades,
leading to more cognitive approaches with a new branch of study
Cognitive Behaviourism claiming that intrapersonal cognitive
events and processes are causative and the primary irreducible
determinants of overt behaviour (Hillner 1984, p107).
While behavioural research still contributes to our understanding
of human behaviour, it is now widely recognised as being only
part
of
any
possible
full
explanation
(Stewart
1994).
Behaviourism does not appear to adequately account for the great
diversity of response generated by a population exposed to
similar, or even near identical stimuli.
1.6 Cognitive Approach
In stark contrast to the foundations of Classical Behaviouralism,
the cognitive approach ascribes observed action (behaviour) to
intrapersonal cognition. The individual is viewed as an
information processor (Ribeaux & Poppleton 1978). This
intrapersonal causation clearly challenges the explicative power
of environmental variables suggested in Behavioural approaches,
however an influential role of the environment and social
experience is acknowledged, with consumers actively seeking
and receiving environmental and social stimuli as informational
inputs aiding internal decision making (Stewart 1994).
The Cognitive approach is derived in a large part from Cognitive
Psychology which can trace its roots back to early philosophers
such as Socrates who was interested in the origins of knowledge
(Plato 360 B.C.), Aristotle who proposed the first theory of
memory (Aristotle 350 B.C.) and Descartes who explored how
knowledge is represented mentally in his Meditations (Descartes
1640) (Sternberg 1996). It was not until the middle of the 21 st
Century however, that Cognitive Psychology truly emerged as a
mainstream and useful field of study with the development of the
Stimulus-Organism-Response model by Hebb during the 1950s
(Figure 1.1) (Cziko 2000) and the publication of the landmark
text by Ulric Neisser in 1967 (Neisser 1967). From this point
many writers suggested that Cognitivism had taken over from
Behaviourism as the dominant paradigmatic approach to decision
research (Furedy & Riley 1987).
While there are distinct branches of cognitive psychology, they
all share an abiding interest in exploring and understanding the
mental structures and processes which mediate between stimulus
and response (Kihlstrom 1987). Contemporary Cognitive
Psychology has identified and developed a wide range of factors
which are thought fundamental to these intrapersonal processes
including: perception, learning, memory, thinking, emotion and
motivation (Sternberg 1996). While this is far from a complete
list of the possible constructs at play, it does serve to outline the
complexity and multiplicity of issues inherent with this approach.
1.7 Humanistic Approach
The cognitive models appear well covered in generic Consumer
Behaviour texts, and are often portrayed as providing the best
available explanation of consumer decision making. Despite this,
however, there are a growing number of academic writers
highlighting limitations of the Cognitive approach and publishing
new research attempting to further understanding of specific
aspects of behaviour. These new approaches can be described as
humanistic as they seek to explore concepts introspective to the
individual consumer rather than describe generic processes
(Stewart 1994).
The three most pressing areas for research were identified by
Nataraajan & Bagozzi in 1999. Firstly Cognitive approaches rely
upon the assumption of the consumer being a rational decision
maker, this appears to neglect the role of emotion in decision
making. Nataraajan & Bagozzi (1999) comment:
There is a pressing need in the field to balance the
rational, cognitive side of marketing thought and
practice with new ideas and research on the emotional
facets of marketing behavior
(Nataraajan & Bagozzi 1999)
Secondly, emerging work has started to examine concept of
volition. This new work is seeking to understand and address the
gap between consumers stated purchase intentions and their
actual final purchase behaviour by understanding the volitional
stages to decision making. Thirdly,; the almost universal
acceptance of egoism in marketing theory at the expense of
altruism; there is a lack of research that has examined the
influence of altruistic motives on any consumer behaviours.
