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A
STUDENT'S
GRAMMAR
OF THE
ENGLISH
LANGUAGE

Sidney Greenbaum
Randolph Quirk

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Contents
Preface
The English language
2 A general framework

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Verbs and auxiliaries

: 4 The semantics of the verb phrase

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4
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'\?'j Nouns and determiners

i! Pronouns ..
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Adjectives and adverbs

8 The semantics and grammar of adverbials

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0J Prepositions and prepositional phrases

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LolIgmDII /louse, BIU'IIl Mill, /larlow,

Essu CM20 2Jf., England

and Associated Compallies throl4gnouJ the world.

Cl S. Grecnbaum, R.

Quirk, G.

Leech, J. Svanvik 1990

All righll reserved; no part of this publication may be

reproduced, Slored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any fonn or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

pholOCOpying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior written permission or the Publishers.
First published 1990

Si1th impression 1993

ISBN 0 58205971.2 (paperback)

ISBN 0 58207569.6 (Cased)

Set in MonophOlO Times
Printed in Hong Kong
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701

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129/'I
158
1 88

204

1 1 Sentence types and discourse functions

231

1 2 Pro-forms and ellipsis

247

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Longman Group UK Limited,

The simple sentence

,j
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Coordination

262

The complex sentence

283

'Q

Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses

304

1 6 Complemcntation of verbs and adjectives

336

1 7 The noun phrase

363

1 8 Theme. focus, and information processing

394

19 From sentence to text

434

Bibliography

476

Index

485

,.

Preface
This book is basically a shortened version of A Comprehensive Grammar
of the English Language ( 1 985). But it is very much more. It has been
adapted to the needs of students, with much reoricntation and simplifica
tion of the material in the parent book. Moreover, it has made use of
research by ourselves and others that has been published since the mid1 980s, and this is reflected not only in the text throughout but also in the
bibliographical references.

London
May 1 990

se

RQ

The English language

The use 01 English

1.1

English is the world's most widely used language A distinction is oncn

made that depends on how the language is learned: as a nalive language
(or mo ther tongue), acquired when the speaker is a young child (generally
in the home), or as a Ilonn ati ve language, acquired at some subsequent
period. Overlapping with this distinction is that between its use as aftrs(
language, the primary language of the speaker, and as an addition al
language. In some countries (particularly of course where it is the
dominant native language), English is used principally for internal
purposes as an in tr an arioll al language. for speakers to communicate with
other speakers of the same country; in others it serves chiefly as an
i ll le rnalion al language, the medium of communication with speakers from
other countries.
One wellestablished categorization makes a threeway distinction
between a n arive language, a second language, and a/oreign languagc. As a
foreign language English is used for international communication, but as
a second language it is used chiefly for intranational purposes (for
example, in education and the law courts and by individuals speaking
different native languages)
.

The meanings 01 'grammar'

Syntax and Inflections

1.2

We shall be using 'grammar' in this book to include both SYNTAX and that
aspect of MORPHOLOGY (the internal structure of words) that deals with
INFLEcnONS (or ACCIDENCE). The fact that the past tense of bu y is bough r
[inflection] and the fact that the interrogative form of He bough r;1 is Didhe
buy i r? [syntax] are therefore both equally within grammar. Our usage
corresponds to one or the common lay uses of the word in the English
speaking world. A teacher may comment:
John uses good grammar but his spelling is awrul.

'I

The comment shows that spelling is excluded rrom grammar; and if John
wrote in ter /o per where the context demanded in terpre ter, the teacher
would say that he had used the wrong word, not that he had made a

The meanings of 'grammar'

The English language

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theory embraced by the authors, their idea of the nature of grammar

rather than their statement of the grammar of a particular language:

mistake in grammar. But in the education systems ofthe English-speaking

countries, it is possible also to use the term 'grammar' loosely so as to
include both spelling and Jexicology.
There is a further use of'grammar' that derives from a period in which
the teaching of Latin and Greek was widespread. Since the aspect of Latin
grammar on which tcaching has traditionally concentrated is the
paradigms (or model sets) of inflections, it made sense for the learner to
say:

Chomsky developed a transformational grammar that differed

considerably from earlier grammars.
Thus, in the framework of formal linguistics, some grammarians speak of
'the grammar' as embracing rules not only for syntax but for phonologi
cal, lexical, and semantic specification as well.

Latin has a good deal of grammar, but English has hardly any.
This meaning of 'grammar' has continued to be used by lay native
speakers. In effect, grammar is identified with inflections.

"

Prescriptive grammar
1.5

Finally we come to the use of 'grammar' in statements such as:

It's bad grammar to end a sentence with a preposition.

Rules and the native speaker

1.3

Yet another sense appears in the remark:

French has a well-defined grammar, but in English we're free to
speak as we like.
Here 'grammar' is used as a virtual synonym of 'syntax'.
Such a comment by a native speaker probably owes a good deal to the
fact that he does not feel the rules of his own language - rules that he has
acquired unconsciously - to be at all constraining; and ifever he happens
to be called on to explain one such rule to a foreigner he has very great
difficulty. By contrast, the grammatical rules he learns for a foreign
language seem much more rigid and they also seem clearer because they
have been actually spelled out to him in the learning process.
But another important point is revealed in this sentence. The distinction
refers 10 'grammar' not as the observed patterns in the use of French but as
a codification of rules compiled by the French (especially by the Academie
Franr;:aise) to show the French themselves how their language should be
used. This is grammar as codified by grammarians: the Academy
Grammar. There is no such Academy for the English language and so (our
naive native speaker imagines) the English speaker has more 'freedom' in
his usage.
I

"

The codification of rules

1.4

The 'codification' sense of grammar is readily identified with the specific

compilation of a specific grammarian:
Jespersen wrote a good grammar, and so did Kruisinga.
And this sense naturally leads to the concrete use as in:
Did you bring your grammars?
Naturally, too, the codification may refer to grammar in any of the senses
already mentioned. It will also vary, however, according to the linguistic

Here the term refers to a way of speaking or writing that is to be either

preferred or avoided. Such statements pertain to PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR,
a set of regulations that are based on what is evaluated as correct or
incorrect in the standard varieties. Since we do not have an Academy of
the English Language, there is no one set of regulations that could be
considered 'authoritative'. Instead, evaluations are made by self
appointed authorities who, reflecting varying judgments of acceptability
and appropriateness, often disagree.
Authorities on USAGE, in this restricted sense, primarily deal with
DISPUTED usage, a relatively small number of syntactic and lexical items
that are controversial within the standard varieties. Their objections may
persuade some to avoid certain usages, at least in their formal writing.
Over the last two centuries prescriptive rules have accumulated into a
general prescriptive tradition for formal writing that is embodied (with
some variation) in school textbooks and student reference handbooks,
and in usage guides for the general public.
As an occasional consequence of prescriptive pressures, some speakers
have mistakenly extended particular prescriptive rules in an attempt to
avoid mistakes. A classic instance of such HYPERCORRECTION is the use of
whom as subject, as in the studenls whom Ilrope wilfjoill us. Others are the
pseudo-subjunctive were as in I wonder if he were here and the use of the
subjective pronoun I in the phrase between )'ou and I.
Our primary concern in this book is to describe the grammar of English.
But we occasionally refer to the prescriptive tradition not only because it
may lead to hypcrcorrection but also because it may affect attitudes
towards particular uses that may in turn influence the preferences of some
native speakers, at least in formal or more considered styles. It may lead
some, for example, to replace their usual was by subjunctive \\'ere in 1/ I
was strong enough, I would help you, or to replace who by whom in the
leacher who I mosl admired.

The English language

Varieties of English

Varieties 01 English

voyages of exploration and settlement in Shakespeare's time) elsewhere in

the world.
It is pointless to ask how many dialects of English there are: there are
indefinitely many, depending on how detailed we wish to be in our
observations. But they are of course more obviously numerous in long
settled Britain than in areas more recently settled by English speakers,
such as North America or, still more recently, Australia and New
Zealand. The degree of generality in our observation depends crucially
upon our standpoint as well as upon our experience. An Englishman will
hear an American Southerner primarily as an American, and only as a
Southerner in addition if further subclassification is called for and if his
experience of American English dialects enables him to make il. To an
American the same speaker will be heard first as a Southerner and then
(subject to similar conditions) as, say, a Virginian, and then perhaps as a
Piedmont Virginian.

Types of variation

1.6

There are numerous varieties of English, but we shall recognize in this

book five major types of variation. Any use of the language necessarily
involves variation within all five types, although for purposes of analysis
we may abstract individual varieties:
(a) regIOn
(b) social group
(c) field of discourse
(d) medium
(e) attitude
The first two types of variation relate primarily to the language /lser.
People use a regional variety because they live in a region or have once
lived in Ihat region. Similarly, people use a social variety because of their
affiliation with a social group. These varieties are relatively permanent for
the language user. At the same time, we should be aware that many people
can communicate in more than one regional or social variety and can
therefore (consciously or unconsciously) switch varieties according to the
siluation. And of course people move to other regions or change their
social affiliations, and may then adopt a new regional or social variety.
The last three types of variation relate to language use. People select Ihe
varieties according lo the situation and the purpose of the communica
tion. The field of discourse relates to the activity in which they are
engaged; the medium may be spoken or written, generally depending on
the proximity of the participants in the communication; and the attitude
expressed through language is conditioned by the relationship of the
participants in the particular situation. A COMMON CORE is present in all
the varieties so that, however esoteric a variety may be, it has running
through it a set of grammatical and other characteristics that are present
in all the others. It is this fact that justifics the application of the name
'English' to all the varieties.
Regional variation

1.7

Varieties according to region have a well-established label both in popular

and technical use: DIALECTS. Geographical dispersion is in fact the classic
basis for linguistic variation. and in the course of time. with poor
communications and relative remoteness, such dispersion results in
dialects becoming so distinct that we regard them as different languages.
This latler stage was long ago reached with the Germanic dialects that are
now Dutch. English, German, Swedish, etc, but it has not been reached
(and may not necessarily ever be reached, given the modern ease and range
of communication) with the dialects of English that have resulted from the
regional separation of communities within the British Isles and (since the

Social variation
1.8

Within each of the dialects there is considerable vanatlOn in speech

according to education, socioeconomic group, and ethnic group. Some
differences correlate with age and sex. M uch (if not most) or the variation
does not involve categorical distinctions; rather it is a matter of the
frequency with which certain linguistic features are found in the groups.
There is an imponant polarity between uneducated and educated
speech in which the former can be identified with the nonstandard
regional dialect most completely and the latter moves away from regional
usage to a form of English that cuts across regional boundaries. An
outsider (who was not a skilled dialectologist) might not readily find a
New Englander who said see for saw, a Pennsylvanian who said seen, and
a Virginian who said seed. These are forms that tend to be replaced by sail"
with schooling, and in speaking to a stranger a dialect speaker would tend
to use 'school' forms. On the other hand, there is no simple equation or
regional and uneducated English. Just as educated English I sa\l' cuts
across regional boundaries. so do many features of uneducated use: a
prominent example is the double negative as in I dO/l" want no cake. which
has been outlawed from all educated English by the prescriptive grammar
tradition for over two hundred years but which continues to thrive as an
emphatic form in uneducated speech wherever English is spoken.
Educated English naturally tends to be given the additional prestige of
government agencies. the professions, the political parties. the press. the
law court, and the pulpit any institution which must attempt to address
itself to a public beyond the smallest dialectal community. It is codified in
dictionaries. grammars, and guides to usage, and it is taught in the school
system at all levels. It is almost exclusively the language of printed matter.
Because educated English is thus accorded implicit social and political
sanction, it comes to be referred to as STANDARD ENGLISH, and provided we

pi

whereas in AmE a singular verb is required here.

Lexical differences are far more numerous, but many of these are
familiar to users of both standards. Recent innovations tend to spread
rapidly from one standard to the other. Thus while radio sets have had
vah'es in BrE but tubes in AmE, television sets have fubes in both, and
transistors and computer software are likewise used in both standards.
Mass communication neutralizes differences; the pop music culture, in
particular, uses a 'midAtlantic' dialect that levels differences even in
pronunciation.
The United States and Britain have been separate political entities for
two centuries; for generations, thousands of books have been appearing
annually; there is a long tradition ofpubJishing descriptions of both AmE
and BrE. These are important factors in establishing and institutionaliz
ing the two national standards. and in the relative absence of such
conditions other national standards are both less distinct (being more
open to the influence of either AmE or BrE) and less institutionalized.
One attitudinal phenomenon in the United States is of sociolinguistic
interest. In affirming the students' right to their own varieties oflanguage,
many American educationalists have declared that Standard American
English is a myth, some asserting the independent status (for example) of
Black English. At the same time they have acknowledged the existence ofa
written standard dialect. sometimes termed 'Edited American English'.

remember that this does not mean an English that has been formally
standardized by official action, as weights and measures are standardized,
the term is useful and appropriate. In contrast with standard English,
forms that 3fC especially associated with uneducated (rather than
dialectal) use 3rc generally called NONSTANDARD.
Standard English

1.9

The degree of acceptance of a single standard of English throughout the

world, across a multiplicity of political and social systems, is a truly
remarkable phenomenon: the more so since the extent of the uniformity
involved has, if anything, increased in the present century. Uniformity is
greatest in orthography, which is from most viewpoints the least
important lype ofiinguistic organization. Although printing houses in all
Englishspeaking countries retain a tiny element of individual decision
(eg: realize/realise,judgmelll/Judgement), there is basically a single speJling
and punctuation system throughout: with two minor subsystems. The one
is the subsystem with British orientation (used in most Englishspeaking
countries o.ther than the United States), with distinctive forms in only a
small class of words, colour, centre, levelled, etc. The other is the American
subsystem. with color, center, leve/ed. etc.
In grammar and vocabulary, standard English presents somewhat less
of a monolithic character. but even so the worldwide agreement is
extraordinary and - as has been suggested earlier - seems actually to be
increasing under the impact of closer world communication and the
spread of identical material and nonmaterial culture. The uniformity is
especially close in neutral or formal styles of written English on subject
matter not of obviously localized interest: in such circumstances one can
frequently go on for page after page without encountering a feature which
would identify the English as belonging to one of the national standards.
National standards of English

British and American English

1.10

What we are calling national standards should be seen as distinct from the
standard English which we have been discussing and which we should
think of as being supranational, embracing what is common to all. Again,
as with orthography, there are two national standards that arc over
whelmingly predominant both in the number of distinctive usages and in
the degree to which these distinctions are institutionalized: American
English (AmE) and British English (BrE). Grammatical differences are
few and the most conspicuous are known to many users of both national
standards: the fact that AmE has two past participles for get and BrE only
one, for example, and that in BrE either a singular or a plural verb may be
used with a singular collective noun:
The government

{isare } in favour of economic sanctions.

Other national standards

1.11

Scots. with ancient national and educational institutions. is perhaps

nearest to the selfconfident independence of BrE and AmE, though the
differences in grammar and vocabulary are rather few. On the other hand.
the 'Lallans' Scots. which has some currency for literary purposes. has a
highly independent set of lexical, grammatical. phonological, and
orthographical conventions. all of which make it seem more like a
separate language than a regional dialect.
HibernoEnglish. or Irish English, may also be considered a national
standard, since it is explicitly regarded as independent of BrE by
educational and broadcasting services. The proximity 10 Britain and the
pervasive influence of AmE. and similar factors mean. however, that there
is little room for the assertion and development of a separate grammar
and vocabulary.
Canadian English is in a similar position in relation to AmE. Close
economic. social, and intellectual links along a 4,OOOmile frontier have
naturally caused the larger community to have an enormous influence on
the smaller. not least in language. Though in many respects Canadian
English follows British rather than United States practice and has a
modest area of independent lexical use, in many other respects it has
approximated to AmE, and in the absence of strong institutionalizing
forces it would continue in this direction. However, counteracting this
tendency in language as in other matters is the tendency for Canadians to

....

Acceptability and frequency

The Engliah language

the appropriate one as occasion demands. Typically, the switch involves

nothing more than turning to the particular set of lexical items habitually
used ror handling the field in question: law, cookery, engineering,
football. As with dialects, there are indefinitely many fields, depending on
how detailed we wish our analysis to be.

resist the influence of their powerful neighbour in their assertion of an

independent national identity.
South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand arc in a very different
position. remote from the direct day-ta-day impact of either SrE or AmE.
While in orthography and grammar the South African English in
educated use is virtually identical with BrE, rather considerable differ
ences in vocabulary have developed, largely under the influence of the
other official language of the country. Afrikaans.
New Zealand English is morc like SrE than any other non-European
variety, though it has adopted quite a number of words from the
indigenous Maoris and over the past half-century has come under the
powerful influence of Australia and to a considerable extent of the United
States.
Australian English is undoubtedly the dominant form of English in the
Antipodes and by reason of Australia's increased wealth, population, and
influence in world affairs, this national standard (though still by no means
fully institutionalized) is exerting an influence in the northern hemisphere,
particularly in Britain. Much ofwhat is distinctive in Australian English is
confined to familiar use. This is especially so of grammatical features.
There are other regional or national variants that approximate to the
status of a standard. Beside the widespread Creole in the Caribbean, for
example, it is the view of many that the language or government and other
agencies observes an indigenous standard that can be rererred to as
Caribbean English. In addition, some believe there are emerging
standards in countries where English is a second language, such as India
and Nigeria.

Varieties according to medium

1.14

1.15

All the variants of standard English are remarkable primarily in the tiny
extent to which even the most firmly established, BrE and AmE, differ
rrom each other in vocabulary, grammar, and orthography. Pronunci
ation, however, is a special case in that it distinguishes onc national
standard rrom another most immediately and completely and it links in a
most obvious way the national standards to the regional varieties. In BrE,
onc type or pronunciation comes close to enjoying the status of'standard':
it is the accent associated with the older schools and univcrsities or
England, 'Received Pronunciation' or 'RP'. It is nonregional and enjoys
prestige from the social importance of its speakers. Although RP no
longer has the uniquc authority it had in the first hair or the twentieth
century, it remains the standard ror teaching the British variety of English
as a foreign language, as can be easily seen rrom dictionaries and
textbooks intended for countries that teach BrE.

1.13

The field of discourse is the type or activity engaged in through language.

A speaker has a repertoire of varieties according to field and switches to

Varieties according to atlitude are often called 'stylistic', but 'style' is a

term which is used with several different meanings. We are concerned here
with choice that depends on our attitude to the hearer (or reader), to the
topic, and to the purpose of our communication. We recognize a gradient
in attitude between formal (relatively stiff, cold, polite, impersonal) and
informal (relatively relaxed, warm, casual. rriendly). We also acknow
ledge that there is a neutral English bearing no obvious attitudinal
colouring and it belongs to the common core of English (cf l .6). We shall
ror the most pari confinc ourselves to this three-term distinction, leaving
the neutral variety unmarked.

Acceptability and frequency

1.16

Varieties according to field of discourse

The differences between spoken and written English derive from two
sources. One is situational: since the use of a written medium normally
presupposes the absence or the person(s) addressed, writers must be far
more explicit to ensure that they are understood. The second source or
difference is that many or the devices we use to transmii language by
speech (stress, rhythm, intonation, tempo, ror example) are impossible to
represent with the relatively limited repertoire of conventional orthogra
phy. In consequence, writers often have to rerormulate their sentences to
convey rully and successfully what they want to express within the
orthographic system.
Varieties according to anitude

Pronunciation and standard English

1.12

Our approach in this book is to focus on the common core that is shared
by standard BrE and standard AmE. We leave unmarked any features
that the two standard varieties have in common, marking as (BrE) or
(AmE) only the points at which they differ. But usually we find it
necessary to say (esp(ecially) BrE) or (esp(ecially) AmE). for it is rare ror
a reature to be round exclusively in one variety. Similarly, we do not mark
reatures that are neutral with respect to medium and attitude. We
distinguish where necessary spoken and written language, generally using
'speaker' and 'hearer' as unmarked forms for the participants in an act or
communication, but drawing on the combinations 'speaker/writer' and
'hearer/reader' when we wish to emphasize that what is said applies across

....
10

The English language

the media. We also frequently need to label features according to variation

in attitude, drawing attention to those that are formal or informal.
The metaphor of the common core points to a distinction that applies to
two other aspects of our description of English grammar. We distinguish
between the central and the marginal also for acceptability and frequency.
Acceptability is a concept that does not apply exclusively to grammar.
Native speakers may find a particular sentence unacceptable because (for
example) they consider it logically absurd or because they cannot find a
plausible context for its use or because it sounds clumsy or impolite.
However, we are concerned only with the acceptability of forms or
constructions on the grounds of their morphology or syntax.
In general, our examples are fully acceptable if they are left unmarked.
But we sometimes contrast acceptable and unacceptable examples,
marking the latter by placing an asterisk ;.' before them. If they are
tending to unacceptability but are not fully unacceptable, wc put a query
'7' before the asterisk. A query alone signifies that native speakers are
unsure about the particular language feature. If native speakers differ in
their reactions, we put the asterisk or query in parentheses.
Assessments by native speakers of relative acceptability largely
correlate with their assessments of relative frequency. We leave unmarked
those features of the language that occur frequently, drawing attention
just to those that occur extremely frequently or only rarely.
In this book we offer a descriptive presentation of English grammar. We
make a direct connection between forms and their meaning, conducting
excursions into lexicology, semantics, and pragmatics where these
impinge closely on our grammatical description.
NOTE

The diamond bracket convention applies to stylistic and other variants. Phonctic
symbols used in the book are those of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA);
prosodic symbols are explained in 2.13-15, and abbreviations in the Index.
Among other conventions: parentheses indicate optional items. curved braces free
alternatives. square braces contingent ahernativcs (eg selection of the top
alternative in onc pair requires selection of the top one in the other).
Bibliographical note
On varieties of English. sce Bailey and G6r1ach ( 1982); Biber ( 1 988); Hughes and

Trudgill ( 1979); Kachru ( 1 988); McDavid ( 1 963); Quirk ( 1 988. 1989).

On acceptability and language attitudes. sec Bolingcr ( 1 980); Greenbaum
( 1977.1985. 1988); Quirk and Stein ( 1 990).

A general framework

The plan ollhls book

2.1

Grammar is a complex system, the parts of which cannot be properly

explained in abstraction from the whole. In this sense, all parts of a
grammar are mutually defining, and there is no simple linear path we can
take in explaining one part in terms of another. The method of
presentation adopted in this book will be to order the description of
English grammar so that features which are simpler (in the sense that their
explanation presupposes less) come before those which are more complex
(in the sense that their explanation presupposes more).
Our mode of progression will therefore be cyclic, rather than linear. In
this first cycle we present a general framework, along with some major
concepts and categories that are essential for the understanding of
grammar.
The second cycle, Chapters 3-11. is concerned with the basic
constituents which make up the simple sentence. Thus Chapters 3 and 4
present the grammar and semantics of the verb phrase, and Chapters 5
and 6 the basic constituents of the noun phrase, in particular determiners,
nouns, and pronouns. Chapter 7 deals with adjectives and adverbs,
Chapter 8 with adverbials, and Chapter 9 with prepositions and
prepositional phrases. In the light of these detailed studies, Chapters 10
and 1 1 then explore the simple sentence in all its structural variety.
The third cycle treats matters which involve still more complexity of
syntactic structure. Chapters 12 and 1 3 move beyond the simple sentence,
dealing with substitution, ellipsis. and coordination: three operations
which may be carried out on simple sentences in order to produce
structures of greater complexity. Chapters 1 4 and 1 5 introduce a further
ractor of complexity, the subordination of one clause to another, and we
proceed to a more general study of the complex sentence. Chapter 16
follows up Chapters 3 and 4 in giving further attention to the verb phrase,
with special reference to verb classification, together with issues relating to
phrasal and prepositional verbs, and to verb and adjective complemen
tation. Similarly, Chapter 1 7 resumes the topic of Chapters 5 and 6.
exploring the full complexity of the noun phrase in terms of structures
separately examined in earlier chapters. Chapter 1 8 also involves a
knowledge of the whole grammar as described in preceding chapters, but
this time with a view to showing the various ways in which individual parts
of a sentence can be arranged ror rocus, emphasis, and the effective
presentation of information. Finally, Chapter 19 considers the ways in

Let us now compare the subject of{!], [2], (3), and [6] (She, He, You, ThaI
elderly man) with the predicates, The latter are not merely longer but
rather obviously morc heterogeneous:

which sentence grammar relates to the formation of texIS, including those

comprising extended discourse in speech or writing.
NOTE

At the end of each chapler. there is a bibliographical note giving guidance on

further reading. especially recent monographs and articles.

's selling her car

sounded a bit doubtful
should always clean your teeth after meals
went off without paying

Wc assume that the

reader will have access la the major grammarians of the past whose works are not
mentioned in these notes though they are of course listed in the general
Bibliography at the end of the book. These include the compendious works of
Jesperscn. Kruisinga and others, as well as bibliographies by Scheurweghs and
Vorlal. To the work of such scholars all subsequent studies are heavily indebted.
not least our own Compreheflsire Grammar of
directly related.

As well as seeing that a sentence comprises a subject and a predicate,

therefore, we need to look at the constituents of the predicate itselr.

1985 to which the present book is

Elements
2.3

Who went off without paying?

That elderly mall (went off without paying).

Sentences and ctauses

2.2

Let us begin by looking at some examples of sellle"ces, those language

units which we must regard as primary, in comprising a minimum sense of
completeness and unity:
She's selling her car.
He sounded a bit doubtful.
You should always clean your teeth after meals.

[I)
[2)
[3)

Ofcourse, these cannot mean much to us unless we know who 'she' is in ( I J

and who 'he' is in (2J; we would also want to know in (2J what he seemed
doubtful about. For the place of such sentences in a wider textual context,
we must wait till Chapler 19, but the sense ofgrammatical completeness in
[I), [2). and [3) is none the less valid.
There are several ways of looking at the constituents of a sentence in
establishing what needs to be present to make a stretch of language a
sentence. The constituents most widely familiar are the subject and the
predicate. If we heard someone say
went ofT without paying

[4)

we would at once wish to ask ' Who (went off without paying)?' In [4J we
have a possible predicate but no subject. But equally if we heard someone
say
that elderly man

[5)

we would want to ask ' What about that elderly manT sensing that we had
in [5J a possible subject but no predicate. By contrast with [4J and (51. we
have a complete sentence in [6):
That elderly man went off without paying .

One of the indications that the subject is a clearly identifiable constituent

of a sentence is, as we have seen, a specific question:

[6)

[I)
[ I a)

Parts of the predicate can similarly be identified with questions. For

example. the object:
WlulI is she selling?
(She's selling) her cor.

(2J
(2aJ

So too, some adl'erbiols:

Whe" should you always clean your teeth?
(You should always clean your teeth) after meals.

[3)
[3a)

Subjects, objects, and adverbials will be referred to as elements of sentence

structure. Other elements that we shall distinguish include the l'omplemelll
as in '(He sounded) a bit doubt/ul' and of course the I'erb as in '(He)
.wlI/uled (a bit doubtful), . '(She)'s selling (her car)', '(You) shouM (always)
cleall (your teeth after meals)'.
As we shall see, especially in Chapter 10, sentences differ widely as to
which elements and ItOIl' many elements they include. This is related
primarily to the type of verb element. If the V is illlwlIsitil'e. there need be
no other elements beside S and V:
My watch [5) has disappeared. [V)

[4)

If the V is transitive, on the other hand, it is accompanied by an object:

Someone (SJ must have taken [ V J my watch. [OJ
A policeman (SJ witnessed [V] the accitlelll. [OJ

[5)
[6)

Transitive verbs can be turned into the passive voice (3.25), with the result
that corresponding to [6) there is a sentence of the same meaning (6'J in
which the 0 of [6J becomes the S:
The accidelll was witnessed by a policeman.
[6')

14

Wordnd word cl.....

A general fr.mework

For the present, we need mention only one other type of V, the copular
verbs, which require a complement:
He [S) sounded [V) a bit doubtful. [C]
One of my sisters IS] has become (V] a computer expert. [C]

My sister IS] is [V] normally [A] a cheerful person, [C] but she
[S) seemed [V) rather unhappy [C] that day. [A)

(1)
[8]

[4a]
[Sa)
[6a]
[7a]

She seemed rather unhappy that day.

She seemed rather unhappy whell I was with her.

[8a]

But with some verbs. adverbials are obligatory; for example:

Did you put the watch in rhis drawer?
2.4

Clauses
2.5

Let us now consider a somewhat longer sentence than those examined in

2.2f

(2)
[2a)

We must therefore revise our list of formal realizations of elements as

given in 2.3 since the function A can be performed by clauses as in [2a], and
the functions of 0 and S can also be performed by clauses as we see by
comparing (3) and [3a), (4) and [4a) respectively:

(9)

The sentence elements illustrated in 2.3 draw attention to a major issue in

the study of grammar: the distinction between /wlf.:rioll and form. The
same formal unit my watch has one function in [4] and quite another in [5}.
Equally, the same function can obviously be performed by units that are
very different in form. Thus as V we have wimessedin (6]. soullded in [7],
has disappeared in [4]. and must have taken in [5]. But at least these all
involve verbs (2.10) and we capture what they thus have formally in
common by referring to them as \'erb phrases whether they comprise one
word such as sOllllded or several words, as in mllst have taken.
The realizations of S are still more various: he in P], someolle in [5], my
watch in [4], and olle 0/ my sisters in [8]. But all these involve either
pronouns or nouns (2.6) and to capture their formal properties we refer to
them as 1I0UII phrases, whether they comprise one word as with he or
several words such as one o/my sisters. The function 0 is again fulfilled by
noun phrases: my watch in (5]. the accident in [6].
On the other hand. C is realized by a noun phrase in [81. a computer
expert. but by a different formal structure in [7], a bit doubt/Ill. Forms like
this (a bir doubt/u/, quite happy, more sllccess/ul) we shall call adjecrive
phrases, since they are eilher adjectives (2.6) or expansions of adjectives.
Most various of all in its formal realizations is the function A. We have
noun
phrase tlwr /light in [7a]; adverb phrases, ie adverbs (2.6) or
a
expansions of adverbs, apparently in [5aJ and quite rapidly in [8a]; and we
also have A realized by prepositional phrases, that is, a structure
comprising a preposition (2.6) and a noun phrase :from this desk in [4a]. by
chalice in [6a], and to everyone's delight in [8a].

[I)

Here we have two units each with the inlernal structure that we have been
auributing to sentences. We call these units clauses and we can now see
that the elements discussed in 2.3/should be considered as constituents of
clauses rather than of sentences. In other words, a sentence comprises one
or morc clauses, each of which in turn comprises elements.
In (I] the two clauses are as it were on an equal footing and are said to be
coordinated to form the sentence. But a clause may equally be subordinated
within another clause as one of its elements: clearly, the noun phrase as A
in [2] performs the same function as the clause as A in (2a)

Adverbial elements may be added irrespective of the verb type:

My watch has disappeared/rom this desk. [A]
Someone must apparently (A] have taken my watch/rom this
desk. [A)
By chance (A] a policeman witnessed the accident.
He sounded a bit doubtful that nighr. [A]
To everyone's delight lA] onc of my sisters has quite rapidly (A]
become a computer expert.

15

I suddenly remembered something.

I suddenly remembered that I had all appoi",menr.
Your failure is most regrettable.
That you Jailed the exam is most regreuable.

(3)
[3a)
(4)
[4a)

But as well as constituting whole elements as in [2a], [3a] and [4a], clauses
may constitute only a part of an element, especially as relative clauses in
nounphrase structure ( 1 7 .51f).
o in (5) and [Sa):
The police questioned ele' ry
The police questioned every person who Jived in the
neighbourhood.

(5)
[Sa)

In (Sa). the noun phrase as 0 includes the postmodifying clause:

who [S) lived [V] in the neighbourhood (A]

Words and word classes

2.6

Every constituent of a sentence ultimately consists of words. We have

already (for example in 2.4) referred to these units in terms of the
traditional 'parts ofspeech' and it is time now to look at a classification of
words in some detail.
It is useful to consider w wdsas f ling into two broad categories, closed
0
... . re }
and open. The r
.ormer .omprrs6S, s the term suggests, classes that are
finite (and often small) with a membership that is relatively stable and

16

A general tramewent

S..tI"e and dynamic

unchanging in the language: words like this, in, shaIJ. These words play a
major part in English grammar, often corresponding to inflections in
some other languages, and they are sometimes referred to as 'grammatical
words', 'function words', or 'structure words'.
By contrast, the open classes of words are constantly changing their
membership as old words drop out of the language and new ones are
coined or adopted to reflect cultural changes in society. These are words
like /orest, computer, decorative, and signify; their numbers are vast and
are the subject matter of dictionaries. Appropriately, they are often called
'lexical words'.
Closed classes:
pronoun, such as she, they, anybody
determiner, such as the, a, that, some
primary verb, such as be
modal ,Jerb, such as can, mighl
preposition, such as in, during, round
conjunction, such as and, or, while. yet
Open classes:
lIoun, such as hospiral, play, orchestra, Mif/icell(
adjecth'e, such as sufficient, happy. changeable, round
full ,'erbs, such as grow, befriend. interrogate, play
ad,'erb, such as sufficielllly, real/y, a/tlrwards, yet
NOTE

2,7

fa]

Other categories of words include numeral., such as three. sevellly-six; and

interjections, such as oh, aha.
fbJ Even from the few examples given. we sce that a word may belong 10 more than
one class. Thus round is given as both a preposition (as in Dr;n' rOllnd the cOrller)
and an adjective (as in She has a rOllndface): we could have gone further and listed
it as, for example, a full verb: Tlte f(lrrollnded the bend. Moreover. relations across
classes can be scen in the vcrb befriend (cf the noun friend). the adjective
changeable (cl the verb changel, and above all in adverbs in -(I' which arc
systematically related to adjcctives: sufficient - sufficiemly.

We assign words to their various classes on grammatical grounds: that is.

according to their properties in entering phrasal and clausal structure. For
example, determiners (S.3.!J) link up with nouns to form noun phrases as
in a soidin; pronouns can replace noun phrases as in 'I saw a soldier and I
asked him the time'. But this is not to deny the general validity of
traditional definitions based on meaning: 'naming things' is indeed a
semantic property of nouns and many verbs are indeed concerned with
'doing things'.
In fact it is neither possible nor desirable to separate grammatical from
semantic factors, whether we arc considering the status of a word or the
structure of a whole sentence. Let us examine the following examples:
The tiger lives in China, India, and Malaysia.
These tigers are living in a very cramped cage.
A keeper is coming to feed the tiger.

(I)
(2)
(3)

17

In [I , the liger can hardly refer to any particular tiger; the phrase is generic
and Illustrates a particular use of the determiner the with a singular noun;
the plural noun phrase the ligers could not be generic. By contrast, these
ligers in [2] and the tiger in [3] must refer to particular tigers and the noun
phrase is specific. But as well as introducing the important distinction
between generic and specific, [I) and (2] illustrate a related distinction that
recurs in the study of grammar. The singular form tiger is unmarked as
compared with the plural form tigers which is marked for plural by the
inflectional ending s. But in being literally 'unmarked' inflectionally, the
singular in [I) is correspondingly 'unmarked' semantically: it refers to all
tigers at all times and embraces both male tigers and female tigresses
(tigress being thus a 'marked' form).
Moreover the distinction between generic and specific, unmarked and
marked, extends beyond the noun phrase as S. The use in [ I ] of the
unmarked present tense lives as V (embracing reference to future and past
as well as the literal present) appropriately matches the generic S. Equally
the specific reference of the S in [2] is matched by the verb phrase are IMng
as V, the progressive aspect (4.7ff) marking the verb in respect of
something specifically in progress at the present time.
Slalive and dynamic
2,8

A further and related contrast is illustrated by [I] and [2J in 2.7; this is the
distinction between sralil'e and dynamic:. Most verbs in most contexts
relate to action, activity, and to temporary or changeable conditions:
The car stTllck a lamppost as ( Il'as parking it.
What aria did she sing last night?
Verbs whose meaning denotes lack of motion can be equally dynamic in
their grammar:
I was quietly resting after a busy day.
Are you silling comfortably?

But it is not uncommon to find verbs which may be used either

dynamically or statively. (fwe say that some specific tigers are living in a
cramped cage, we imply that this is (or ought to be) a temporary condition
and the verb phrase is dynamic in its use. On the other hand, when we say
that the species of animal known as the tiger Iil'es or iS/UI/d in China, the
generic statement entails that this is not a temporary circumstance and the
verb phrase is stative.
Stative use is not. however, confined to generic statements:
Mrs Frost km>\\' a great deal about economics.
Did you hear the thunder last night?
(Note that it is actually ungrammatical to say 'Mrs F rost l\'as knowing a
great deal . . .'.) Nor is the category stative confined tq a minority of verb
usages. In contrast to verbs (which are normally dynamic), most nouns

...

and adjectives are stative in that they denote phenomena or qualities that
arc regarded for linguistic purposes as stable and indeed for all practical
purposes permanent:

My parents U\'e in the north of the country and my husband's people

too.

{ all engineer.
ack IS

Note also the ellipted V in

Her daughter is studying physics and her son history.

very tall.

Some pro-forms can refer forward to what has not been stated rather
than, as in [1 )-{5}, back to what has been stated. There are, for example,
the wh-items, as in

(We may note that it would be very odd indeed to add here an adverbial
like this aflernoon which would suggest that Jack's profession or height
applied only to the moment of speaking.) On the other hand, just as some
verbs such as live can be used statively as well as dynamically, so also can
some nouns and adjectives be used dynamically as well as statively:

What was badly damaged? ( Their beautiful new car)

Jack was born in a British what? (Industrial town)
Where do your parents live? (In the north of the country)
When did you raise the proposal? (In the early months of
/988)
What did she hope they would do? (Play a Mozart quartet)

My little boy seems 10 like being (l nuisallce when we have friends to

supper.
Do you really like my poem or are you just being kind?

One fundamental feature of grammar is providing the means of referring

back to an expression without repeating it. This is achieved by means of
pro-forms:
The;r beautiful new car was badly damaged when ;t was struck
by a falling tree.
Jack was born in a British industrial town and Gillian grew up
in an American one.
My parents live in the north of the country and my husband's
people live there too.
I raised the proposal in the early months 0/ 1988, but no onc
was then particularly interested.
She hoped they would play a Mozart quartet and they
ll . ro.

[40J
(Sa]

Cfalso . Which is their carT ( Thai beautiful new one).

Pro-forms and ellipsis

2.9

[la]
[2a]
[3a)

NOTE

I met her in 1985. when she was still a student.

Plcase tcll me what is worrying you.

(I J
(2)
(3)
(4)

In [ I ] we have the pronoun it referring back to the whole noun phrase their
beautifill new car. In {2], the pronoun one refers back to the head part
industrial town of the noun phrase a British (industrial town). In [3] there is
a pro-form for the adverbial of place in the north of the coulllry. while then
in (4) refers comparably to the time adverbial ill the early months of 1988.
In (51, the pro-form do so refers to a unit not so far discussed. the
predication (2.10), and thus corresponds to the whole of play a Mozart
quartet.
In some constructions, repetition can be avoided by ellipsis ( 12. 14).
Thus instead of (5). we might have:
She hoped they would play a Mozart quartet and they will.
Again instead of[3), we might have ellipsis of the V and an A in the second
part:

But wh-items have a further role in subordinate clauses ( 1 4. 1 ) when their reference
may be backward as in [6J or forward as in [71:

(6)
[7)

Operator and predication

2.10

In 2.2f we looked at the traditional division ofa sentence into subject and
predicate, noting the heterogeneous character of the latter. Bearing in
mind what was said in 2.3 about sentence constituents being identified by
specific questions, it should be noted that no question elicits the predicate
as such. If. however, we see the English sentence as comprising a slIbject.
an operator, and a predication, we have in this last a constituent that can
indeed be elicited by a question. Cf[5a] in 2.9. But the analysis ofpredicate
as operator plus predication has a much wider relevance than this.
We shall consider the operator in more detail in 3 . 1 1 , but for the present
we may define it as the first or only aux.iliary in the verb phrase realizing
the sentence element V. Note first of all the way in which the operator
permits the coordination ( 1 3. 1 7) of two predications:
You should telephone ),our mother and find out if she 's recovered
from her cold.
He is either cleaning the car or working in the garden.
Secondly. instead of representing a predication by the do so pro-form (as
in 2.9, (5]). an operator can be used alone, with total ellipsis of the
predication that is to be understood:
She hoped that they would play a Mozart quartet

{ and they will..

but they won t.

20

The primacy of epeeeh

A gener.l lramewort

The second variant in this example draws attention to a rurther

characteristic or the operator: it can be rollowed by the inrormal
contraction 11 {as well as by the rull rorm 110f}.
The position immediately after the operator is in ract crucial in rorming
a negation or a question:
{a} Negation is expressed by inserting 110f (inrormally n ,) after the
operator:

saying that the predication in positive statements is 'assertive territory'

and that the predication in negative sentences and in Questions is
'nonassertive territory'. While most words can be used equally in assertive
and nonassertive predications, some determiners, pronouns, and adverbs
have specifically assertive or nonassertive use. See rurther, 10.37.

"

'

NOTE

They should have bought a new house.

They should not have bought a new house.

didn't see anybody.

I saw nobody.

If you e-er want "nything, please ask.

She is morc inlelligent than anyone I know.

Where the V element in a positive declarative sentence has no operator, a

rorm or do is introduced as operator in the negative or interrogative
version:
They bough' a new house.
They did" " buy a new house.
Did they buy a new house?

The primacy of speech

Where the V element is realized by a rorm or be, this runctions as itselr an

operator:

2,12

The sea is very rough.

The sea is nOf very rough.
Is the sea very rough?
The verb ha'e can function like be, especially in BrE:
She has the time to spare.
She hasn 't the time to spare.
Jlas she thc time to spare?
But see further 3.14 Notes (a) and [b].

All the material in this book is necessarily expressed in the silence or the
printed word. But in 2.1 we rererred to 'discourse in speech or writing',
and at no point must we rorget that language is normally spoken and
heard. Even what we write and read needs to be accompanied by an
imagined realization in terms or pronunciation and such prosodic reatures
as stress and intonation. The ramiliar graphic devices or spaces between
words and punctuation marks such as comma, colon, semicolon, and
period help us to recover rrom writing how sentences would sound ir
spoken, but the correspondence between punctuation and prosody is only
partial. From time to time. we shall need in this book to express examples
with the help or a 'prosodic transcription', and we now explain the
transcription system and the phenomena it represents.
Stress, rhythm and intonation

Assertive and nonaBsertlve

Ir we consider the rollowing examples, we see that more can be involved

than what occupies the position after the operator, when we move rrom a
positive statement as in [ I ] and [3] to negation or Question:
She has finished her thesis already.
She hasn'l finished her thesis yel.
The priest gave some money to some or the beggars.
Did Ihe priesf give any money to ally or the beggars?

(assertive pronoun)
(nonassertive pronoun]
[negative pronoun]

[b] Nonassertive territory is not confined to negation and question predications, as

we shall scc in 10.37 Note (b); for example

They should have bought a new house.

Should fhey have bought a new house?

2. 1 1

la) As wcll as assertive and nonassertive forms, there are also some negative forms.
Compare

I saw somebody.

{b} Ques,ions are ronned by placing the subject or the sentence after the
operator:

NOTE

21

[I)
(2)
(3)
(4)

In [2], yet corresponds to the occurrence or already in [I], and in [4], any
twice corresponds to the use orsome in [3]. We express these differences by

Stress
2.13

The relative prominence or a syllable within a word, or or a word within a

phrase, is indicated by relative stress. In transcription, we mark the
stressed segment by putting in rront or it a short raised vertical stroke:
in'dignant
in the 'middle
An exceptionally heavy stress can be shown by a double vertical. and a
lower level or stress (,secondary stress') can be marked by a lowered
vertical stroke. For example:

22

A general tramewortl

Conetuelon

23

She's I selling her eARl

It's , abso'lutely in "credible.

The ability to indicate stress is particularly valuable where it is unusual, as
for example in a contrast:

But if the speaker were using these words not to make a statement but to
ask a question, the next commonest pitch change would be used, a rise:
She's l selling her eARl

Well, 'you may think she's 'happy, but in 'fact she's 'very "unhappy.

Other nuclear tones to be especially noted are the fall-rise and the
fall-plus-rise:

Pronouns are normally unstressed and the speaker here emphasizes you to
indicate the addressee's isolation in so thinking; likewise, although
prefixes like un- are normally unstressed, here it is emphasized in contrast
with the previous mention of happy.

He I sounded a bit oouBTfu1 1

It's ITHis type that I LiKEI

Rhythm
2.14

English connected speech is characterized by stressed syllables inter

spersed by unstressed oncs such that, when the speaker is unaffected by
hesitation on the onc hand or excitement on the other, the stressed
syllablcs occur at fairly regular intervals of time. Absolute regularity of
rhythm is avoidcd for the most part, as oppressively mechanical, but is
often used in children's verse:
'Hickory 'dickory 'dock
The 'mouse ran 'up the 'clock.
I t is also heard when a speaker is speaking severely or stating a rule:
You should 'always 'clean your 'teeth 'after 'meals.
But absolute regularity is quite nonnal as an aid to keeping track of
numbers when we are counting things:
'one 'two 'three 'four . . . 'seven , teen 'eigh , teen 'nine , teen 'twenty
, twenty-'one ,twenty-'two . . .

NOTE

When not pari or a counting series, -teen numbers have the main stress on this
elemcnt: She is nine' teen.

Conclusion
2.16

The material presented in this chapter constitutes a modest but essential

foundation for studying English grammar as a whole. We have introduced
features and concepts which cut across the individual topics that will now
occupy our attcntion, chapter by chapter. Thus we have illustrated a
system by which intonation and other prosodic features of speech can be
related to grammar; we have outlined major concepts such as the
distinctions between generic and specific, stative and dynamic, assertive
and nonassertive.
But we have also provided a framework of sentence analysis, within
which the detailed material of individual chapters may be fitted, much as
these must in turn modify and clarify this framework. Thus we have
examined the 'parts of speech'; the sentence elements such as object and
complement; the segmentation of sentences into subject, operator, and
predication; and some of the chief grammatical processes such as those
relating positive to negative, statement to question.

Inlonation
2,15

Like stress, intonation is a mode of indicating relative prominence, but

with intonation the variable is pitch, the aspect of sound which we perceive
in terms of , high' and 'Iow'. Intonation is normally realized in tone wlits
comprising a sequence of stressed and unstressed syllables, with at least
one of the stressed syllables made prominent by pitch. We call such a
syllable the nucleus of the tone unit and we mark it by printing it in small
capitals. The first promincnt syllable in a tone unit is called the onset and
where necessary it is marked with a slender long vertical and the end of the
tone unit can be indicated with a thicker vertical:
She's I selling her eARl
Pitch prominence at the nucleus is usually associated with pitch change
and the direction of this can be indicated by the use of accents. The
commonest form of pitch change is a fall, as in:

Bibliographical note

For a rullcr treatment orthe material here and elsewhere in this book, see Quirk et
al. (1985); cfalso Allal (1987).
On the theory or English grammar, see HuddJcston (1984); Langacker ( 1 987);
Radford ( 1988).
On intonation and related reatures of speech, sce BoJingcr ( 1 972b); Crystal
(1969).
On syntactic and semantic relations, see Li ( 1976); Lyons ( 1977): Matthews
(1981).

Full verbs

Ic] Sometimes the main verb (and perhaps other words too) is understood from the
context, so that only auxiliaries are present in the verb phrase:

Verbs and auxiliaries

I can't tell them, but you con. lie 'can tell them']
Your parents may not have suspected anything, but your sister may hUl'f'. (ie
'may have suspected somcthing']
Id] There are also multi-word verbs, which consist ofa verb and one or more other
words, eg: turn on, look at, put up with, take place. take advantage of C/ 16.2ff.

Major verb classes

3.1

25

The term VERB is used in two senses:

The verb is one of the elements in clause structure, like the subject and
the object.

Full verbs

2 A verb is a mcmber of a word class, like a noun and an adjective.

The two senses are related in this way: A VERB PHRASE consists of one or
the sentences below;
clause,

is making, can believe. might be 'eal.ing in

the verb phrase operates as the verb (sense I ) in the

Verb forms

more verbs (sense 2), eg /inked,

eg:

3.2

They linked hands.

He s
i making a noise.

I can believe you.

She might be leaving soon.

in this respect; for example, the verbsPEAK has five forms, whereas CUT has
only three. Since most verbs have the -edinflection for both the simple past

( They called) and the past participle or passive participle ( They hal'e
called; They were called), we extend the term ' -edform' to cover these two

As a word class, verbs can be divided into three major categories,

according to their function within the verb phrase: the open class of FULL
VERBS (or lexical verbs,
VERBS

(3. 1 3ff)

eg: CALL, have four morphological forms: ( 1 ) base

(2) -s form, (3) -il/g participle, (4) -ed form. Irregular full verbs vary

Regular full verbs,

form,

sets of functions for all verbs.

3 .2Jf) and the very small closed classes of PRIMARY

In some irregular verbs, eg: SPEAK, there are two -ed forms with distinct

and MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS (116Jf). Since the primary

syntactic functions: the past

verbs and the modal auxiliary verbs are closed classes, we can list them in

irregular verbs,

full.

eg:

-ed form

-ed participle. In other

verbs, eg: CALL, the two -ed

and the

CUT, and in all regular

syntactic forms are identical.

FULL VERBS
PRIMARY VERBS
MODAL AUXILIARIES

believe,follow, like, see, . . .

be, have, do
can, may, shall, will, must,
could, might, should, wOII'd

If there is only onc verb in the verb phrase, it is the MAIN VERB. I f there is

NOTE

more than onc verb, the final one is the main verb, and the one or more

She might

might and be are auxiliaries:

be leaving soon.

Of the three classes of verbs, the full verbs can act only as main verbs, the

They have spoken to me.

She CUI herself.

She has CUI herself.

verbs that come before it are auxiliaries. For example. leOl.ing is the main
verb in this sentence, and

They spoke to me.

called him.

have

called him.

la] Regular verbs are called such because if we know their base fonn (ie the
dictionary entry form) wc can predict their three othcr forms (-s, -ing, and -ed) by
rule. The vast majority of English verbs are regular, and new words that arc coined
or borrowed from other languagcs adopt the regular pattern.
[b) The primary verb RE (cl 3.13) has eight forms.
The runctions of verb rorms

3.3

The verb forms have different functions in finite and nonfinite verb

modal auxiliaries can act only as auxiliary verbs, and the primary verbs

phrases (cl 3.19f). The

can act either as main verbs or as auxiliary verbs.

whereas the

-s

-ing participle

form and the past form are always FINITE,

and the

-ed participle

are always NONFlNITE.

The BASE form (the form which has no inflection) is sometimes finite. and

NOTE

[al Some verbs have a status intermediate between that of main verbs and that of
auxiliary verbs, cI3.18.
[b] Notice that in Dill they beJiew! ),Oll? the verb phrase Did . . . believe is
discontinuous. The verb phrase is similarly discontinuous in sentences such as
They do not belire me and I can perhaps help you.

sometimes nonfinite (see below). In a finite verb phrase (the kind of verb
phrase which normally occurs in simple sentences), only the first verb
word (in bold face below) is finite:
She calls hi m every day.

She has

called twice today.

Full v.n..

and the subsequent verbs, if any, are nonfinite. In a nonfinite verb phrase,
on the other hand, all verbs are nonfinite; eg:
Calling early. she found him at home.
Called early. he ate a quick breakfast.
Having been called early. he felt sleepy all day.

2
3

4
5

Here are the verb fonns with their syntactic functions:

The BASE FORM (call) is a FINITE verb in:
(i) the present tense i n all persons and numbers except 3rd person
singular (which has the -s form): llyoulwel,hey call regularly.
(ii) the imperative: Call at once!
(iii) the present subjunctive: They demanded lhat she call andsee Ihem.
It is a NONFINITE verb in:
(i) the bare infinitive: He may cal/ lonight.
(ii) the to-infinitive: We want her 10 call.
The -S FORM (calls) is a FINITE verb in the 3rd person singular present
tense: He/She calls every day.
The -ING PARTICIPLE (calling) is a NONFINITE verb in:
(i) the progressive aspect following BE: He's calling her now,
(ii) -ing participle clauses: Calling early, I found her at home.
The PAST FORM (called) is a FINITE verb in the past tense: Someone called
yesterday.
The -ED PARTICIPLE (called) is a NONFINITE verb in:
(i) the perfect aspect following HAVE: He has called twice today.
(ii) the passive voice following BE: Her brother is called J/",.
(iii) -ed participle clauses: Called early, he ale a quick breakfast.

The spelling rules for the -ing and -s fonns are detailed in 3.6ff. The rules
for the -s forms are the same as for the regular plural of nouns (cf 5.36).

NOTE

3.4

-B forms

pass -passes
buzz - buzzes
catch - catches

3.5

In these cases, the -s fonn always ends in -es.

2 Izl after bases ending in other voiced sounds. eg:
caU- caUs

flee-flees

try - tries

3 Is/ after bases ending in other voiceless sounds, eg:

CUI "" cuts

hop - hops

lock- locks

-s

RE

The -ed fonns of regular verbs have three pronunciations:

(a) Ildl after bases ending in /dl and It/, eg:
pad-padded Idldl

pat'" palled I-lldl

(b) Idl after bases ending in voiced sounds other than Idl, induding
vowels, eg:
buzz - buzzed I-zdl
call- called I-Idl

budge - budged ld3dl

IOw - towed !-;}Odl

(c) ItI after bases ending in voiceless sounds other than Ill eg:

pass -passed I-stl

pack -packed lk!1

The spelling 01 regular verb Inflections

Doubling of consonanl before -ing and -ed
A single consonant letter at the end of the base is doubled before -ing and
-ed when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter:

bar - barring - barred

oc cur- oc curring - oc curred

There is normally no doubling when the preceding vowel is unstressed

('enter ..... 'emering- 'entered, 'visit '" ' visiting - ' visited) or is written with
two letters (dread- dreading - dreaded).
For some exceptions, see the Notes below.

push .... pushing

budge ....., budges

push ....., pushes
camouflage ...., camouflages

s ys lsez/, hal'e-has. do Id :/ does

say
eg: outdo l-du:/-outdoes l-dAzl. The form of is
-ing inflection, eg:

The - ed forms of regular verbs

01 a l l verbs

The -5 inflection has three pronunciations:

1 1121 after bases ending in voiced or voiceless sibilants, eg:

-s

is.
wriggle -wriggling.

The -ing and -s forms are almost invariably predictable from the base of
both regular and irregular verbs. The -ing inflection is merely added to the
base (bu! c/ 3.6):
walk - walking

I sell a
la] Notice the irregular forms of
I dAz and derivatives of do.
highly irregular:
Ib] Syllabic I1I ceases to be syllabic before the

3.6
The Ing and

27

NOTE

BrE breaks the rule by doubling after unstressed syllables ending in -I, -m, and
-p; doubling is less usual in AmE.
tral'el
.... Iravellillg, lral'elled(BrE and AmE)
.... lral'eling, 'ral'eled (AmE only)
program(me) - programming, programmed (BrE and AmE)
- progroming. programI'd (AmE only]
worship - worshipping, worshipped (BrE and AmE)
.... lI'orshiping, lI'orshiped (AmE only)
The verbs handicap and kidnap follow the patLcrn ofll'orship, but most olher verbs
ending in -p follow the regular rule in both AmE and BrE, eg: del'elop, envelop,
gallop, gossip.
la]

28

Verbs and auxlllarle.

Full verbs

[b] In both arE and AmE the general rule is broken by the doubling of -g in
humbug ..... humbugging""humbugged and of words ending in c (spelled -ck-), eg:
panic-panicking..... panicked.
[c) In certain verbs whose base ends in a vowel followed by -s, there is variation
between -s- and -ss- when the inflection is added:
'bias 'hiasing/,biassing
'biased/'biassed
bus
'busing/,bussing
bused/bussed
'focus ,/ocusingl'locussing ,!ocusedl'focussed

The morphology of Irregular full verbs

3.9

Deletion of and addition of -e

3.7

Jfthe base ends in an unpronounced -e, this -e is regularly dropped before

the -ing and -ed inflections:
creale- creating- created
bake.- baking -- baked

shave-- shaving ...... shaved

type - typing"", typed

Verbs with monosyllabic bases in -ye, -oe, and -nge, pronounced jnd3/. are
exceptions to this rule: they do not lose the -e before -ing. but they do lose it
before -ed:
dye - dyeing- dyed
hoe- hoeing- hoed

singe -singeing -singed

tinge- tingeing- linged

NOTE

-ch watch- watches

-sh wash ..., washes

-x coax- coaxes

-0

[aJ An -e is added after in GO (-goes). DO (-does Idll.zn. ECHO (-echoes). VETO

( vetoes).
[bJ The -e is regularly dropped in impinging and infringing.
--

Treatmenl of -y
3 .8

NOTE

In bases ending in a consonant followed by -y. the following changes take

place:
(a) -y changes to -ie- before os: carry - carries, try - tries
(b) -y changes to -i- before -ed: carry ...., carried, Iry - tried
The -y remains. however. where it follows a vowel letter: stay -slayed,
alloy- alloys, etc; or where i t precedes -ing: carry- carrying,
silly - slllying.
A different spelling change occurs in verbs whose bases end in -ie: DIE,
LIE. TIE, VIE. In these cases, the -ie changes to -y- before -ing is added:
die - dying, lie -Iying, lie- tying, vie- vying.
10

Exceptions to these rules are certain verbs where the )' changes i after
(-paid) and (-laid) and their derivatives. eg:
(-repaid).
(-mislaid). The irregular verb follows the same pattern (-said).
LAY

REPAY

SAY

-0-:

PAY

MISLAY

Irregular full verbs differ from regular verbs in that either the past
inflection, or the -ed participle inflection, or both of these, are irregular.
More precisely the major differences are:
(a) Irregular verbs either do not have the regular -ed inflection, or else
have a variant of that inflection in which the Idl is devoiced to ItI (eg:
bum- burnt, which occurs alongside the regular bllrned).
(b) Irregular verbs typically. but not invariably, have variation in their
base vowel: choose - chose - chosen, write .... wrote - wrillen.
(c) Irregular verbs have a varying number of distinct forms. Since the-s
form and the -iflg form are predictable for regular and irregular verbs
alike, the only forms that need be listed for irregular verbs are the base
form (V), the past (V-ed\), and the -ed participle (V-ed2). These are
traditionally known as the PRINCIPAL PARTS of the verb. Most
irregular verbs have, like regular verbs, only one common form for
the past and the -ed participle; but there is considerable variation in
this respect, as the table shows:
V
cuI
meet
beal
come
speak

all three forms alike:

V-ed\ = V-ed2:
V = V-ed\:
V = V-ed1:
all three forms different:

The final -e is also lost before -ed by verbs ending in -ie or -ee: lie- tied,
die - died, agree -agreed.
Before the -s ending, on the other hand, an -e is added after the
following letters, representing sibilant consonants:
-s pass-passes
-z buzz-bllzzes

29

V-edJ
Cllt
met
beat
came
spoke

V-ed2
Cllt
met
beaten
come
spoken

Irregular verbs in alphabetical order

3.10

Irregular verbs can be classified on the basis of criteria derived from the
variation discussed in 3.9. However, we shall merely list alphabetically the
principal parts (including common variants) of the most common
irregular verbs. The list omits most verbs with a prefix such as OUl-, mw-,
reo, and 1111- that have otherwise the same parts as the corresponding
unprefixed verbs.
BASE

(V)

PAST TENSE

(V-ed\)

-ed PARTICIPLE (V-ed1)

arise
awake

arose
awoke, awaked

arisen
awoken, awaked

be
bear
beat
become
begin
bend
bereave
beseech
beset

was. were
bore
beat
became
began
bent
bereft, bereaved
besought, beseeched
beset

been
borne
beaten
become
begun
bent
bereft, bereaved
besought, beseeched
beset

30

Verbs and auxlllarle.

Full yerbs

(V)

PAST TENSE (V-edd

-ed PARTICIPLE (V-edz)

BASE

bet
bid
bind
bite
bleed
blow
break
breed
bring
broadcast
build
burn
burst
buy

bet, betted
bad(e), bid
bound
bit
bled
blew
broke
bred
brought
broadcast
built
burnt, burned
burst
bought

bet, betted
bade, bid, bidden
bound
bitten
bled
blown
broken
bred
brought
broadcast
built
burnt, burned
burst
bought

forbid
forecast
forget
forgive
forgo
forsake
freeze

forbade, forbad
forecast
forgot
forgave
forwent
forsook
froze

get

got

give
go
grind
grow

gave
went
ground
grew

gottcn (Am E)
given
gone
ground
grown

cast
catch
choose
cling
come
cost
creep
cut

cast
caught
chose
clung
came
cost
crept
cut

cast
caught
chosen
dung
come
cost
crept
cut

hamstring
hang
have
hear
heave
hide
hit
hold
hurt

hamstrung
hung (see Note)
had
heard
heaved, hove
hid
hit
held
hurt

hamstrung
hung
had
heard
heaved, hove
hidden
hit
held
hurt

deal
deepfreeze
dig
dive
do
draw
dream
drink
drive

dealt
deepfroze, -freezed
dug
dived, (AmE) dove
did
drew
dreamt, dreamed
drank
drove

dealt
deepfrozen, -freezed
dug
dived
done
drawn
dreamt, dreamed
drunk
driven

keep
kneel
knit
know

kept
knelt, kneeled
knitted, knit
knew

kept
knelt, kneeled
knitted, knit
known

eat

ate

eaten

ran
feed
reel
fight
find
Hee
fling
Hy

ren
red
relt
fought
found
ned
flung
Hew

fallen
red
relt
fought
found
ned
flung
flown

lead
lean
leap
learn
leave
lend
let
lie
light
lose

led
leant, leaned
leapt, leaped
learnt, learned
left
lent
let
lay
lit. lighted
lost

led
leant, leaned
leapt. leaped
learnt, learned
left
lent
let
lain
lit, lighted
lost

make
mean
meet
miscast

made
meant
met
miscast

made
meant
met
miscast

BASE

(V)

PAST TENSE

(V-ed.)

31

-ed PARTICIPLE (V-ed2)

forbidden
forecast
forgotten
forgiven
forgone
forsaken
frozen

{ got

32

Verb. end auxlllarle.

BASE

Full verb.

(V)

PAST TENSE

(V-edl)

-ed PARTICIPLE (V-ed2)

BASE (V)

PAST TENSE

sow
speak
speed
spell
spend
spill
spm
spit
split
spoil
spread
sprmg
stand
steal
stick
sting
Slink
stride
strike
string
strive
swear
sweat
sweep
swell
SWim
sWing

sowed
spoke
sped, speeded
spelt, spelled
spent
spilt, spilled
spun, span
spat, spit
split
spoilt, spoiled
spread
sprang
stood
stole
stuck
stung
stank
strode
struck
strung
strove, strived
swore
sweat, sweated
swept
swelled
swam
swung

sown, sowed
spoken
sped, speeded
spelt, spelled
spent
spilt. spilled
spun
spat, spit
split
spoilt, spoiled
spread
sprung
stood
stolen
stuck
stung
stunk
stridden, strid, strode
struck
strung
striven, strived
sworn
sweat, sweated
swept
swollen, swelled
swum
swung

take
teach
Lear
telecast
tell
think
thrive
throw
thrust
tread

took
taught
tore
telecast
told
thought
thrived
threw
thrust
trod

taken
taught
torn
telecast
told
thought
thrived
thrown
thrust
trodden

underbid
undergo
understand
undertake
underwrite

underbid
underwent
understood
undertook
underwrote

underbid
undergone
understood
undertaken
underwritten

mislead
misspell
mistake
misunderstand
mow

misled
misspelt, misspelled
mistook
misunderstood
mowed

misled
misspelt, misspelled
mistaken
misunderstood
mown, mowed

offset

offset

offset

put

put

put

quit

quit, quitted

quit, quitled

read
rend
rid
ride
nng
rise
run

read
rent
rid, ridded
rode
rang
rose
ran

read
renl
rid, ridded
ridden
rung
risen
run

saw
say
see
seek
sell
send
set
sew
shake
shear
shed
shine
shoot
show
shrink
shut
sing
sink
sit
sleep
slide
sling
slit
smell

sawed
said
saw
sought
sold
sent
set
sewed
shook
sheared
shed
shone, shined
shot
showed
shrank
shut
sang
sank
sat
slept
slid
slung
slit
smelt, smelled

sawn, sawed
said
seen
sought
sold
sent
set
sewn. sewed
shaken
shorn, sheared
shed
shone, shined
shot
shown
shrunk
shut
sung
sunk
sat
slept
slid
slung
slit
smelt. smelled

33

(V-edt )

-ed PARTICIPLE (V-ed2)

/
34 Verbs and auxlllarle.

(V)

Primary verbs and modal auxlllarie.

PAST TENSE (V-ed,)

-ed PARTICIPLE (V-ed1)

uphold
upset

upheld
upset

upheld
upset

wake
wear
weave
wed
weep
wet
Win
wind
withdraw
withhold
withstand
wring
write

woke, waked
wore
wove
wedded, wed
wept
wetted, wet
won
wound
withdrew
withheld
withstood
wrung
wrote

woken, waked
worn
woven
wedded, wed
wept
welted, wet
won
wound
withdrawn
withheld
withstood
wrung
written

BASE

35

At no time was the entrance left unguarded,

(c) The operator can carry nuclear stress to mark a finite clause as
positive rather than negative:
Won't you try again?- Yes, I WilL try again.
You must speak to the teacher. - I HAVE spoken to him,
The function of this emphatic positive is to deny a negative which has
been stated or implied,
(d) The operator functions in a range ofelliptical clauses where the rest of
the predication is omitted (cl 1 2,20). The clause is understood to
repeat the omitted part.
Won't you try again?- Yes, I wilL.
- No, I CAN'T,
If there is no operator in a corresponding positive declarative sentence,
the dummy (or 'empty') operator DO is introduced under the above
conditions:
(a) She saw the play . - She did nOl (or: didn 't) see the play.
(b) He plans to speak first. Does he plan to speak first?
(c) You never listen to your mother. - But I 06 listen to her.
(d) Do you drive a car?- Yes, I DO.
No, I DON'T.
The use of the operator DO is termed DO-SUPPORT,
The main verbs BE and HAVE are operators in these sentences:
.....

NOTE

In BrE the vcrbfit is regular. but in AmEfit is an alternative tofitled in the pasl and the -ed
participle.

Hang has also the regular fonn lumged for the past and the -ed participle in the

sense 'put \0 death by hangi ng

',

Primary verbs and modal auxiliaries

Verbs as operators

3.11

NOTE

Auxjliaries have onc important syntactic function in common: they

become the OPERATOR when they occur as the first verb of a finite verb
phrase (./ 3.19). The main verb BE and (sometimes, especially in BrE) the
main verb HAVE are also operators when they are the only verb in the verb
phrase. On the other hand, only the auxiliary DO is an operator (as in 'She
does not know me'), not the main verb DO (as in 'She does a lot of work').
Operators share the following main characteristics:
(a) To negate a finite clause, we put not immediately after the operator,
Contrast:

He will speak first. Will he speak first?

He plans to speak first. _ . Plan. he to speak first?
"'"

Subject-operator inversion occurs also in sentences with introduc

tory negatives or semi-negatives (cl 10,35f):

Is she your sister?

la] The enclitic particle n ( can be attached to most operators as a contraction of

Ihc negative word nol, eg: isn 't, didn 't, wan', (cf 3, 1 3ff), In addition, many
operators have contracted forms:
'

m -'m; is -

BE: a

'
5;

are- 're
'
HAVE: have- 'l'e; has- 5; had-'d
modals: will- '/I; would- 'd

The final /l/ in the negative contraction is commo!lly not sounded, Notice that the
contraction '5 may represent either is or has, and that the contraction
may
represent either had or would.
[b] Thecontraclions mentioned in [a] are simplified fonns that are institutionalized
in both speech and writing, They are to be distinguished from cases of
phonological reduction only, eg Ikm/ in the pronunciation of can.

'd

She may do it. -She may not do it,

She saw the play. "'" She saw not the play.
(b) To fonn an interrogative clause, we put the operator in front of the
subject (subject-operator inversion). Contrast:

haven 't a car. (esp BrE)

Characteristics of modal auxiliaries

3.12

Certain characteristics additional to those listed in 3, 1 1 apply specifically

to modal auxiliaries:
(a) They are followed by the bare infinitive (ie the base form of the verb
alone without a preceding to):
You will ask the questions.

They might have stolen it.

36

r
t

Verbs and aUldllarles

The primary verbs BE, HAVE, and DO

(b) They cannot occur in nonfinite functions, ie as infinitives or

participles: may"' (o may, *maying, mayed. In consequence they
can occur only as the first verb in the verb phrase.
(c) They have no -s form for the 3rd person singular of the present tense.
.
Contrast:

Table

3.13 Forms of Be
NONNEGATIVE

CONTRACTED
NEGATIVE

am not.

(aren '/)

prescnt
1st person

(d) Their past forms can be used to refer to present and future time (often
with a tentative meaning):

am Ia!m/. j:Jm/

singula r present

m Imj

m not

3rd person

[f /IZ/

is /lOt.

si ngular present

I think he may/migJu be outside.

Will/ Would you phone him tomorrow?

Izj, Isl

sn't
i
/' IZf}t/

s not

2nd person

are 10:"

are not

're /:)'/

re not

lI'a.f /woz/, jW(:J)zl

lI'a.f no/

were jWJ:'I. /w;}'1

were not

-ing form

being I'bi:nJI

not beillg

-ed participle

been /bi:n/. /bm/

no/ been

present, 1st

NOTE

UNCONTRACTED
t-.'EGATIVE

be Ibi:/ jbll

base

You must write. '" She must write.

You like to write. -- She likes to write.

37

The dummy auxiliary 00, like the modal auxiliaries, is followed by the bare
infinitive and cannot occur in nonfinite functions. The primary auxiliaries BE.
HAVE, and 00 have an -sform, but it is irregular(c
f3. l 3.ff). For the marginal modal
auxiliaries. see 3.17.

and 3rd person

aren '/ /a:'nt!

plural present
past
1st and 3rd

II'(/sn '/ /'wozQt/

person
singular past

The primary verbs BE, HAVE, and

2nd person past

DO

1st and 3rd

person plural

Be
3.13

past

The verb be i s a main verb (with a copular function: cf 10.3) in:

Ann is a happy girl.

Is that building a hotel?

But be also has two auxiliary functions: as an aspect auxiliary for the
progressive (4.1 Off):

NOTE

Ann is learning Spanish.

The weather has been improving.
and as a passive auxiliary (3.25j):
Ann \Vas awarded a prize.
Our team has never been beaten.
Be is unique in having a full set of both finite and nonfinite forms in
auxiliary function; it is also unique among English verbs in having as
many as eight different forms. In the nonnegative column of Table 3 . 1 3 the
unstressed pronunciations (with vowel reduction) are given after the
stressed pronunciation, where they differ.

(a] Ain is a nonstandard contraction used commonly (especially in AmE) in place

of am not, is 110/, are not, has not, and hal'e no/, Are"'! is the standard contraction
for am not in questions (especially in BrE): Aren 't / tall?
[b] There is a rare use of be as a perfect auxiliary with the verb go: The gllesis are
[also have} gone.

't

Halfe
3.14

Have functions both as an auxiliary and as a main verb, As an auxiliary for

perfect aspect (cf 4.8f), have combines with an -ed participle to form
complex. verb phrases:

I have finished.

It must have been eaten.

As a main verb, it normally takes a direct object: I hal'e no money. The -ed
participle is not used as an auxiliary.

38

Table 3.14

NOTE

Forms of Halle
NONNEGATIVE

have /h:ev/, /(h):lv/

b,,,

'

-s fonn

VI' Iv/, If!

has Ihzzl. l(hpzl

's Iz/, 151

UNCONTRAC'nD

CONTRACTED

NEGATIVE

NEGATIVE

have nOI
've nOI

haven'l /,hvQt/

has nOI
S nOI

had Ihzd/. /(hPdI

had nOl

'd Idl

'dnol

-ing fonn

having I'hzv1rJ/

nOI having

-I'd participle

had Ihzd/, I(h);xl/

pa"

NOTE

Modat aUllllarl..

Verbs and aUllllarl

haSf! '1 j'hI/

hadn'l j'hrroQt/

[al ln stative senses (cf4,IO,n, have is used (generally in rather formal style) as an
operator. especially in OrE. There is also the informal /Ja'e got construction, which
is frequently preferred (especially in BrE) asan alternative to stativc hal'e. In some
stative senses, we can therefore have three alternatives:
(a) We hm'en't any butter.-We hm'e some,
(b) We ha'en'l gOI any butter. ..... We hal'e go, (We've go,) some.
(c) We don', have any butter. -Wc do hal'e some.
Of these, (a) is especially OrE (more formal); (b) is especially BrE (informal); (c)
is AmE, and also common now in OrE.
[bl l n dynamic senses (cf4, I O,n, have normally has oo-support, and have go, is nOI
possible:
A : Does she have coffee with her breakfast?
B: Yes, she does.

[al As a main verb, do can function as a pro-predicate or pro-predication (cf

l2.6jJ) referring to some unspecified action or actions, alone or in combination
with so, il, this, that, interrogative what, or an indefinite pronoun:
She didn't earn as much as she might have done. (esp BrE)
I don't know what to do, so I did nothing.
A: I'm throwing Ihese books away.
B: Why are you doing THAT?
A: What have they been doing to the road?
B: Widening it.
(b) The main verb do has a wide range of uses as a generdlpurpose transitive verb.
especially in informal speech:
let's do the dishes.
Who does your car?
As
shown
in
Table
3,
J
5,
does
can be infonnally pronounced /z/ (When does Ihe
[cl
/
show begin?) or s/ (What does he want?).

Modal auxiliaries
3.16

The central modal auxiliaries are

parentheses.
Table

{'""

Do, like be and have can be both an auxiliary and a main verb. As an
auxiliary, do has no nonfinite rorms, but only present and past rorms,
Table

3. IS Forms of Do
NONNEGATlVE

s form

UNCONTRACTED

CONTRACTED

NEGATIVE

!<;"EGATlVE

do Idu:/, Ido/. /d:.1

do nOI

don'l /d:wntl

does IdAz/, Idazl

daes nOI

doesn 't /,dAzQt/

did '101

didn 'l l'dldnll

Iz/. /s/
past

did Idldj

ing form

doing I'du:lrJI

NOTE

(main verb only)

ed participle

(main verb only)

Table 3 . 1 6. Rare rorms are In

3.16 Forms of the modal auxiliary verbs

NONNEGATlVE

00

3.15

39

{
{
{
{

Ik<n, konl

UNCONTRACTED

CONTRACTED

NEGATIVE

NEGATIVE

t'anno/, can 110/

con 'l /ka:nl/ (BrE).

jk:r:.nl/ (AmE)

could /kOO, kxt/

could '101

cou/(In '/ /,kOOQI/

may /mell

mo)' '101
mighl nOI

(mayn " /memlj)

mighl jmaltj
Shall /J:r:.I, Ha)l/

shall '10/

(.fhan'I /Ja:nl/ (BrE

should IJud, H)dl

should '101

shouldn 'l l'JudQt/. /'IxlQtl

w()n'l /unl/

Y";II Iwill

will nOI

'1l/(a)l/

'11 nOI

....OUld IwOO/

would nOI

'd j(a)dj

'd nOl

musl /mAst, mstl

muSl nOI

mightn" I'mallQt/

wouldn 'l /,wOOQII

mUSln'1 tmAsf}t/

Mayn ', and shan 't arc virtually nonexistent in AmE, while in BrE shan't is
becoming rare and mayn 'l even more so.
Marginal modal auxiliaries

done /d"n/

3.17

The marginal modal auxiliaries are used 10, oughl 10, dare, and need,
Used 10 always takes the to-infinitive and occurs only in the past tense:

She used 10 attend regularly.

The structure 01 verb phr....

The structure of verb phrases

It is used both as an auxiliary and as a main verb with DO-support:

He usedn'l (or: used nOI) /0 smoke. (BrE)
He didn 't use (d) to smoke. (BrE and informal AmE )

Finite verb phrases

3.19

The normal interrogative construction i s with oosupport, even i n BrE:

Did he use to drink?

He used to drink, didn 'l he?

Ought 10 normally has the loinfinitive, but the /0 is optional following

oughl in ellipsis:

(c) There is person concord and number concord between the subject ofa
clause and the finite verb phrase. Concord is particularly clear with
the present tense of he:

Dare and need can be used either as modal auxiliaries (with bare
infinitive and without the inflected forms) or as main verbs (with 10
infinitive and with inflected -5, -ing, and past forms). The modal
construction is restricted to nonassertive contexts, ie mainly negative and
interrogative sentences, whereas the main verb construction can always be
used, and is in fact more common.

I am
You are

Do they dare ask for more?

be bound to
be due to

be going 10
be likely 10

I/You/She/We{fhey can play the cello.

(d) Finite verb phrases have mood, which indicates the factual, nonfac
tual, or counterfactual status of the predication. In contrast to the
'unmarked' INDICATIVE mood, we distinguish the 'marked' moods
IMPERATIVE (used to express commands and other directive speech
acts; c/ 1 1 . 1 5 .0'), and SUBJUNCTIVE (used to express a wish,
recommendation, etc; c/ 3.23/).
A clause with a finite verb phrase as its V element is called a 'finite verb
clause' or, more tersely, a 'finite clause'. Similarly, a clause with a
nonfinite verb phrase as its V element is called a 'nonfinite (verb) clause'
(e/ 14.3f).

be supposed to
hmre 10

Nonflnite verb phrases

3.20
NOTE

With modal auxiliaries there is no overt concord at all (c/3.12);

Two other categories of verbs are intermediate between auxiliaries and

main verbs. They express modal or aspectual meaning.
(a) The MODAL IDtOMS are a combination of auxiliary and infinitive or
adverb. None of them have nonfinite forms and they are therefore
always the first verb in the verb phrase. The most common modal
idioms are had better, would ralher, have gOI 10, and be to.
(b) The SEMI-AUXILIARIES are a set of verb idioms which are introduced by
one of the primary verbs HAVE and BE. They have nonfinite forms and
can therefore occur in combination with preceding auxiliaries.
Indeed, two or more semi-auxiliaries can occur in sequence. Common
semi-auxiliaries include:
be able to
be abouI to

He/She/It is
here.
We{fhey are

He/She/Jim reads
the paper every mormng.
I/We/You/They read

Modal idioms and semi-auxiliaries

3.18

} here.

But with most full verbs overt concord is restricted to a contrast

between the 3rd person singular present and other persons or plural
number:

Blends of the two constructions (modal auxiliary and main verb) are widely
acceptable for dare;
They do not dar' ask for me.

A finite verb phrase is a verb phrase in which the first or only word is a
finite verb (c/ 3.3), the rest of the verb phrase (if any) consisting of
non finite verbs. Finite verb phrases can be distinguished as follows:
(a) Finite verb phrases can occur as the verb phrase of independent
clauses.
(b) Finite verb phrases have tense contrast, ;e the distinction between
present and past tenses:
He is a journalist now.
He worked as a travel agent last summer.

You oughtn'l to smoke so much.

A : Ought I to stop smoking?
B: Yes, I think you oughl (to).

NOTE

41

Like auxiliaries - in having meanings similar to those for the aspectual and modal
auxiliaries (c/4. 7, 4.21 )- arc the calcnativcs, such as appear to. happen to, seem to.
Somc catenativcs are followed by -ing or ed participlcs rather than by infinitivcs:
start (working), go on (talking), keep (on) (smoking). get (trapped).

The infinitive to) call ), the -;ng participle (callif/g), and the et! participle
(called) are the nonfinite forms ofthe verb. Hence any phrase in which one
of these verb forms is the first or only word (disregarding the infinitive
marker to) is a nonfinite verb phrase. Such phrases do not normally occur
as the verb phrase of an independent clause. Compare:

.-42

Verbs and auxiliaries

FINITE VERB PHRASES

He smokes.
Mary is having a smoke.
He must smoke 40 a day.
You have been smoking all
day.

Listen to me. (imperative)

I demand that he listen to me. (subjunctive)

NONFINITE VERB PHRASES

To smoke like that must be

dangerous.
I regret having started to smoke.
The cigars smoked here tend to be
expensive.
That was the last cigarette to have
been .mlOked by me.

(d) Finiteness requires a choice between the finite and nonfinite (3.191):
She plays tennis.
Playing tennis is good for your health.
The verb element of a finite clause (as in the first sentence) is a finite
verb phrase; the verb element of a nonfinitc clause is a nonfinite verb
phrase (eg: Playing in Playing lennis).
(e) Voice involves a contrast between active and passive (tf3.25/):

Simple and complex verb phrases

3.21

The finite verb phrase is SIMPLE when (without ellipsis) it consists of only
one word. It is complex when it consists of two or more words.
The auxiliaries follow a strict order in the complex verb phrase:
(a) MODAL, followed by an infinitive:
must go
(b) PERFECT (the auxiliary have) followed by an -ed participle:
has examined; must have examined
(c) PROGRESSIVE (the auxiliary be), followed by an -ing participle:
was talking; must have been talking
(d) PASSIVE (the auxiliary be), followed by an -ed participle:
was visited; must have been being visited
While the above order is strictly followed, gaps are perfectly normal:

A doctor will examine the applicants. (active)

The applicants will be examined by a doctor. (passive)
(f) Questions generally require subject-operator inversion (cl 1 1 .3ff; for
an exception, cI I I . IO):
I should pay for you. ...... Should I pay for you?
The students ohjected. .... Did the students object?
(g) Negation makes use of operators (cl 10.33, but cJ 3.23 Note [bD:
I should pay for you . ..... J shollldn 'l pay for you.
The students objected. ..... The students didn 't object.
(h) Emphasis is frequently carried by an operator (cI3. 1 ! ):

(a) + (c): must be going (modal + progressive)

(b) + (d): has been examined (perfect + passive)
(a) + (d): may be visited (modal + passive)

I SHOULD pay.
The students DiD object.

Contrasts expressed In the verb phrase

3.22

It may be convenient to list here the contrasts in which the verb phrase
plays an important part.
(a) Tense requires a choice between present and past in the first or only
verb in a finite verb phrase (cJ4.3fJ):
She works hard.

She worked hard.

(b) Aspect requires a choice between the nonperfect and the perfect and
between the nonprogressive and the progressive (cl 4. 7jJ):
He writes poems. (simple: nonperfect, nonprogressive)
He has written poems. (perfect, nonprogressive)
He is writing poems. (progressive, nonperfect)
He has been writing poems. (perfect, progressive)
(c) Mood requires a choice between the indicative, imperative, and
subjunctive (cl I I. I 5ff, 3.23f) :
He

.
.
}
( Ind'Icatlve)
IS Islemng to me.

{listem
. /.

The subjunctive mood

Forms of the subjunctive

3.23

There are two forms of the subjunctive. They are traditionally called the
present and past subjunctive, although the distinction relates more to
mood than to tense.
The present subjunctive is expressed by the base form of the verb. For
the verb be, the subjunctive form be is distinct from the indicative forms
am, i.. and are. For other verbs. the subjunctive is distinctive only in the
3rd person singular:
I insist that we reconsider the Council"s decisions.

(indicative or subjunctive]
I insist that the Council reconsider its decisions.
[subjunctive]
I insist that the Council's decision(s) be reconsidered.
[subjunctive)

(IJ
(2J

(3J

r
44

Verbs and auxlllarl

passive voice involves both the verb phrase and the clause as a whole. In
the verb phrase, the passive adds a form of the auxiliary be followed by the
-ed participle of the main verb. For example:

The past subjunctive (or were-subjunctive) survives only in were as a

past form CfDE. It is distinguishable from the past indicative of HE only in
the 1st and 3rd persons singular:
If she WllS leaving, you would have heard about it.
[indicative)
If she were leaving, you would have heard about it.
[subjunctive]

kisses
has kissed
may be kissing

At the clause level, changing from active to passive has the following
results:
(a) The active subject, if retained, becomes the passive AGENT.
(b) The active object becomes the passive subject.
(c) The preposition by is inserted before the agent.

The indicative was is more common in less formal style.

NOTE

[aJ Only were is acceptable in as it \l'ere ('so 10 speak'); ''e,e is usual in ifl were you.
[h] Negation of the present subjunctive does not require an operator. Hence,
reconsider in [ l a] is unambiguously subjunctive:
I

The butler murdered the detective. [ACTIVE]

The detective was murdered (by the butler). [PASSIVE]

insist that we not reconsider the Council's decision.

The prepositional phrase (AGENT BY-PHRASE) of passive sentences is an

optional element and is commonly omitted.

Uses of the subjunctive

3.24

We distinguish two main uses of the present subjunctive:

(a) The MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE is used in a that-clause after an
expression of such notions as demand, recommendation, proposal,
intention (eg: We insist, prefer, request ; It is necessary, desirable,
imperath'e ; the decision, requiremem, resolution). This use is more
characteristic of AmE than BrE, but seems to be increasing in BrE. In
BrE the alternatives are putative .b lOuld ( 1 4. 1 4) and the indicative.
The employees demanded that he
(b) The FORMULAIC (or 'optative')
expressions:
God save the Queen.
Long Jive the King.
Come what may, . . .

NOTE

resign. <esp Am E)
sho1d resign. <esp BrE)
reslglls.

SUBJUNCTIVE

[cl Some stative transitive verbs, called 'middle verbs', normally occur only in the
active (cl 1 6. 1 5), eg:
They hm'e a nice house.
He lacks confidence.

Hea ven/o bid that .

Be that as it may, . . .
Suffice it to say that . . .

The building is demolishetJ.

Her ann was already broken when I saw her.
A senlence such as Her (lrm 11'(1$ broken is ambiguous between a dynamic passive
reading ( , Someone broke her arm') and a statal reading ('Her arm was in a state of
fracture').

If I were a rich man, I would . . .

I wish the journey were over.
Just suppose everyone were to act like you.

Active and passive

3.25

The distinction between active and passive applies only to sentences where
the verb is transitive. The difference between the active voice and the

The auditorium hoJds 500 people.

Will this suit you?

Id] ln the 'statal passive' the -edform refers 10 a Slate resulting from an action, and
the construction contains a copular verb and a subject complement:

The past subjunctive is hypothetical in meaning. It is used in

conditional and concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after wish
and suppose:

Voice

la] Gel is frequently used wilh the passive in informal English: gel caught, gel
(Jressed, gel run OIW. It often conveys the connotation that the referenl of the
subjcct has some responsibility for the action. Compare the construction with a
reOexive pronoun: 'She gOI herself caught:
Ibj The change to passive is highly restricted if the active object is a clause. It
becomes acceptable when theclausc isexlraposed and replaced by anticipatory if:
They thought that she WllS attractive.
If was thought 11101 she was allraCfil'(:'.

is used in certain set

Subjunctive were is often replaced in nonformal style by indicative was.

is kissed
has been kissed
may be being kissed

3.26

Uses of the passive

In sentences where there is a choice between active and passive, the active
is the norm.
Speakers or writers use the passive for the rollowing reasons. In
considering the examples, bear in mind that more than one reason may
apply. Reasons 1 -4 illustrate the uses of the passive without the agent by
phrase, which is commonly omitted:
1 Thev do not know the identity or the aeent of the action.

Many lifeboats were launched from the Titanic only partly filled.
2 They want to avoid identifying the agent because they do not want to
assign or accept responsibility.

The semantics of the verb phrase

My letter has nol yet been amwered.

A mistake has been made in calculating your change.
3 They feel that there is no reason for mention of the agent because the
identification is unimportant or obvious from the context.
The small thin pieces of metal at the sides are to protect the
appliance during handling and may be discarded.
Nowadays sleeping sickness can usually be cured ifit ;s delecled early
enough.
4 In scientific and technical writing, writers often use the passive to avoid
the constant repetition ofthe subject I or we and to put the emphasis on
processes and experimental procedures. This use oflhe passive helps 10
give the writing the objective tone that the writers wish 10 convey.
The su. bjecI was blindfolded and a pencil was placed in the left hand.
5 To put emphasis on the agent of the action;
6 To avoid what would otherwise be a long active subject;
7 To retain the same subject throughout a long sentence.
The following sentence exemplifies a combination of all three reasons for
using the passive (cl 1 8.22):

As a cat moves, it is kept informed of its movements not only by ils

eyes, but also by messages from its pads and elsewhere in its skin,
its organs of balance, and its sense organs ofjoints and muscles.
Bibliographical note

For general treatments or the English verb, sce Palmer ( 1 988); Alien ( 1 966); Joos
( 1 964); Huddleston (1976).
On the passive sec Granger ( 1 983); Stein ( 1 979): Svartvik ( 1 966). For studies
relating more particularly to meaning in the verb phrase, consull thc Bibliographi
cal note to Chapter 4.

Time, tense, and the verb

4.1

In abstraction from any given language, we can think of time as a line on

which is located, as a continuously moving point, the present moment.
Anything ahead of the present moment is in the future, and anything
behind it is in the past (see Fig 4. l a):
THE PRESENT MOMENT
PAST

\l

FUTURE

-'
L-

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__

__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
___
__
__

Inowl
Fig 4.1a

In relating this REFERENTIAL view of time 10 the meaning of verbs, it is

useful to reformulate it so that on the SEMANTIC level of interpretation
something is defined as 'present' ifil exists at Ihe present moment and may
also exist in the past and in the future. Hence Paris stands on the River
Seine may be correctly said to describe a 'present' situation, even though
this situation has existed for many centuries in the past and may well exist
for an indefinitely long period in the future. The same is true for sentences
of more limited time span: John boasts a lot applies to past and present,
and carries the implication that it will apply to an indefinite period in the
future (see Fig 4. lb):
{now]

\l-----------
FUTURE TIME
j

______

____
__
__
__
__
__
__

PAST TIME

. ---- - --- - - -- - --- - -- --- - - - -

(preceding now)

f- - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Ifollowing nowl

THE PRESENT TIME

.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

!including nowl

Fig 4_lb
TENSE is a grammatical category that is realized by verb inflection. Since
English has no future inflected form of the verb, the threefold semantic

T1m., '-"... and the verb

48 The semanllcs 01 the verb phrase

present', such as Water boils at 100 GC and The earth moves round the
sun, and more restricted time spans:

opposition is reduced to two tenses; the PRESENT TENSE and the PAST TENSE,
which typically refer to present and past time respectively.
NOTE

We go to Brussels every year.

She makes her own dresses.

Future meaning is conveyed by various means, including the present tense:

Tomorrow is Tuesday. Cf 4. 1 3ff

She doesn't smoke.

Bill drillks heavily.

Whereas the state present always refers to something that applies at

the time of speaking or writing, this is very often not so for the
habitual present; We can say Bill drinks heavily when Bill is not
actually drinking.
(c) The INSTANTANEOUS PRESENT is used with dynamic verb senses to refer
to a single event with little or no duration that occurs at the time of
speaking or writing. It is used only in certain restricted situations; for
example, in commentaries and selfcommentaries (Black passes the
ball 10 FemQmlezj I enc/oJe a form of application) and with
performative verbs that refer to the speech acts performed by uttering
the sentences (I apologize for my behaviour; We (hank you for your
recell1 el/quiry).

Stative and dynamic senses of verbs

4.2

49

We draw a broad distinction between the ST,HIVE and DYNAMIC senses in

which verbs are used to refer to situations ({/4.l l). Verbs like be, have, and
know have slative senses when they refer to a single unbroken state of
affairs;
I have known the Penfolds all my life.
Verbs like drive, speak, and allack have dynamic senses, as can be seen
when they are used with the present perfect to refer to a sequence of
separate events:
I have dril'ell sports cars for years.
NOTE

NOTE

la) A verb may shift in sense from one category to another. Have, for example. is
usually stative: She has I11'o sisters. But it has a dynamic sense in We haw'dinner at
Maxim's quile frequently.
[b] Dynamic verb senses can regularly occur with the imperative and progressive.
bUI stative verb senses cannot:
Learn how to swim.
I am learning to swim.

-Kllow how to swim.

-I am knowing how to swim.

In general, only dynamic senses follow do in a pseudo-cleft sentence (cf 18.20):

What she did was (10) learn Spanish.
What she did was (to) kilOit' Spanish.
Tense

Simple present tense for present time

4.3

(a) The STATE PRFSENT is used with stative verb senses to refer to a single
unbroken stateofaffairs that has existed in the past, exists now. and is
likely to continue to exist in the future. It includes the 'timeless
present'. which refers to 'eternal truths' such as TlI'O and three make
jil'e or to less extreme instances of timelessness. such as The British
Isles have a temperate climate. It also includes more restricted time
spans:
Margaret is tall.
We live near Toronto.

He does 1101 believe in hard work.

This soup ta.tes delicious.

(b) The HABITUAL PRESENT is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to
events that repeatedly occur without limitation on their extension
into the past or future. Like the state present, it includes the 'timeless

It isa sign of the habitual present that onccan easily add a frequency adverbial (eg:
often, once a day. el'ery year) \0 specify the frequency of the event.

Simple present tense for past and future

4.4

There are three additional kinds of uses of the simple present that are best
seen as extended interpretations of the basic meanings of 4.3.
(a) The HISTORIC PRESENT refers 10 past time, and is characteristic of
popular narrative style. I t conveys the dramatic immediacy of an
event happening at the time of narration:
Just as we arrived, up comes Ben and slaps me on the back as ifwe're
life-long friends.
It is used as a stylistically marked device in fictional narrative for
imaginary events in the past:
The crowd sll'arms around the gateway. and seelhes with delighted
anticipation: excitement grOIl'J. as suddenly their hero makes his
entrance .
(b) The simple present is optionally used to refer to the past with verbs of
communication or reception of communication to suggest that the
information communicated is still valid:
Jack tells me that the.Q.osition is still vacant.
The Bible prohibits the committing of adultery.
I hear that you need an assistant.
I understand that the game has been postponed.
(c) I n main clauses, the simple present typically occurs with time
position adverbials to suggest that a future event is certain to take
place;

A...-ct

The plane leaves for Ankara at eight o'clock tonight.

If you knew him, you wouldn't say that.

If she asked me, I would help her.
I wish I had a memory like yours.

The use of the simple present for future time is much more common in
subordinate clauses, particularly in conditional and temporal clauses
(c/ 14. 1 1):

Somewhat akin to the other optional uses of the simple present for past time is its
use in reference to writers, composers, etc, and their works (cl 19.13)
Dickens draws his characters from the London underworld of his time.
Beethoven's Ninth is his best composition.

Aspect
4.7

Simple past tense (or past time

4.5

NOTE

The simple past is used to refer to a situation set at a definite time in the
past.
(a) The EVENT PAST is used with dynamic verb senses to rerer to a single
definite event in the past. The event may take place over an extended
period (The Normans invaded England in 1066) or at a point or time
(The plane left at 9 a.m .).
(b) The HABITUAL PAST is used with dynamic verb senses to rerer to past
events that repeatedly occur: We spel/f our holidays in Spain when we
were childrell.
(c) The STATE PAST is used with stative verb senses to refer to a single
unbroken state or affairs in the past: I once liked reading nOl'els.
la) The habitual and state meanings of the past can be paraphrased by uSl'd to.
rb) Thedefinite time may be conveyed by a previous or subsequent time expression
in the linguistic context, for example by a time adverbial such as in 1066. It may
also be presupposed on the basis ofknowledge shared by speaker and hearer. For
example, }'Ollr brother was at school wilh me presupposes as common knowledge
that a specific period of time is spent at school.
Special uses of the simple past tense

4.6

There are three special uses or the simple past (cf 4.9 Note):
(a) In INDIRECT SPEECH OT lNDlRECT THOUGHT (cf I 4. 1 7f), the simple past
in the reporting verb may cause the verb in the subordinate reported
clause to be backshifted into the simple past: She said that she knew
you; / thought you were in Paris.
(b) The ATTITUDtNAL PAST is optionally used to rerer more tentatively
(and therefore more politely) to a present state or mind: Didyou want
losee menow?; / wondered whetheryou are Iwerefree lomorrow(cfI4. 18).
(c) The HYPOTHETICAL PAST is used in certain subordinate clauses,
especially if-clauses, to convey what is contrary to the belier or
expectation or the speaker (cf 14. 1 2):

[I]
[2]
[3]

The implication of( I) is that you do not know him, or[2) that she will
not ask me, and of [3) that I do nol have such a memory.

He'll do it if you pay him.

I'll Jet you know as soon as I hear from her.
NOTE

51

is a grammatical category that reflects the way in which the

meaning of a verb is viewed with respect to time. We recognize two aspects
in English, the perrect and the progressive, which may combine in a
complex verb phrase, and arc marked ror present or past tense:
ASPECT

present perfect
past perrect

has examined
had examined

present progressive
past progressive

is examining
was examining

present perfect progressive

past perfect progressive

has been examining

had been examining

The present perfect

4.8

The present perfect is used to rerer to a situation set at some indefinite time
within a period beginning in the past and leading up to the present.
(a) The STATE PRESENT PERFECT is used with stative verb senses to rerer to
a state that began in the past and extends to the present, and will
perhaps continue in the ruture:
They have been unhappy ror a long time.
We have lived in Amsterdam ror five years.
She has owned the house since her father died.
I'I'e always liked her.
(b) The EVENT PRESENT PERFECT is used with dynamic verb senses to rerer
to one or more events that have occurred at some time within a period
leading up to the present. We distinguish two subtypes:
1 The event orevents are reported as news; usually they have occurred
shortly before the present time:
The Republicans have won the election.
I've just got a new job.
There's been a serious accident.

52

A_

The mantlc. of tfle verb phr...

2 The event or events occurred al some more remote time in the past,
but the implicit time period that frames the event or events leads up
to the present:
She has given an interview only once in her life (but she may yet give
another interview).
Have you seen the new production of King Lear at the National
Theatre? (You still can do so.)
All our children have had measles (and they are not likely to have it
again).

But the combination with the modal may represent a simple past or a present
perfect:

I may "m'e leJt the keys at lhe office I1t is possible that I left/have left . . . )
'

The past perfect

4.9

1
NOTE

NOTE

have seen

They moved into the house before the baby was born.

She gave an interview only once in her life. (She can give no more interviews,
since she is dead.)
Did you see the new production of King Lear at the National Theatre? (You
can no longer do so, because the prpduclion has closed.)
(e) If ",ill (or shall ) is combined with the perfcct, the resuiling future perfect
conveys the meaning 'past in future':
By next week, they ",ill hal'e completed their contract.
A similar meaning may be conveyed with other modals:
By next week, they may hare ('ompleled their contract. ('It is possible that
they will have completed . . . )
'

( l a]

The past perfect may also represent the past of the present perfect:
She had owned the house since her parents died.

[2J

Contrast:
She has owned the house since her parents died.

[simple past]
[present perfect]

ia] The use ofthc present perfect for recent events may imply that the result of the
event still applies: He 'sbroken his arm (,His arm is broken'); I 've emptiedthe basket
('The basket is empty'); The train has arril'ed on Platform 4 ("The train is now on
Platform 4').
Ib] The simple past is often used in place of the present perfect for recent events,
especially in AmE: Ijllst got a new job.
(c] Some adverbials cooccur with the present perfect and not with the simple past.
They include the adverb since (I haven '( seen him since); prepositional phrases and
clauses introduced by since (since Monday; since I met you); the phrases till/lip 10
now and soJar. CJ 8.22 Note (a].
Id] The simple past must be used if the implieit lime period does not reach up 10 the
present moment:

[I]

The simple past can often replace the past perfect in such cases, ifthe time
relationship between the two situations is clear:

The magazine has been published every month (since 1975).

I've been reading only science fiction (till now).
Socrates has influenced many philosophers (till now).
Unlike the simple past, the present perfect does not normally cooccur
with adverbials that indicate a specific point or period of time in the past.
Contrast:
week ago.
her a week ago.

The past perfect (or 'pluperfect') refers to a time earlier than another past
time. It may represent the past of the simple past, a time earlier than that
indicated by the simple past:
They had moved into the house before the baby was born.

(c) The HABITUAL PRFSENT PERFECT is used with dynamic verb senses to
refer to past events that repeatedly occur up to and including the
present.

1 saw her a

53

[2aJ

Whereas [2a} entails that she still owns the house, [2] implies that she does
not own it now.
NOTE

The past perfcct has special uses analogous to those for the simple past (cJ 4.6):
la] In indirect speech constructions it indicates a backshift into the more remote
past: I loM her Ihe parcel had not arTiled.
(b] The ATIITUDINAL PAST PERFECT refers more politely than the simple past to a
present state of mind: Ihad wondered whetheryouarelwerefree now (c/. 4.6).
Icl The HYPOTH:TrCAL PAST PERFECT is used in certain subordinate clauses,
especially if-clauses, to imply that the situation did not occur (cJ 14.1 2): If I had
b('en (here, it would not }w'e IzappenetJ.
Progressive aspect

4.10

The progressive (or 'continuous') focuses on the situation as being in

progress at a particular time. In consequence, it may imply that the
situation has limited duration, and that it is not necessarily complete.
(a) Generally, verbs with stative senses do not occur in the progressive,
since there is no conception of progression in states of affairs:
. , am Iik;IIg

He

your sister.
English.

was knowing

When verbs that are ordinarily stative occur in the progressive, they
adopt dynamic meanings. They may indicate a type of behaviour with
limited duration:

54

The semantics of the verb phrase

._

1 To refer to events anticipated in the future, or to events anticipated in the

past (future in the past): The Irain is leaving at nine (IOmorrow) ; They were
getting married the following spring.
2 After will (or shall) to imply that the situation will take place 'as a matter
of course' in the future: I'll be seeing you next week.

You are being obstinate.

He was being silly.
Verbs expressing emotion or attitude, which are ordinarily stative,
indicate tentativeness when they occur in the progressive:

[b] Verbs denoting states of bodily sensation may be used more or less
interchangeably in the progressive and the nonprogressive when referring to a
temporary state: My foot hurts/is hurting, My back aches/is aching; I feel/am

I'm hoping to take my exam soon.

I was wondering whether you could help me.

(b) The EVENT PROGRESSIVE is used with dynamic verb senses to refer to an
event that has duration and is not completed:
I was reading an economics book last night.
One of the boys was drowning, but I dived in and saved him.

feeling cold.
(e] The habitual progressive is not used to refer to sporadic events (.She's
sometimes walking to the office); the nonprogressive is required for this purpose
(She sometimes walks to the office). In combination with indefinite frequency
adverbs such as always and conlinually, the habitual progressive loses its
temporary meaning; it often conveys disapproval: Bill is always working laleat the
office. The pejorative sense may also bcexpressed with the simple present or past in
combination with these adverbs.
[d] The relationship between two simple forms is normally one of TIME-SEQUENCE:
When we arri,ed. Jan made samefresh coffee (The arrival came before the coffee
making). The relationship between progressive and a simple form is normally one
ofTIME-INCLUSION: When we arrived. Jan was making some coffee (The arrival took
place during the coffee-making).

[I]
{2]

The past progressive in { I ] suggests that the book was perhaps not
finished. In contrast, the simple past In [ l a] indicates that I had
finished reading the book:
I read an economics book last nigh!.

[I a]

The simple past drowned could not replace the past progressive was
drowning in [2], because it would not be compatible with the report
that the boy was saved.
The present progressive is more commonly used 'than the simple
present for events in present time, because present events are usually
regarded as having some duration:
What are you doing? ('m writing a letter.
(c) The HABITUAL PROGRESSIVE is used with dynamic verb senses to refer
to events that repeatedly occur, with the implication that they take
place over a limited period of time:
She's writing some short stories.
He's reaching in a comprehensive school.

[3]
[4]

Contrast the nonprogressive in [3a] and [4a]:

She writes short stories.
He teaches in a comprehensive school.

[3a]
[3b]

The progressive implies temporariness, whereas the nonprogressive

implies permanence ('She's a short-story writer'; 'He's a teacher in a
comprehensive school'). The normally stative verb have in [5] carries
the implication of temporariness, and the initial time adverbial
reinforces that notion:
At the time she was having singing lessons.
NOTE

raJ The progressive also has some special uses:

[5]

55

Verb senses and the progressive

4.11

We have pointed out that verbs with stative senses generally do not occur
in the progressive (cl 4.1 0). Below we list classes of verbs that typically
occur with stative and dynamic senses, and we give a few examples of each
class. Stance verbs are intermediate between stative and dynamic verbs.
(a) STATlVE
I States of 'being' and 'having': be, contain, depend, ha\'e, resemble.
2 Intellectual states: beliel'e, know, realize, think, understand.
3 States of emotion or attitude: disagree, dislike, like, want, wish.
4 States of perception: leel, hear, see, smell, taste.
S States of bodily sensation: ache,leel sick, hurt, itch, tickle.
(b) STANCE: lie, liI'e, sit, stand.
(c) DYNAMIC DURAT1VE (taking place over a period of time)
1 Activities perfonned by inanimate forces: (wind) blow, (engine) run,
rain, (watch) work.
2 Activities performed by animate agents: dance, eat, play, sing, work.
3 Processes (denoting change of state taking place over a period):
change, deteriorate, grow, ripen, widen.
4 Accomplishments (action or activity that has a goal or endpoint):
finish (the book), knit (a sweater), read (the paper), write (an essay).
(d) DYNAMIC PUNCTUAL (with little or no duration)
I Momentary events and acts: bang, jump, knock, nod, tap. In the
progressive, they indicate the repetition of the event, eg: He was
knocking on tire door.

I
56

The semantics of the verb phrase

Som. mn. 01 prlng tutur. time

2 Transitional events and acts: arrive, die, drown, land, leave, stop.
In the progressive, they refer to a period leading up to the change of
state, eg: Ihe Irain is (now) arriving at Plal/orm 4.
NOTE

earlier time, and it can therefore be accompanied by an adverbial of time

position (cf4.8 Note re)):
I had been la/king with him only last Monday.
I must have been lalking with him last Monday.

Stance verbs may be used with either the progressive or the nonprogrcssivc, often
with little to choose between the variants. But sometimes they seem to be used with
the nonprogressive to express a permanent state and with the progressive to
express a temporary state:
James lives in Copenhagen. [permanent residence]
James s
i living in Copenhagen. [temporary residence]

Some means of expressing future time

4.13

The perfect progressive

4.12

When the perfect and progressive aspects are combined in the same verb
phrase (eg: has been working), the features of meaning associated with
each aspect are also combined to refer to a TEMPORARY SITUATION LEADING
UP TO THE PRESENT when the perfect auxiliary is present tense has or have.
The combination conveys the sense of a situation in progress with
limited duration: J'pe been wriling a letter to my nephew; It's been snowing
again. We may contrast these with the non progressive sense in I'I'e written
a leller to my nephew; II's snowed again.
I f the perfect progressive sense is combined with accomplishment
predications or process predications (cl 4. 1 1 ), then the verb phrase
conveys the possibility of incompleteness:

The present perfect progressive may be used with dynamic verb senses
to refer to a TEMPORARY HABIT UP TO THE PRESENT. The events occur
repeatedly up to the present and possibly into the future:
Martin has been scoring plenty of goals (this season).
/''e been working on the night shift for several weeks.
The perfect progressive may combine with the past tense and with
modals:
[I]
[2)

In [I] the temporary event leads up to some point in the past. In [2] the
temporary state is earlier than the time in the future indicated by Friday.
The combination with the past tense or a modal need not presuppose an

In the absence of an inflectional tense, there arc several possibilities for

expressing future time in English. Future time is expressed by means of
modal auxiliaries, modal idioms, and semi-auxiliaries (cf3. 1 8), or by the
simple present and progressive forms.
WiII/shall+ Infinitive

4.14

The most common way ofexpressing futurity is the construction of will or

'11 with the infinitive:
He will be here in half an hour.
Will you need any help?
No doubt I ll see you next week.
'

Shall is also sometimes used with the infinitive (especially in Southern

BrE) to indicate futurity with a 1st person subject:

No doubt I shall see you next week.

Although these constructions are the closest approximations to a
colourless, neutral future, they also cover a range of modal meanings (cf
4.27f)

I've been cleaning the windows. [[he job may not be finished;
contrast: I've cleaned 'he windows.]
The weather has been getting warmer. [It may get warmer stilL]

The fire had been raging for over a week.

By Friday, we will hape been living here for ten years.

57

Be going 10+ inflnllive

4.15

The general meaning of the construction of be going 10 with the infinitive is

'future fulfilment of the present'. We can further distinguish two specific
meanings. The first, 'future fulfilment of a present intention', is chiefly
associated with personal subjects and agentive verbs:
When are you going to get married?
Martha is going to lend us her camera.
I'm going to complain if things don't improve.
The other meaning, 'future result o f a present cause', is found with both
personal and non personal subjects:
It's going to rain.
There's going (0 be trouble.

She's going to have a baby.

You re going 10 get soaked.
"

r
,

58

The ..m.ntk:s of Ihe verb

Some mean. of expre..lng tutura time

Spoken by the pilot of an aircraft to the passengers, the statement implies

that 30,000 feet is the nonnal and expected altitude for the flight. This
implication accounts for the use of the construction to convey greater tact
than the nonprogressive with will/shall:

phra..

Present progrelve

4.16

The general meaning of the present progressive is 'future arising from

present arrangement, plan, or programme':
The orchestra is playing a Mozart symphony after this.
The match is starling at 2.30 (tomorrow).
I'm laking the children to the zoo (next week).

When will you be paying back the money?

Be (aboul) 10
4.19

Be to+ infinitive is used to refer to a future arrangement or plan, a future

requirement, and intention:

Their daughter is to be married soon.

There's to be an official enquiry
You are to be back by 1 0 o'clock, ['You are required to be . . .']
If he's to succeed in his new profession, he must try harder, ['If he
intends to succeed . . . ']

Simple pre.ent

4.17

The future use of the simple present is frequent only in subordinate

clauses:
What will you say if I marry the boss?
At this rate, the guests will be drunk before they leave.

Be about to + infinitive simply expresses near future:

In main clauses, the future use represents a marked future of unusual

certainty, attributing to the future the degree of certainty onc normally
associates with the present and the past. For example, it is used for
statements about the calendar:
Tomorrow s
i Thursday.
When is high tide?

The train is about to leave,

I'm about to read your essay.
The negative be not about 10 (esp informal) may be paraphrased 'have no
intention of' (She's nol aboul to complain).

Schoolfinishes on 2 1 st March.
NOTE

Also to describe immutable events:

What time does the match begin?

Like the present progressive, it is used with certain dynamic, transitional

verbs (eg: arri\'e, come, leal'e; cl 4. 1 1 ) to convey the meaning of plan or
programme:
I go/am goillg on vacation next week.
The plane lakes off/is taking off at 20:30 tonight.
It is also used with stative verbs to convey the same meaning, bUl the
progressive is then not possible:
I'm on vacation next week.

59

Futurity is often indicatcd by modals othcr than will/shall : The weather may
improl'e (IOmorrow) : You must hm'e dinner w;lh Its (soon). It is also indicated by
scmi-aultiliarics such as be sure 10, be bound 10, be likeJy 10, and by full verbs such as
hope, ;mend. pllln.
Future time in the past

4.20

Most of the future constructions just discussed can be used in the past
tense to describe something which is in the future when seen from a
viewpoint in the past.
(a) MODAL VERB CONSTRUCTION with would (rare; literary narrative style)
The time was not far off when he would regret this decision.
(b)

BE GOING

TO + INfINJ1lVE

(often with the sense of 'unfulfilled

intention')
WlIIlshsl/+ progressive

4.18

You were going 10 give me your address. [' . . . but you didn't , . .']
The police were going to charge her, but at last she persuaded them
she was innocent.

The construction of will/shall with the progressive may indicate a future

period of time within which another situation occurs:
When you reach the end of the bridge,
you the way.

)'/J be

waiting there to show

Another use denotes 'future as a matter of course'. (It avoids the

interpretation of volition, intention, promise, ctc, to which wi/J, sha/J, and
be going to are liable.)
We'll bejfying at 30,000 feet.

(c)

PAST PROGRESSIVE

(arrangement predetermined in the past)

I was meeting him in Bordeaux the next day.

(d)

BE

ro+ INFINJ1lVE

ment'

(formal); (i)= 'was destined to'; (ii)= 'arrange

60 The .emanHca of the erb phrase

(i) He was eventually 10 end up in the bankruptcy court.

(ii) The meeting was 10 be held the following week.
(e)

BE ABOUT 7'0+ INFINITIVE

In those days only men could vote in elections.

In this sense, catrfcou/d is less formal than may, which has been favoured
by prescriptive tradition.

('on the point of'; often with Ihe sense of

'unfulfilled intention')

Maylmlght

He was about to hit me.

I.

4.23

(a)

POSSIBILITY

We may never succeed. ['It is possible that we'll never succeed.']

You may be right. ('It is possible that you are right.')
There might be some complaints.

Meanings 01 the modals

4.21

NOTE

4.22

We distinguish two main kinds of meanings for modal auxiliaries:

(a) INTRINSIC modality (which includes 'pennission', 'obligation', and
'volition') involves some intrinsic human control over events;
(b) EXTRINSIC modality (which includes 'possibility', ;necessity', and
'prediction') involves human judgment of what is or is not likely 10
happen.
Each of the modals has both intrinsic and extrinsic uses. In some
instances there is an overlap of the two uses; for example, the will in
sentences such as /'/1 see you tomorrow fhen can be said to combine the
meanings of volition and prediction.
Most of the modals can be paired into present and past forms (catr/
could, may/mig/rr, shall/should, will/would). From the point of view of
meaning, the past forms are often merely more tentative or more polite
variants of the present fonns (cI4.32).

Here may denotes the possibility of a given proposition's being or

becoming true.
(b) PERMISSION
You may borrow my bicycle if you wish. ['1 permit you to
borrow . . . ']
Visitors may reclaim necessary travel expenses up to a limit of 50.
Might J ask whether you are using the typewriter?
As a pennission auxiliary. may is more formal and less common than call,
which (except in fixed phrases such as if I may) can be substituted for it.
NOTE

In formal English, may/miJ:ht is sometimes used in the same possibility sense as

can/c-ouid:
During the autumn, many rare birds may be observed on the rocky northern
coasts of the island.

Various terms arc used for these contrasts in modal meanings. Approximale
synonyms for intrinsic are dl'ontic and root; for extrinsic the common variant is
epislemic.

May here is a more formal substitute for ClllI. and the whole senlence could be
paraphrased I1 ;s possible to absene . . .

Canlcould

Must

(a)

4,24

POSSIBILITY

Even expert drivers can make mistakes. {'It is possible for even . . :]
Her performance was the best that could be hoped for.
Ifit's raining tomorrow, the sports call take place indoors. ('11 will be
possible for the sports to . . :)
(b)

ABILITY

Can you remember where they live? (' Are you able to remember . . .')
Magda could speak three languages by the age of six.
They say Bill can cook better than his wife.

(c)

PERMISSION

Can we borrow these books from the library? ['Are we allowed

to . . .'J

(a)

(LOGICAL) NECESSITY

There IIIl1sl be some mistake.

You mllsl be feeling lired.
The Smiths mUSI have a lot of money.
The 'Iogical necessity' meaning of must is parallel to the possibility
meaning of may since it implies that the speakcr judges the proposition
expressed by the clause to be necessarily true, or at least to have a high
likelihood of being true. Must in this sense mcans that the speaker has
drawn a conclusion from things already known or observed. Must
[ = logical necessity] cannot normally be used in interrogative or negative
clauses. Can is generally used in place of mllst in questions, so that
corresponding to She must be the one YOII mean is the question Can she be
the one you mean?The negative of can [ = possibility] fills the negative gap,
so Ihat You must bejoking ('It is necessarily the case that you are joking'] is

62

The .emanta of the verb phra.e

synonymous with You can't be serious ['It is impossible that you are
serious']. Similarly:
She must be asleep

To be healthy, a plant must receive a good supply of both sunshine

and moisture. ['It is necessary for a plant to . . . ']
OBLlGAnON or COMPULSION

4.26

{ should } be . ble rom here.

oug to
.
{ ShOuld } reach matunty
after five years.
These p1ants

With the perfect aspect, should and ought to typically have the implication
that the recommendation has not been carried out:

.
{ should } have met her at the station.

to be

Since must has no past tense form and no nonfinite forms, have to is used
in many contexts where must is impossible, eg following a modal verb:
We'll have to be patient.

ought to

The likely implication is ' . . , but they didn't'. In both senses (a) and (b),
should is more frequent than ought to.

NOTE

Oughl LO and synonymous uses of should express the same basic modalities of
'necessity' and 'obligation' as do mUSI and have (gOI) 10. They contrast with must
and have (got) lO in not expressing the speaker'sconfidence in the occurrence of the
event or state described. Hence [IJ is nonsensical. but (2) is not:

{ mU.ft } be home by now, but she isn'\.

has
{ ShOUId } be home by now, but she isn't.
Sarah

As the above glosses show, however, it is possible, and indeed, more

common even in BrE, to replace auxiliary need by need to or have to
accompanied by do-support.
Have (got) to can also be substituted for must with little or no difference
of meaning. Compare the following with the parallel sentences in 4.24:
(a) (lOGICAL) NECESSITY

IS

ougI11 to

Need (constructed as an auxiliary c/ 3.17) is used (esp in BrE) as the

negative and question form of must in the sense 'necessary for':

There has (got) to be some mistake. <esp AmE)

To be healthy, a plant has (got) to receive a good supply of both
sunshine and moisture.
(b) OBLIGATION or COMPULSION

VISI

{ should } do as he says.
ough to
{ should } be washed at least once a week.
The floor
You

They

Need they make all that noise? [ = ' Do they need/have to make all that
noise?'] <esp Br E)
You needn 't worry about the test. [ = 'You don " need/have to worry
about that test'.] <esp BrE)

I11

The speaker does not know if his statement is true, but tentatively
concludes that it is true, on the basis of whatever he knows.
(b) OBLIGATION

10

You have (go t ) to be back by ten o'clock.

We have all got to share our skills and knowledge.
Productivity will have (0 be improved, if the nation
prosperous.

TENTATIVE INFERENCE

ougIIf to

In these examples, there is the implication, to a greater or lesser extent,

that the speaker is advocating a certain form of behaviour. Thus must,
unlike have (g01) to, typically suggests that the speaker is exercising his
authority.

4.25

(a)

.
The mountams

You must be back by ten o'clock. ['You are obliged to be back . . . '; "
require you to be back . . .']
We must all share our skills and knowledge.
Productivity must be improved, if the nation is to be prosperous.

Need, have (gol)

63

Oughl 10, should

She can't be awake.

There is another necessity meaning of must in examples like:

(b)

Meanings or the modal.

*Sarah

10

ought LO

[I[
[2[

Will I would (' III 'd)

4.27

(a) PREDICTION
I The common FUTURE predictive sense of will in You will (or You'll)/eel
better a/ter this medicine has been discussed in 4.14 and 4, 18, The
corresponding 'prediction in the past' sense of would is illustrated by:
[

was told ' would feel better after this medicine.

2 The PRESENT predictive sense of will, which is comparatively rare, is

similar in meaning to must in the 'logical necessity' sense:
She will have had her dinner by now.
That'JJ be the postman. [on hearing the doorbell ring]

r .
64

The menUcs of the verb phra

Meanings of the modals

with I or we, but this prescription is oldfashioned and is nowadays widely

ignored.
(b) VOLITION (with 1st person subjects)
In the intentional sense, shall is again a formal (and traditionally
prescribed) alternative to will after l or

3 The HABITUAL predictive meaning often OCCurs in conditional sentences:

If litmus paper is dipped in acid, it will turn red.

we:

or in timeless statements of 'predictability':

Oil

will Hoat on water.

We

In addition, it occurs in descriptions of personal habits or characteristic

behaviour:

Shall I/we deliver the goods to your home address? [ = Do you

want me/us to . . .?]

What shalt we do this evening? Shall we go to the theatre?

I'll write as soon as J can.

The past tense forms 01 the modals

WILLINGNESS

'Past time' in indirect speech

4.29

This meaning is common in requests and offers. On the greater politeness

of would, cI4.32.
3 INSISTENCE

The past tense modals could, might, would, and should are used quite
regularly as past tense equivalents of can, may, will, and shall in indirect
speech constructions (cl 14.21):
You can/may do as you wish. [= permission]
- She said we could/might do as we wished.
It may rain later. [= possibility]
- We were afraid that it might rain later.
The plan wilf succeed. [ = prediction]
- I felt sure that the plan would succeed.

If you 'will go out without your overcoat, what can you expect?
She 'would keep interrupting me.
This somewhat rare use implies wilfulness on the part of the subject
referent. The auxiliary is always stressed, and cannot be contracted to 'l/
or 'd. In this case, the past form would expresses past time, rather than
tentativeness or politeness.

Must, together with need (as auxiliary), oughl 10, and had beller, has no

present/past distinction. These verbs are therefore unchanged in indirect

speech constructions, even where they refer to past time.

Shall

4.28

[2)

It is only in such questions that shall cannot regularly be replaced by will.

Wc WOII 'I stay longer than two hours.

The manager said he would phone me after lunch.

I'll do it, if you like.

(I]

and for making suggestions about shared activities:

(b) VOLITION
I INTENTION (often in combination with a sense of prediction)

WiII/ Would you help me to address these letters?

.
Will } uphold. the Wishes
of the people.
{shall

In questions containing Shall {/we, shall consults the wishes of the

addressee, and thus moves from a volitional towards an obligational
meaning. It is suitable for making offers:

He'll talk for hours, if you let him. [said of a chatterbox)

She'll sit on the floor quietly all day. She'll just play with her toys,
and you won', hear a murmur from her. [ora good baby]
Every morning he would go for a long walk. [ie 'it was his custom to
go . . .')

65

'Past time' in other constructions

Shall is in presentday English (especially in AmE) a rather rare auxiliary

and only two uses, both with a 1st person subject. are generally current:
(a) PREDICTION (with I st person subjects)
Shall is a substitute for the future use of will in formal style;

{;;/} win quite easily.

Will } we know the results of the election?
.
When {
According to the opinion polls, I

shall

Especially in BrE. prescriptive tradition forbids will as a future auxiliary

4.30

Outside indirect speech contexts, the behaviour of the past tense modal
forms is less predictable. Could and wouldact as the 'past time' equivalents
of can and will; but on the whole, might and should do not act as the 'past
time' equivalents of may and shall.
(a) CAN- COULD
There were no rules: we could do just what we wanted.
[ = permission]
In those days, a transatlantic voyage could be dangerous.
[ = possibility]
Few of the tourists could speak English. [ = ability]

r
66 The Mmantk:. of ehe verb phr...

M..nings 01 the modala

(b) WILL- WOULD

Could you (please) open the door?

You could answer these letters ror me.

Later, he would learn his error. ( = prediction]

The old lady would sit in front of the television continuously.
[= habitual prediction]
We tried to borrow a boal, but no one would lend us one.
[ = willingness)
He 'would leave the house in a muddle. ( = insistence]
NOTE

Mood markers':
4.33

I _ ili
It would be impossible to estimate how many crimes went
undetected last year.
Don't bother to read all these papers. It \o,,'ould take too long.

[I]

4.32

(a)

TENTATIVE PERMISSION

would

(in polite requests):

TENTATIVE VOLITION

(in polite requests):

Would you lend me a dollar? [more polite than will)

I'd be graterul ir someone would hold the door open.

(c)

TENTATIVE POSSIBILITY

I in expressing a tentative opinion:

There could be something wrong with the light switch.

or course, I might be wrong.
2 in polite directives and requests:

[4]
[5]

Putative should is more common in BrE than in AmE.

Could I see your driving licence?

I wonder ir I might borrow some coffee?

(b)

She insisted that we should stay.

It's unrair that so many people should lose their jobs.
Let me know ir you should hear some more news.
Why should anyone object to her enjoying herself?
I can't think why he should have been so angry.

[3J

The usual implication or this is that United did 1I0t win the game.
Tentativeness or politeness: could, miglr"

[I}
[2]

In such sentences, there is often an implicit if . . . ; ror example, [5] could be

expanded: It would take too IOllg if)'ou did (try to read them all).
(b) SHOULD A S A MARKER OF ' PUTATIVE' MEANING
I n this use sllOuld+ infinitive is onen equivalent to the mandative
subjunctive (cl 3.24). In using should, the speaker entertains, as it were,
some 'putative' world, recognizing that it may well exist or come into
existence (cI4.1 4):

(2]

Sentence (2]. unlike (I}. expresses a hypothetical condition; ie it conveys

the speaker's expectation that United will not win the game, and thererore
will not become league champions. For past hypothetical meaning (which
normally has a contrary-to-ract interpretation), we have to a.dd the perrect
aspect:
Ir United could have won that game, they might have become
league champions.

(a) WOULD/SHOULD AS A MARKER OF HYPOTHETICAL MEANING

Would (and sometime,S, with a 1st person subject, should) may express
hypothetical meaning in main clauses (cl 14. 1 2):

Although the conditional sentence, as in (I] and [2], is the most typical
context in which hypothetical would/sJlOuld occurs, there are many other
contexts in which hypothetical would/should is appropriately used:

The past tense modals can be used in the hypothetical sense of the past
tense (cI4.6) in both main and subordinate clauses. Compare:
If United call win this game, they may become league
champions.
If United could win this game, they might become league
champions.

would and slrould

I r you pressed that button, the engine would stop.

I r there were an accident, we would/should have to report it.

Outside indirect speech K'ouldis not used in thesenseofintcntion; hencca sentence

such as He would meel me the next day is almost ine vitably interpreted as frcc
indirect speech (cl 14.22).

Hypothetical meaning
4.31

67

The modals with the perfect and progressive aspects

4.34

The perfect and progressive aspects are normally excluded when the
modals express 'ability" or 'pennission', and also when shall or will
expresses 'volition'. These aspects are freely used, however, with extrinsic
modal meanings other than ability; eg:
'possibility'

He may/might have missed the train.

She can 't/couldn 't he swimming all day.
'necessity'
He must Iral'e lert his umbrella on the bus.
You must be dreaming.
'prediction' etc The guests will/would have arrived by that time.
Hussein will/would stili be read ing his paper.

68

Me.ning in the non'lnlt. verb phr...

The .emantlcs of the verb phr...

(On the meaning of the perfect aspect after a modal, and i n particular the
possibility of paraphrasing it by means of the simple past tense, c/ 14.8
Note re)).
'Obligation' can only be expressed with the perfect or progressive when
combined with should or ought to:
'obligation'

I ought to be working now. ['. . . but I'm not']

You should have finishedit. [' . . . but you haven 't']
She shouldn 't have left him. (' . . . but she did']

The combination of both perfect and progressive constructions with the

modals is also possible. subject to the conditions already mentioned:
You must hm'e been dreaming.
She couldn t have been swimming all day.
The guests would hal'e been arriving by now.

Nonfinite verb phrases do not accept modal auxiliaries, but the meanings
of the modals can be expressed through the use of semi-auxiliaries.
such as "aI'e 10, be {un)able to, be allowed ID, be abolll lo:
I am sorry to have /0 repeal this warning.
Being linable /0 free himself, he lay beneath the debris until rescued.
The suspects admitted being about /0 commit a crime.
Many inmates hate not being allowed 10 leave the premises.
We have seen that the distinction between present and past tense does not
apply to nonfinite verb phrases (c/ 3. 19). Allhough there are nonfinite
perfect constructions, the meaning conveyed by the perfect in such
constructions is simply time preceding some other time.
The full range of perfect and progressive aspect forms is only possible
within an infinitive phrase:

Sir Topazappcars

to be winning his race. [simple progressive]

to have won his race. [simple perfect]
to have been winning his race. [perfect
progressive]

I n an -ing participle phrase in adverbial clauses. the perfectjnonperfect

contrast is sometimes available:
Eati g a hearty breakfast,
Havmg eaten a hearty breakfast.

} we prepared for our long

journey.

Being an enemy of the Duke'S,

he left the COurt immediately. (3)
Realizing he was in danger,
Having no news of his wife,
The participles in (3] are stative verbs, normally incompatible with the
progressive.

Nevertheless, there are constructions in which the -ing participle

construction has aspect contrast with the infinitive, and is progressive in
meaning (cf 16.28J):

{ saw } them { shoOI at him.

heard

shooting at him.

Whereas the infinitive shoot suggests a single shot, the -ing participle
suggests a repetitive action lasting over a period of time, in accordance
with the interpretation of the progressive aspect in finite verb phrases
referring to momentary events. In:

Meaning In Ihe nonllnile verb phrase

4.35

distinction formally. Moreover, the -ing participle itself is not, in spite of

its appearance. necessarily associated with the progressive:

'

69

[I]
[2J

From (I], we understand that the eating and the preparation took place
together, while from [2], we understand that the breakfast preceded the
preparation.
But the progressivc/nonprogressive conlrast is not normally applicable
here. since -ing participle phrases are incapable of expressing this

I watehed them

the tower.
{ climb
. .

cllmbmg the tower.

[4J
[5J

the infinitive climb suggests that they reached the top of the tower, whereas
the participle climbing leaves open the possibility that the action was not
completed.
The -ed participle phrase has no formal contrasts of aspect, and is
therefore the most restricted type ofphrase in terms ofsemantic contrasts.
Here again. however. there is a potential contrast with the passive -iflg
participle phrase:
I saw Ihe tower

by a student.
{climbed
.
.

bemg clImbed by a student.

[6J
[7J

The participle climbed in [6] is the passive counterpart of the infinitive

climb in (4); it describes the climb as a completed event, whereas being
climbed in [7] describes it as in progress, and as possibly incomplete.
Compare also the perfect passive -illg participle phrase in Havillg been
reprimanded. I . . .
Bibliographical note

General treatments of the meaning and use of verb constructions: Leech ( 1 987):
Palmer ( 1988).
On tense and aspect in general. sce Lyons ( 1 977. vo!. 2); Schopf ( 1 987. 1989).
On the perfective aspect. see McCoard ( 1978).
On stalive. agenlive. and other classes of verb meaning. sce Bache ( 1 982); Cruse
( 1973); Jacobson ( 1980); Vcndler ( 1 957).
On expression of future time. sce Wekkcr ( 1 976).
On modal meanings in general sec Coates ( 1 983); Hcrmcrcn ( 1 978); johannes
son ( 1976); Leech and Coales ( 1 980); Lyons ( 1 977. val. 2); Palmer ( 1 979).
.

P.I1ItI.,. con.mtdlons

5
S. t

classes of nouns, the fourth column showing that some common nouns
can be used as both count and noncount. Thus nouns like cake or brick can
refer either to the substance (noncount) or to units made of the substance
(count). The lines (a)--(e) represent different determiner constraints: Can
the singular noun occur (a) without a determiner? (b) with the definite
article? (c) with the indefinite article? (d) with the partitive some, /s;,m/?
Can the plural noun occur (e) without a determiner?

Nouns and determiners

Nouns fall into different classes as shown in Fig 5. 1 .

<

<

Concrete

Count

eg bun, pig, . . .

Abstract

difficulty, remark, . . .

Concrete

buller, gold, . . .

Abstract

music, laziness, . .

<

Common

71

NOTE

(a] On apparent exceptions like 'The Chicago ormy youth', see 5.26/
[b] The absence of article in I like Freda and I like music makes the two nouns only
superficially similar; in the former there is no article where in the latter there is zero
article which can contrast with the. Compare

., like Freda, but the Freda this evening is boring.

I like music. but the music this evening is boring.

Noncount

But oI 5.22!

Nouns

Proper
Partitive constructions

Fig 5.1

The distinction between concrete (accessible to the senses, observable,

measurable, etc) and abstract (typically nonobservable and nonmeasur
able) is important semantically. Of more relevance to grammar, however,
is the distinction between proper and common nouns. Since the former
have unique reference (cf5.25ff), determiner and number contrast cannot
occur: the Indonesia, some Chicagos. Contrast with common nouns the
but/er, some difficulties. But among nouns, we have the further distinction
between count (also called 'countable') and noncounr (also called 'mass')
nouns. Like the distinction between proper and common, we have here a
difference that has both semantic and grammatical significance, since
count and noncount nouns permit a different range of determiners. In
Table 5.1, we display the various determiner constraints as they affect the

5.2

Both count and noncount nouns can enter constructions denoting part of
a whole. Such partitive expressions may relate to (a) quantity or (b)
quality, and in either case the partition may be singular or plural. It thus
affords a means of imposing number on noncount nouns, since the
partition is generally expressed by a count noun of partitive meaning
(such as piece or sort, which can be singular or plural), followed by an
of-phrase.
(a) QUANTITY PARTITION
(i) Of noncount nouns; eg:
a piece of cake
an item of clothing

two pieces of cake

several items of clothing

These partitives (as also the informal bit ) can be used very generally.
but with some nouns specific partitives occur; eg:
Table

5.1
PROPER

COMMON
COUNT

NONCOU"'''

COUi'

brick

or NONCOU"'''

(.)

Fred.

-book

music

(b)

-the Freda

the music

(c)

-a Frooa

the book
a book

-a music

a brick

(d)

some Freda

-some book

some music

some brick

(c)

Fredas

books

-musics

bricks

the brick

a blade of grass
some specks of dust
two slices of meat/bread/cake
(ii) Of plural count nouns; here we tend to have partitives relating to
specific sets of nouns; eg:

72

Noun. end determIner.

Determiner.

aj/ock o/sheep/pigeons
two flocks 0/ sheep/pigeons

a piece of a leather belt

a page 0/ a book
(b)

QUALITY PARTITION

eg:

count

the,

5.4

two pieces of a broken cup

two acts of a play

is expressed most commonly with kind and sort;

a new kind 0/
computer
one SOrl ofsilk tie

noncount

Central determiner.

a series of concerts/lectures
two series of concerts/lectures

(iii) Of singular count nouns; eg:

In actual usage, nouns appear in 1I0UII phrases (Chapter 17). and the kind
of reference such a noun phrase has depends on the accompanying
DETERMINER. We distinguish three classes of determiners. set up on the
basis of their position in the noun phrase in relation to each other:
Central determiners (eg: the, a, this)
Predcterminers (eg: hal/, oil, double; as in all the people)
Postdetermincrs (eg: se'en, many,few; as in the ma"y passengers)

indefinite

COUNT

NONCOUNT

the book
a book
the books
books

the music
music

The use of the articles is examined in 5. l lff

NOTE

lal The indefinite article a/all can be regarded as an unstressed numeral Dill'; clolll'
or 111'0 pOllllds - a pound or 1"'0.
[b) With nouns beginning with h, the prevocalic forms are used if this is not
pronounced:
10il hOIlOllr

an hour

Thus for those who do not pronounce h before unstressed syllables a difference is
observed between such pairs as 'history and hi'storiclI/:
a history hook

(Ill

historica/ llove/

[cl When the articles are stressed for any reason (as for example in slow speech and
especially in AmE). they are pronounced 10i]. [ei]. lren].

5.5

5.3

{ definite
indefinite
{ definite

the bird [;)} - the owl [3i}

a biul [;,)- all owl [;)n}

some information -some pieces o/information

his anger- his hursts of anger

Determiners

The definite and indefinite articles are the commonest central determiners
and. as we saw in 5.1, their distribution is dependent upon the class of the
accompanying noun. Relating definiteness to number, we have the
following system for count and noncount nouns:

Beside the sole definite article the, we thus have two indefinite articles {I
and zero, the former occurring with singular count nouns, its zero
analogue with noncount and plural count nouns. Both tlte and a have
a different form when the following word begins with a vowel. though the
does not display this difference in writing:

some delicious kinds of

bread
fashionable .wrts 0/
wallpaper

lal Both quantity and quality partition may bee:\pressed by treating the noun itself
as though it expressed a quanlity or quality. Thus a noneount noun can be given
count characteristics and 1"'0 coJJees may in appropriate contexts mean either 'two
CI/p.f o/eoffcc' or 'two Iypes o/coffee.
.
Ib) Quantity partitives may be expressions of precise measure; eg a yard o/cloth.
two kilos o/potatoes. There can also be fractional partition and this may cooccur
with normal quantity partition. as in 'He ate a quarter o/that (joim of) beef',
le] Since there is no necessary connection between countability and referential
meaning. many English nouns can simulate the plural only by partitive
constructions where their translation equivalents in some other languages are
count nouns with singular and plural forms. Eg:

and zero

PLURAL

Other quality partitives include type. I'ariety. and (especially with

such materials as coffee or tobacco) blend.
NOTE

a,

SINGULAR

several new kinds of

computer(s)
two sorts o/silk tie(s)

a delicious kind 0/
bread
a fashionable SOrl 0/
wallpaper

73

Like the definite article, there are several other determiners that can
cooccur equally with singular count, plural count, and nonCoun! nouns.
(a) The DEMONSTRATIVF..5 this and that (with noncount and singular count
nouns), these and those (with plural count nouns):
I prefer this picture/music to that (picture/music).

These desks are imported but those tables are made locally.

(b) The

POSSESSIVES my,

our, your, his, her, its, their:

I admire her house/her books/her taste.

(c) The whdeterminers which, whose, whichel'er, wllate\'er, whosel'er.
whether as relatives, indefinite relatives, or interrogatives:

74

Nouns and determiners

Please come at noon, by which time I shall be back in my office.

The woman whose book you reviewed is on TV tonight.
They will disapprove of whatever music is played.
Which house do you prefer?
What time is it?

Determiners

Predeterminers

5.7

Predeterminers fonn a class in generally being mutually exclusive,

preceding those central determiners with which they can cooccur, and in
having to do with quantification. It is useful to distinguish two subsets:
(a) all, hoth, half
(b) the multipliers

NOTE

The items such and what are exceptional in rererring to quality rather than
quantity (,what a day we had: I can't remember such a time') and this accounts for
combinations like all such.

(d) The NEGATIVE DETERMINER no:

He has no car/no children/no concentration.
All these detenniners (sometimes with a modification of form as in theirs,
none) have a pronominal role as well, and they will be treated in more
detail below (6. 1 6ff).

Like the indefinite article, there are determiners that cooccur only with
singular count nouns.
(a) The UNIVERSAL DETERMINERS every and each.

All, both, half

5,8

These have in common the positive characteristic of being able to occur

before the articles, the demonstratives, and the possessives:

half

(b) The NQNASSERTIVE DUAL DETERMINER either:

(c) The NEGATIVE DUAL DETERMINER neither:

Parking is permitted on neither side of the street.

ALL

like the zero article, there are determiners that cooccur only with
noncount nouns and plural count nouns:
(a) The GENERAL ASSERTIVE DETERMINER some [5:}m]:

occurs with plural count nouns and with noncount nouns, as in

all the books
all books

I would like some bread/some rolls, please.

BOTH

(b) The GENERAL NONASSERTIVE DETERMINER ally:

occurs with singular and plural count nouns and with noncount
nouns, as In
half the book(s)
half a book

We have enough equipment/enough tools for the job.

You will win some day; some days she feels better; I found some stranger
waiting for me; they are playing some peculiar music that no one has heard
before.

both books

HALF

(c) The QUANTITATIVE DETERMINER ellough:

[a] When stressed in some circumstances, any can occur with singular count nouns,
as in 'She will consider "any offer - however small'.
[b) A stressed form of some (sAm] is used with the meaning of strong indefiniteness
('onc unidentified, a certain') and this has the same distribution potential as items
in 5.4:

all the music

all music

occurs with plural count nouns, as in

both the books

We haven't allY bread/allY rolls left.

NOTE

our

They also have the negative characteristic of not occurring before

determiners that themselves entail quantification: every, each, (n)either,
some, any, no, enough. Beyond these generalizations, their occurrence
needs to be described on an individual basis:

There is no parking permitted on either side of the street.

These determiners will be discussed in more detail when we come to their

pronominal functions (6.25f).

th } :se } students

We need to interview every/each student separately.

5.6

75

NOTE

half the music

(but *half music)

(a] As well as being predetcrmincrs, all, both and halfcan, like demonslrativcs, be
used pronominally:
All
Both
Half

.
the students sat for their exam

and
but

{ all It } passed.
bot
half

failed.

They can also be rollowed by an of-phrase:

AliIBoth/Half of the students . . .

Moreover, aI/and both may appear at the adverbial M position (after the operator:
8.1 1), as in:

76

Noun nd del.mlner.

The .rUe'.'

Postdeterminers fall into two classes:

(a) ordinals, such as fi sl, fo rth, last, other;
(b) quantifiers, such as sel'en, ninety. marry, few, plenty of. a lo( of
Where they can cooccur, items from (a) usually precede items from (b); for
example:

an

wn

Among the (b) items, there are two important distinctions involving few
and little. First ,few occurs only with plural count nouns, little only with
noncount nouns. Second, when preceded by a, each has a positive
meaning; without a, each has a negative meaning. Thus:

She read haJf the book.

{ a/quarter } of the book.

I "ee quarters
But. especially with time, distance. heighl. we sometimes find fractions used as
She read

I play afew games (ie 'several').

predeterminers:

I play few games (ie 'hardly any').

She ate a /ittle bread (ie 'some').
She ate /il1le bread (ie 'hardly any').

,",othirds the time.

The MULTIPLIERS have two uses as predeterminers. When the following

determiner is the definite article, demonstrative or possessive, the
multiplier applies to the noun so determined:

We should note also a contrast involving assertive and nonassertive usage

(2. 1 1). Some items are predominantly asser(il'e (such as plenly of, afew, a
/illle. a good ma"y), while others are predominantly n01lOssertil'e (such as
much, many ):

tWice/double the length ('a length twice as great')

(hree limes her salary ('a salary three times as large')

We need plelllY of time.

- We don't need much time.
She has written a good many poems.
- She hasn't written many poems.

When the following determiner is the indefinite article or each or el'ery. the
multiplier applies to a measure (such as frequency) set against the unit
specified by the following noun:
once a day
twice each game
four limes every year
NOTE

We can compare expressions of costing:

The articles In specilic reference

Oil then cost only

Her salary is

fifteen dollars a barrel.

ten thousand yen a/pcr month.

Postdetermlners

5.10

The dellnlte article

5.11

The article (he marks a noun phrase as definite: that is, as referring to
something which can be identified uniquely in the contextual or general
knowledge shared by speaker and hearer. Such shared knowledge is partly
a knowledge of the world and partly a knowledge of English grammar, as
we shall see in 5. 1 2-14.

5.12

Where the use of tire depends on shared knowledge of the world, we may
speak of SITUATIONAL REFERENCE, and this is of two kinds. We first
distinguish (Ire used in connection with the IMMEDIATE situation:

Postdeterminers take their place immediately after determiners just as

predeterminers take their place immediately before determiners.
Compare:
Predeterminer: Both the young women were successful.
Postdeterminer: The two young women were successful.
With zero determiner, of course, the distinction is neutralized:

thefirs( (wO poems

my las( few possessions
her o(lrer ma"y accomplishments

nonnally be preceded by a numeral or the indefinite article. Compare:

5.9

77

Both young women were successful.

Two young women were successful.

{ all } sat for the exam.

both
{ all } slttmg
. . ,
,or the exam.
The students were
both
[b] Since haJf may modify a following noun as an ad hoc or institutionalized
compound, we can have pairs such as haJf haur and a haJfhour (where there is
little difference of meaning) or haJfa bottle of i e(half of the contents) and a haJf
bottle ofwine (a small bottle holding half the contents of an ordinary bottle).
(c] Fractions other than haJf are usually followed by an of-phrase and must
The students

He was given six months for the work but he finished in

In apecltle r.f.renc.

78

The article. In specific reference

Noun. and determIner.

Do you see the bird silting on the lower branch?

Oh dear! The stain hasn't come out of the carpet.

He has a fracture of the collarbone.

The child has a pain in the chest.

In such cases, the identity of the particular bird, branch, stain, and carpet
is obvious because they are physically present and visible. But the
reference might be obvious because the situational reference was in the
minds of speaker and listener:
When the policeman had gone, I remembered that I hadn't told him
about the damaged window-pane.

In medical usage, the can replace a possessive without the body part or
function being in a prepositional phrase; thus (doctor to patient):
How is the chest now? Has the breathing been affected?
5.14

Secondly, we have the LARGER situation, where identification of the

reference depends on assumptions about general knowledge more than on
the specific experience of the particular speaker and listener:

So also with reference to the Pope, tire President, the government, the
Equator, the SIars; and as we see in these examples, the shared assumption
of uniqueness in reference is often matched by use of an initial capital in
writing. Cf 5.25ff

Grammatical determination is of two kinds:

(a) Anaphoric reference, where the indicates identity of reference with
that established earlier in the discourse:

Fred bought a radio and a video-recorder, but he returned tire radio.

The same phrase may involve the with immediate or larger situational reference:

Here the anaphora is 'direct'; but anaphoric reference may be

'indirect', requiring some support from general knowledge:

Would the children like 10 go out and play?

When we design schools. do we ask ourselves what the children would like?

When she tried to open her front door, she couldn't get 'he key into
the lock.

As wilh the latter example. larger situational reference often overlaps wilh generic
us", cf 5.22ff

5.13

Here the two definite articles are correctly interpreted as grammati

cally anaphoric only because we know that a front door has a lock,
and opening one involves using a key.
(b) Cataphoric reference, where the indicates that the identity of the
reference will be established by what follows:

Special cases of the larger situation occur with the use of the for SPORADIC
reference and for reference to the BODY. In sporadic reference, we promote
to institutional status a phenomenon of common experience. Thus in
contrast to the particular newspaper that a particular individual buys, or
the particular theatre that stands in a particular street, we may use the
paper or the theatre more broadly:

I am trying to find the book that I wanted to show you.

Here, tile is only justified by the addressee knowing that the speaker
had planned to show him or her a book. Similarly, in

You'll probably see it in tire paper tomorrow.

I like to go to the theatre about once a month.

How did you get the (

Cfalso:

'that') mud on your coat?

there is the presumption that the addressee knows there is mud on the
coal. Contrast:

She's not on the telephone yet, though she may have one installed
soon.
I won't come by car; I'll take the train.
Everyone would sleep better with the windows open.

Do you know that you have

With reference to parts of the body, the is often used in prepositional

phrases instead of a possessive such as my or her:
I grabbed him by the arm.
She banged herself on the forehead.

The use of the may be determined by logical and grammatical factors. The
uniqueness of a referent may be recognized not by general knowledge of
the world but be logically imposed by meaning. Nouns premodified by
superlatives, ordinals and similar restrictive items such as sole will thus be
made logically unique:
When is tire next night?
She was the sole survivor.
They judged him to be the most original painter.

I do most of my travelling by overnight train, and of course in the

dark one has no idea of what the countryside looks like.

NOTE

79

{ ,he mud } on your coat?

mud

The Indefinite article

5.15

In contrast to the, an indefinite article is used when a reference cannot be

regarded as uniquely identifiable from the shared knowledge of speaker
and addressee:

80

Noun. and determiner.

The arttcle. In .peclllc reference

I am just about to move into an apartment quite near where you live.

NOTE

Contrast the uniquely identifiable apartment which justifies the cata

phoric the in:
I am just about to move into the apartment directly above yours.
The indefinite article is commonly associated with 'first memion' of an
item with which anaphoric the would be used in subsequent mention:

Zero article and some/any

5.17

boysenberry looks like?

.
.
{aboysenbernes
look like?
tin apple.
She bought her son {
some appIcs.

Jack has broken a fingerja rib.

I like milk with my coffee.

I would like some milk with my coffee, please.
He hasn't bought any books for years, whereas she spends half her
salary on books.
She has men as well as women on her staff.

bill

Jack has bumped his head.

[b] While idcntical noun phrases with fhe are takcn 10 be corcferential, this is not
the case when the article is indefinitc:

I f we inserted some before both men and women in this last sentence, there
would be Iiule difference in meaning. But if we inserted some before one
and not before the other, it would give the impression that this indicated
the minority:

11 ]
[2]

In I I]. only one camera is involved: in (2), the presumption is that reference is made
to two different cameras.
[c) Note also the use of zero with complements of some verbs:

She has men as well as some women on her staff.

But the greater generality of zero as compared with some must not lead us
to confound this general use of zero with the generic lIse which we shall
consider in 5.22. Compare:

She turned linguist. -She became a linguist.

They made him chairman.

Quantitative: SOll/e coffee will calm this nervousness of yours.

General:
Coffee can be bought almost anywhere.
Generic:
Coffee is a common stimulant.

The indefinite article and the numeral one

5.16

We often use the indefinite article in ways that reflect its ongm as an
unstressed variant of the numeral. In such cases, one could replace a/(w
with only a slight implication of greater emphasis:
Our neighbours have two daughters and
This cost

{ aone } son.

a
O } hundred/tho usand/million
} pound/ { one
{ one
pounds.

Compare also variant phrases in which one is used when a conjunction

follows:

a mile or two.
We waIked 'lor
olle or two miles.
.

.
a fool and a half deep.
The water IS onIy
one and a half feet deep.

With noncount and plural count nouns. the role of indefinite article is
fulfilled by either zero or (where quantification is to be expressed) some or
its nonasscrtive (2.1 1 ) analogue ally.
Do you know what

la] Body parIS which are multiple can be individually referred to with the indefinitc
article:

Mary bought the camera from her sister and she has now sold the
camera to me.
Mary bought a camera last week and sold tI camera this week.

In phrases of measure like 'half all hour', 'ten dollars a day', the numerical
function cannot be fulfilled by one without expansion and recasting: 'ten dollars
for one day'.
The zero artIcle

Her house was burgled and she lost a camera, a radio, and a purse
though fortunately the purse contained very little money and the
camera was insured.
NOTE

81

Zero article with definite meaning

5.18

Despite its widespread correspondence to the indefinite article. the zero

article can, conversely, be used in ways that closely resemble the definite
article. This is notably so where a phrase specifies a unique role or task. In
the following examples. the parenthesized the could be present or absent
with very little difference of meaning:
Maureen is (lhe) captain of netball this year.
As (f"e) c/wirlllall. I must rule you out of order.
The speaker will be Mr Watanabe, (t"e) author 0/ a reee'" book 011
il11emmiollal afairs and of course (the) presenter oj.5ew!ral TV talk
f
shows.
Although she declined the position of direClor, she accepted the role
of Imo.tfic:ial adviser.

82

"

NOTE

TtMt .rtlcl In .pec:IUc ref.r.nce

Nouns .nd determln.rs

'II,
I

Cf also: 'The message came by hand/by special delivery'.

(c) Time expressions: zero is common, especially after the prepositionsat,
by, after, before:

la] We should note also the contrast between restrictive and nonrestrictive
apposition (1 7.27):
Prime Minister Gandhi

....

the Prime Minister, Mr Rajiv Gandhi

at dawn/daybreak/sunset/night
by morningJevening ('when morning/evening came')
by day/night ('during')
after dark/nightfall
before dawn/dusk

b} ln institutional usage, zero replaces the in a way that implies proper-name

status ror an item:
Council will consider this in due course- The Council will .

..

\('1 Articles arc usually omitted in headlines (,Crew deserts ship in harbour') and on
official rorms rPlease state reason ror application and give names or two
supporters').
5.19

Cf also '(They worked) day and night', 'It's almost dawn', 'I'll be
travelling all night/week/month'.
In less stereotyped expressions, the is used, as in 'The sunrise was
beautiful', 'I'll rest during the evening', 'Can you stay for the night?'
With in. seasons may also have zero, unless a particular one is
meant:

Analogous to the use of the with sporadic reference (5.13), we have zero
with implication of definite rather than indefinite meaning. This is
especially so with idiomatically institutionalized expressions relating to
common experience.
(a) Quasi-Iocatil'es (where a particular activity or role in connection with
the location is implied):
be in
go to

be at. go
go to

town
bed
church
prison

This was the home of a financier.

college

The sea looks calm.

She drove to the college.

rea

Frequently there is a distinction in meaning between zero and the;

thus on .Hage will usually refer to a play or participant in current
theatrical production. while on the stage refers to literal physical
location or is an idiom denoting the acting profession: 'She was a
teacher but now she's on the stage.' Again, there are distinctions in
meaning between AmE and BrE; thus in sc:hool would be used in AmE
for the state of being a school pupil (BrE at school) but in BrE it would
refer merely to being inside the building; ill the hospital in AmE is used
of a patient (BrE in hospital) but in arE denotes physical location.
(b) Transport and communication: when by precedes the mode in
question, zero occurs:
traVel
come
go

send it by

{ :

:'Ie

train
'"'
plane

by

In winter/spring/autumn (but AmEin the fall). 1 like to have a break

in Switzerland.
This year I am going to Switzerland in the winter/spring/autumn.

beside The town is very old.

It's on the bed.
How far is the church?
Don't stop near the prison.

home

tclex
post (csp BrE)
mail (csp AmE)
satcllite

beside

The bicycle was damaged.

She was on the bus.
Should we takc Ihe train?
etc

The post/mail is late today.

The satclli te is a new one.

83

(d) Meals: as with seasons, zero is usual unless reference is being made to
a particular one:
What time do you normally have breakfast/lunch/supper?
(The) breakfast/lunch/dinner was served late that day.
(e) Illness: zero is normal, especially where the illness bears a technical
medical name:
She has anaemia/cancer/di abetes/influenza/pneumon ia/toothache.
But the is also used for afflictions less technically designaled:
She had (the) flu/hiccups/measles/mumps.
Some conditions call for the indefinite article:
a cold (but catch cold), a fever, a headache, a temperature

Fixed phrases

5.20

We noted ofseveral expressions in 5.19 that zero corresponded to a certain

idiomatic fixity as compared with analogous expressions using the. Fixity
is particularly notable with some common prepositional phrases and
complex prepositions (9.3):
on foot, in step, out of step, in turn, by heart. in case of, by reason of,
with intent to
Zero is characteristic of binomial expressions used adverbially:
They walked arm in arm/hand in hand/mile after mile/day in, day
out.

r
84

Nouns end determiners

TtMt .rtlete. In generle relerence

We stood face to face/side by side/back to back.

Cf also inch by inch, eye 10 eye, fIIrn and turn about, man to man, from
beginning to end,fromfather 10 son.
NOTE

The articles in generic reference

5.22

Not all binomials with zero arc advcrbials. but when they are not, articles are
usually optional:

In the former the reference is specific to particular dogs. tn the latter the
reference is generic: the sentence speaks not of particular dogs but of the
whole class of dogs. All three types of article can be used to make a generic
reference: the usually, and a/an always, with singular count nouns; zero
with plural count nouns and with noncount nouns. For example:

Article us.ge with abstract nouns

The car
A car
Cars

Abstract nouns tend to be count when they refer 10 unitary phenomena

such as events and noncount when they refer to activities, states, and
qualities.

Research is vital for hllman progress.

Many professors prefer research to teaching.
Crime is often attributable to drugs.
Horses are still wild animals in some parts of the world.

Every child needs to be treated with kindness.

a (great) kindlless that day.
He d td me
.
man)' kmdnesses over the years.
reVolutiOn
.
.
They hoped Ihat
thelrcondHlons.

wouId Improve
a revoIUllOl1
'
She is studying European history.
The country has a troubled history.

It will be seen from these examples that the effect of the indefinite article is
partitive and that this can be qualitative (a troubled history) or
quantitative (a great kindness). Cf 5.2. The partitive effect is often
accompanied by modification of the noun:
This ten-year-old plays the oboe with
NOTE

sensitivity.
a striking sensitivity.
.(1 semirivity.

Exceptionally. some count nouns function as noncount generics in this

way:
Mary is studying dance as well as ftlm.
When man meets woman, a certain tension seems natural.
But more usually when man occurs with zero it is generic for huma"ity (a
usage resisted on grounds of sexism):
Nuclear warfare would jeopardize the survival of man.
5,23

Names of languages usually have zero anicle:

Tigers are
"
'A flger
IS

But in some expressions. lhe can be used:

8eckeu's works in English have often been translated from (the) French.

She speaks a IOferable French.

By contrast. the indefinite article has a distinctly limited role in conveying

generic meaning. since it tends in non-referring use to carry a general
partitive implication (such that a means 'any') which may in certain
contexts be merely tal/tamolm! 10 a generic. The limitations on generic
implication can be seen in comparing the following examples:
Tigers run
.
A IIger runs

She speaks Japanese quite fluently.

How do you say this in Italian?

And the indefinite can be used for qualitalive partition:

became an increasing necessity of life in the twentieth

century.

In fact, however, the three article modes are on a very different footing,
with zero by far the most natural way of expressing the generic,
irrespective of the function or position of the noun phrase in sentence
structure:

But as we saw in 5.1, some nouns can be both noncount and count:
compare:

Ve/l'el is an excellent material for curtains.

Typically count: meeling, arrival, discOI'ery

Genuine discOI'eries are rarer than gradual improvements.
Typically noncount: employmelll, happiness. sleep. swimming
Sleep is necessary for good health.

Consider the following sentences:

My neighbour apparently has dogs; I hear them barking at night.
Dogs make admirable companions for children and adults alike.

I am glad to say that (the) mother and (the) child arc both doing well.
The crash resulted in the death of (both) (a) father and (a) son .

5.21

85

NOTE

.
} more gracefully than most ammals.

.
.
} beeommg
extmct.

The foregoing reflects the strong association of the indefinite article (and zero)
with a descriptive and hence non-referring role in such functions as grammatical
complement:

Proper nouns

Paganini was a great violinist.

My daughter is training as a radiologist.
When were you appointed (as) (a) professor?
My book will be on lung as (a) thinker.
5.24

institutions (The Soulh China Morning Post, Thames Polytechnic). But as

can be seen from these examples, names embrace both single-word nouns
( Tokyo) and quite lengthy phrases, often incorporating a definite article as
part of the name with or without premodifying items (The Hague, The
(New York) Times). Moreover, the concept of name extends to some
markers of time and to seasons that are also festivals (Monday, March,
Easter, Passover, Ramadan).

The DEFINITE ARTICLE with singular nouns conveys a rather formal tone in
generic use:
No one can say with certainty when the wheel was invented.
My work on anatomy is focused on the lung.

NOTE

But in more general use we find the used with musical instruments and
dances:
Marianne plays the harp, frequently accompanied by her brother on
the piano.
Do you remember when everyone was keen on the rumba?

5.26

? As the child grows, there is always a rapid extension of vocabulary.

? The Welshman is a good singer.

As we saw in 5 . 1 , proper nouns of their nature exclude such features as

determiner and number contrast. Likewise, the transparent elements of
phrasal names are treated as parts of a unique whole and arc
grammatically invariant:
*The Newer York Times
The thoroughly Asian Wall Street Journal

With plural nouns, the is used to express generic meaning:

(a) where the referent is a national or ethnic group, as in the Chinese, the
RussialJs;
(b) in phrases comprising an adjective head with human reference: the
blind, tile aff/uent, the unemployed.
It could be argued, however, that in neither case are the noun phrases so
much generic as collective phrases with unique and specific denotation.

But there are many apparent exceptions to these restrictions. Since it is

only the re/erelll that is unique, and different referents may share the same
name, the nouns or phrases conveying the name can be used as though
they were common nouns. Thus if we can say
There are several places called Richmond.
we can equally say

Nationality names that have distinct singular and plural rorms (such as
Frenchman, Frenchmen; German, Germuns) are treated differently in respect of
generic and collective statements rrom those which do not (such as British, Swiss,
Chillese):
The Welsh are fond of singing.
Welshmen arc fond of singing.
The Welshman is fond of singing.
The Welshmen are rond of singing.
Wclsh is/are fond or singing.

Names reftcct their uniqueness of reference in writing by our usc orinitial capitals.
This device enables us, if we so wish, to raise to the uniqueness or propernoun
status such concepts as Fate and HeUl'ell, including generics such as Nature, Truth,
Man.
Grammatical features

When the noun is meant, however, to represent a class of human beings by

such a typical specimen, the often sounds inappropriate and artificial:

NOTE

87

There is a Richmond in the south of England and a Richmond in the

north, not to mention a dozen Richmonds outside the British Isles.
So too:
I'm trying to find Pllilip 101ll/son in the phone book but unless he's
one of the several P. 101lllsons he's not in.

[generic]
(generic]
(generic or specific]
(specific]

The situation is very different with the admission of number and

determination with the names of days. months, and festivals. These derive
their proximity to uniqueness largely in respect of specific instances. Thus
In

On nationality names, see rurther 5.33/

She'll be here on Monday/in October/at Christmas.

the reference in each case is to a particular time of a particular year;
Monday is as uniquely contrasted with Tuesday as Tokyo is with Kyoto.
But we know that there is a Monday every week and a Christmas every
year, that the former is characterized by being (for example) the first
working day ofeach week and that every Christmas has even more sharply
defined characteristics. I n other words, Mondays necessarily have

Proper nouns
5.25

Proper nouns are basically names, by which we understand the designa

tion of specific people (Gorbachev), places ( Tokyo, Park Lane) and

68

Noun. and determiner.

Proper noun.

name: The Central School of Music. So too a building in the form of a

pentagon can come to be called the Pentagon, a canal built through the
Panama Isthmus becomes the Panama Callal. When a president or a prime
minister is elected or an earl created, the result is 'he President (ofFrance),
the Prime Minister (of India) , the Earl (of Gwynedd).

something in common, whereas the various Richmonds do not. So when

we say
She's always here on (a) Monday/in October/at Christmas.
the items no longer have specific reference, and the sentence can be
paralleled with
She always spends her Mondays/Octobers/Christmases here.

NOTE

There are of course no analogies with names of persons, places and

institutions:
,., Richmonds are always splendid for a vacation.
5.27

On the other hand, it is not only the fact that several places or people may
bear the same name that permits determination, number contrast or
modification. We have the informal convention that a married couple, Mr
and Mrs Johnson, can be referred to as the JOIIIISOIIS (a designation that
could also embrace their whole household). Again, we can use a famous
name to mean the type that made it famous; the sentence
There were no Shakespeares in the nineteenth century.
does not mean there were no people called 'Shakespeare' but no writers
who towered over contemporaries as William Shakespeare did over his.
Similarly:
Lu Xun is revered as the Chinese Gorki.
Every large city should have a Hyde Park.
Somewhat akin is partitive restrictive modification:
The young Joyce already showed signs of the genius that was to be
fulfilled i n Ulysses. ('Even while he was young, James Joyce . . :)
The Dublill of Joyce is still there for everyone 10 experience. ("The
features of Dublin reflected in Joyce's writing arc still there:)

But there is also non restrictive modification, on the one hand colloquial
and stereotyped (as in poor old Mrs Fletcher), on the other formal and
often stylized (as in t/u>fond(v remembered John F. Kenlledy, VISIT HISTORIC
l'ORK).
Names with the definite article
5.28

It is not difficult to sce why the finds a place in phrases institutionalized as

names. We can imagine a group of musicians deciding to set up a school
where music will be taught: a school of music. They decide to enhance its
attractiveness by locating it in a central position of the city, and they hope
that it will not be merely a celltral school of IIl11sic but the only school
meriting this description: tlte central school ofnlllsic. It is a short step from
this lo the further decision that this should be not just a description but the

89

5.29

Even where ,he is always present in continuous text (spoken or written). it has
variable status as part of the name: The Hague at one extreme (and always with
initial capital) to the Unil'ersil), of London at the other (where fhe is never
capitalized and is absent from the university's letter-head). Cl also (the) Asian
Wall SUeet Journal. Where a name embodies premodification as distinct from
postmodification ( 1 7.2), as in (The) Lord Williams, lhe is largely confined to
formal and official style.

It may be convenient to group names with the in classes:

(a) Some titular names of persons and deities:
The Marquis of Salisbury, the King of Sweden, the President of
General Motors, the Rel'erend Jolm Fox, the Cardinal Archbishop
of Westminster, (he Queen, (rhe) Prince Edward, (the) Archduke
Ferdinand, the God of Israel, the Lord of Hosts, the Buddha.

(b) Geographical names of plural form, notably:

(i) groups of islands, as in the Hebrides, the Bahamas;
(ii) mountain ranges, as in the Himalayas, the Pyrenees.
Note also the Netherlands, the Midlands, the Dardanelles.
(c) Names of rivers, canals, expanses of water, areas of territory:
the (Rh'er) TllOmel', the Rhine, the P% mac (RiI'er) ; the Suez
Canal, the Erie Canal; the A tlantic (Ocean), the Baltic (Sea}, the
BOl'pllOrus; the Crimea, the Ruhr, the Sahara (Desert).

Note the absence of the in lake names:

Lake Huron, Denvenrwater.

(d) Geographical names of the form the NI ofN2' as in fhe Isle ofMall, the
GuJfofMexico, the Cape ofGood Hope, the Bay of Naplel'. (Contrast:
Long Island, Hudson Bay.)
(e) Names of theatres, galleries and major buildings, etc, as in the
Aldll'ych ( Theatre), tile Huntington (Ubrary), the Asllmolean
(Museum), the Middlesex (Hospital), the Taj Mahal, the Tate
(Gallery), the Hilton (Hote/) .
(f) Names of ships and (less commonly) aircraft, as in the Queen Mar)',
the Mayflower. the Spirit of St Louis.
(g) Names of journals, as in The Economist, The Times, The New York
Review of Books. (Contrast: Punch, Time, New Scientist.) If in
discourse the title requires premodification, the article is discarded, as
in 'Malcolm lent me today's Times/a recent New York Rel'iew of
Books'.

90

Nouns and delermlners

Proper nouns

Names without article

5.30

Whether names have articles (as in 5.28j) or not, they operate without a
determiner contrast, and while it is normal for names to reflect the
uniqueness of their referents by having no article, it must be clearly
understood that 'No article' does not mean 'Zero article' (cf 5 . 1 Note).
There are two major classes of names to consider: names of persons and
names ofplaces. On smaller classes, such as the names of months, see 5.25.

Locational names
5.32

Personal names
5.31

These comprise:
(a) Forenames (also called first, given, or Christian names), used alone 10
or of family or friends:
It's good to see you, Frank; how are you?
Unfortunately, lacqueline was unable to be present
(b) Family names (surnames), used alone without discourtesy in address
only in certain male circles (for example, in military use) and in 3rd
person discourse for rather formal and distant (for example.
historical) reference:
What lime do you have to report, Watkinsol1?
The theories of Keynes continue to be inOuential.
(c) Combinations offorenames andfamily nomes, occasionally found in
epistolary address ('Dear Mildred Carter') but chiefly used where 'full
name' is required in self-introduction or in 3rd person reference:
1 am Roger MiddlelOn; the manager is expecting mc.
Fredo lohnson is writing a book on Wilfred Owell.
(d) Comhinations invoil'ing a title are bipartite in address but can be
tripartite in 3rd person reference:
You are very welcome, Mrs loJmson/Mrs Green/Mr Parker/Dr
LOIt/e/Major Fielding/Sir loJm.
The committee decided to co-opt Mrs (Freda) lolmson/Ms (Jac
quelhle) Green/Mr (D R) Parker/Dr (lames F) Lowe/Major
( William) Fielding/Sir loh" (Needham) .

NOTE

raj Favourite animals (especially household pets) are given names, which in the
case ofpedigrcc animals are bestowed and registered with special care. Names of
ships, often connotatively female, are also usually without article: but cf5 .29.
[b] Some terms of close kinship are treated as names in family discourse:

Where's Grandma/Dad?
Some others are used as titles, as in 'Where's Uncle Harry?'

These are used without article and comprise a wide range of designations:
(a) extraterrestrial: Jupiter, Mars (but the moon, the sun);
(b) continents: Asia, (Sollth) America;
(c) countries, provinces, etc: (Great) Britain, Canada, Ontario, (County)
Kerry (but the United Kingdom, (the) Sudan);
(d) lakes: LAke Michigan, Loch Ness, Ullswoter;
(e) mountains: (Mollnt) Everest, Snowdon;
(t) cities, etc: New York, Stratford-lIpon-Avon (but The Hague, the
Brollx);
(g) streets, buildings, ctc: Fifth A venue, Park LAne, Brooklyn Bridge,
Canterbury Cathedral, Scotland Yard, Waterloo Stotion, Oxford
Street (but the Old Kent Road).
On examples with 'he, cf 5.28f
Nouns relating to region and nationality

5.33

Many names of regions and countries yield corresponding adjectives and

noun forms of the following pattern, all reflecting their 'proper' affinity by
being written with an initial capital. Thus, related to Russia, we have:
1 General adjective:
A new Rllssian spacecraft has just been launched.
Both the men are Rllssian.
1 1 Language name:
She reads Russian but she doesn't speak it very well.
III Singular noun with specific reference:

He is a Russion, I think.
I V Plural noun with specific reference:
There are several Rllssians among my students.
V Plural nouns used generically:
The Russians are a deeply patriotic people.

Normally, the form of l 1-V is predictable from I; for example Greece: I

Greek, 1 1 Greek, III a Greek, IV Greeks, V the Greeks. In many instances,
of course, there is no language corresponding to form IJ C*She doesn't
speak European'), but leaving this aside, the following sets are regularly
predictable and behave as illustrated above:
Africa .... African
Asia- Asian

America .... American

Australia..., Australian

and all other names in -(;)0. So too:

91

Belgium ,.., Belgian

Europe ..... European
Hungary "'" Hungarian
Norway ..... Norwegian
Israel - Israeli
5.34

Number

Noun. and determiner'

92

(cl Arabic is form 11, Arab(.,) forms I l l-V. but the actual iocational noun Arabia is now only
rotrely used to denote the large area of the Middle East concerned.

Brazil - Brazilian
Germany -- German
Italy- Italian
Iraq - Iraqi
Pakistan "", Pakistani

But there are name sets in which we encounter irregularities of form or

restrictions in use. Thus where forms I and 1 1 (which are always identical)
end in ese or ish (sh, ch), the same form is used for V (cJ7 . 1 2) but not
usually for III and IV. Instead we use either form I plusa suitable noun (a
Chinese lady), indicated in Table 5.34 by (N ) '(Ns)', or a distinctive noun
form (a Spaniard). With many items where form I ends in ish, forms III
and IV are traditionally ishman, ishmen, but the resistance to mall as a
human generic causes widespread hesitation to use these forms except of
males. The chief irregular sets are listed in Table 5.34.
'

Number
5.35

"

Table 5.34
'v

'"

relevant)
Chinese

a Chinese
(citizen)

the Chinese

Chinese
(people)
Japanese (Ns)

Ihe Japanese

a Portuguese (N)

Portuguese (Ns)

the Portuguese

a Vietnamese (N)

Vietnamese (Ns)

the Vietnamese

Swiss

a Swiss (N)

Swiss (Ns)

the Swiss

British

a British (N)

British (Ns)

the British

English

an Englishman

Englishmen

the English

Japan

Japanese

a Japanese (N)

Portugal

Portuguese

Vietnam

Vietnamese

Switzcrland
Britain
England
Ireland

Irish

an I rishman

Irishmen

the Irish

Wales

Welsh

a Welshman

Welshmen

the Welsh

France

French

a Frenchman

Frenchmen

the French

Dutch

a Dutchman

Dutchmen

the Dutch

NOTE

Netherlands

NOTE

Scotland

Scots

a Scotsman

Scotsmen

the Scots

Denmark

Danish

a Dane

Danes

the Danish

Sweden

Swedish

a Swede

Swedes

the Swedish

Finland

Finnish

a Finn

Finns

the Finnish

Poland

Polish

a Pole

Poles

the Polish

Spain

Spanish

a Spaniard

Spaniards

the Spanish

lal For Briwin. there is limited currency of Brilon(.f) as forms III

and JV (informally also

Bri/ish('r(s), with Bri/(s) more informal still).

IbJ For Scotland, there arc alternatives as follows: form I Scollish. Scotch: form III a SCOI. a
Scoldlmall: form IV Scots. Scolchmen; form V th(' Scotch. But the use of Scotch(-) is

controversial; Sco/ch tends to be limited to designating sueh things as whisky.

[a]Thedistinction betwecn singular and plural is not always clear-cut; fordifTcrcnt

reasons. there is vacillation over such words as politics. mumps. tillla. criteria.
[b) Within plural', there is evidence in the language for some special provision for
dual number; cfsuch words as both.
Plural formation

Holland
(h,

The grammatical category of number, operating for example through

subject-verb concord and pronominal reference, requires that every noun
form be understood grammatically as either singular or plural, Singular
relates to the quantity 'one' for count nouns, to the unique referent for
most proper nouns (eg: Tokyo), and to undifferentiated mass for
noncount nouns. Plural relates to the quantity 'two or more' for count
nouns, to the unique referent for some proper nouns (eg: Ihe Azores), and
to individual operational units that are seen as reflecting plural
composition (eg: bi/loculars, goods). For example:
Singular: This suilfils me and I'll buy it.
Nara 11'0.'0' full of tourists when I visited il.
The milk is sour and I bought it only yesterday.
Plural: Two/three/several students are hoping you will see them.
The Azores are administered by Portugal but they arc
nearly a thousand miles away.
I thought my binoculars were in this drawer bUl l can '( find
them.

(and 11 where

China

93

5.36

The vast majority of English nouns are count, with separate singular and
plural forms, The singular is the unmarked form (eJ2.7) and as such is the
citation form orthe word (for example, in dictionaries). For the most part,
plurals are formed in a regular and predictable way:
(a) in SOUND:
- add /IZ/ ir the singular ends with a sibilant, namely:
/s/ as in horse
/f! as in blush
/tf! as in church

/z/ as in prize
/31 as in mirage
/d3/ as in la/lguage

for example: /pralz/ -/pralzlz/

- add /z/ if the singular ends with a vowel or with a voiced consonant
other than a sibilant

94

Nouns end determiners

for example: Idel/- /delZ/

Number

{bedl -lbedzl

- add /sl if the singular ends with a voiceless consonant other than a
sibilant

Irregular plural 'ormatlon

Voicing
5.37

for example: Ikall - Ikatsl

(b) In SPELLING:
With the vast majority of nouns, we simply add -s to the singular; for
example:

NOTE

la] Some further spelling points: In a few words requiring -e.f there is doubling as
with quiz ..... qui:zes. With unusual plurals such as numerals or initials, an
apostrophe is sometimes introduced (thus in rhe /990's. .wmu! PhD's). In formal
writing, some abbreviations can show plural by doubling: p-pp ("pages'), c - cc
('copies'); with f-ff, the abbreviations arc to be understood as 'the following
numbered unit(s)', where the unit may be a section, page. chapter, or even volume.
]b) Compound nouns are usually regular in adding - ( e)s to the final element (as in
babysillers, grown-lips). Bul in some cases where the compound has an obvious
head noun, it is to this clement that the plural ending is affixed (as in passers-by.
grams-in-aid), and with a few there is variation (as in mouthfuls- mouthsful, court
mllrtials- ("OIINS martial). With some appositional compounds (of the form XY,
where 'The X is a Y') both elements have the plural inflC(:lion (woman
d(J("(or ..... women doctors).
[c) Where a title applies to more than one succeeding name, it can sometimes be
pluralized, as in Professors Wagnerand Watson, Drs Brown, Smith, and Weindling;
but the commonest cannot (Mrs Kramer, Mrs Pugh, and AIrs Hunter), though Mr
can have a plural Messrs /,mcs:Jz/, especially in BrE commercial use ('the firm of
Messrs Gray ond Witherspoon'). Members ofthe same sex sharing a name can have
the name in the plural: 'The two Ms
i s Smiths as well as their parents were present at
the ceremony.'

While in spelling the pair house -houses is regular, in pronunciation it is

not, the final voiceless fricative consonant of the singular becoming voiced
in the plural: /haus/-/hauziz/. Several singulars ending in If/ and /9/
undergo voicing in this way, the former reflected in spelling, the latter not:
knife - knives
Inalfl - Inalvzl
mouth - mouths /mauSI - ImauOzl

horse - horses, prize -prizes

But, quite apart from the nouns that are fundamentally irregular in
respect of number (S.37ff), the -s rule requires amplification and
modification for many nouns:
(i) If the singular ends with a sibilant (see (a) above) that is not already
followed by -e, the plural ending is -es; for example: box- boxes,
bush - bushes, switch - switches; cf language - languages.
(ii) If the singular ends with -y, this is replaced by iand the plural ending
is then -ies; for example: spy- spies, poppy -poppies, soliloquy --sol
iloquies. But -y remains, and the plural ending is -ys, if the singular
ends with a letter having vowel-value as in -ay, -ey, -ay (thus days,
ospreys, boys), or if the item is a proper noun (the two Germanys; cf
5.26).
(iii) If the singular ends with -0, the plural is usually regular (as with
studios, kangaroos, pianos), but with some nouns the plural ending is
-es(as with echoes, embargoes, heroes,potatoes, tomatoes, torpedoes,
l'e/oes), and in a few cases there is variation, as with bujfalo(e)s,
cargo(e)s, halo(e)s, mOl/o(e)s, volcano(e)s.

95

like knife are calf, half, leaf, life, loaf, self, shelf, thie, wife, wolf, and a few
f
others. With some nouns, such as handkerchief, hoof, and scarf, the plural
may involve voicing or be regular (-/fs/); with others, such as belief. cliff,
proo, the plural is always regular.
f
Like mouth are bath, oath, path, sheath, truth, wreath, youth, though in
most cases the plural can equally be regular (-/9s/). In other cases, only the
regular plural is found, as with cloth, death,fait/i, moth, and where there is
a consonant preceding the fricative this is always so (as with birth, lenglh,
etc).
Vowel change

5.38

In a small number of nouns, there is a change of vowel sound and spelling

("mutation plurals') without an ending:
foot - feet
goose ....... geese
louse- lice
man- men
mouse- mice
tooth - teeth
,
woman / wuman/- women j'wlmm/

NOTE

[aJ Compounds in unstressed -man such as fireman, Frenchman have plurals that
are often identical in sound since both the -man and -men havc schwa.
{b] Thc plural oft:hifdinvolvcs both vowel change and an irregular ending, children
/tJddrn/ The noun brOIl/er, when used in the sense 'fellow member', sometimes
has a similar plural formation, brethren IbreOrn/. Cfalso. without vowel change.
ox- oxen.

Zero plural
5.39

Words for some animals

The nouns sheep. deer, cod, while being unquestionably count, have no
difference in form between singular and plural:

This sheep has just had a lamb.

These sheep have just had lambs.
Nouns referring to some other animals. birds, and fishes can have zero
plurals, especially when viewed as prey:
They shot two reindeer, though this is strictly forbidden.
The If,.'ootlcock/pheasant/herring!trout/salmolt/fish are not very plen
tiful this year.

96

Number

Noun. and determiner.

(f) Nouns in -is /IS/ with plural -es /i:z/

Compare:

analysis
hypothesis

Aren'l lhose pheasams beautiful?

NOTE

5.40

Some of the nouns considered in 5.42fas resistant to number contrast could also
be regarded as having zero plural.

automaton

stimulus

focus

alumnus

libretto

formula

NOTE

(e) Nouns in -ex, -ix with plural -ices /tsi:z/:

appendix

index

matrix

virtuoso

(a1 The plural -im is sometimes found in the English use of Hebrew words. 3S in
kibbul=im.
{bJ Most originally foreign nouns take only regular plural endings (musellm ......
museum., etc), and in several cases the historically plural ending is reinterpreted as
a singular (agenda. insignia. ete):

Nouns resistant to number contrast

5.42

Whether or not with inflectional regularity. number essentially involves

the distinction between one and more than one:
This school is . .
This woman is . . .
This sheep is . .
.

These schools are . .

Those women are . . .
These sheep are . .
.

But as we noted in 5.35, there are singular nouns that cannot ordinarily be
plural (eg: meal ) and plural nouns that cannot ordinarily be singular (eg:
binoculars). We shall look at such nouns under these two broad heads.

nebula

erratum

tempo

This agenda is rather lengthy as I'm afraid most Senate agendas tend to be.

genus -- genera

addendum
curriculum
stratum
ovum

phenomenon

So also plateau, tableau. Some other nouns with no change of spelling in

the plural, have regular English plurals in speech: for example, chassis
ISaSl/, pi ISaSl:zl

bacillus

The plural ending in vertebrae is also pronounced lei/.

(d) Nouns in -um IJm/ with plural -0 1;,1:

criterion

bureau ,... bureaux or bureaus /-m/ or /-Juz/

(c) Nouns in -a /;,/ with plural -ae li:/ or /at/:

antenna

thesis

(i) Nouns from French sometimes retain a French plural in writing, with
the French (ie zero) ending in speech or - more usually - a regular
English one:

(b) Nouns in -us /;)s/ with plural -a /J/ (only in technical use):
corpus - corpora

CriSIS

(h) Nouns in -0 l'Jul with plural -i /t/; a few words in the field of music
retain their Italian plural, especially in specialized discourse:

Foreign plurals

Numerous nouns adopted from foreign languages, especially Latin and

Greek, retain the foreign inflection for plural. In some cases there are two
plurals, an English regular form (5.36) being used in non-technical
discourse.
(a) Nouns in -us I;,sl with plural -i lal/:

basis
synopSIS

(g) Nouns in -on /In/ with plural -a /J/:

Nouns of quantity
There is a strong tendency for units of number, of length, of value, and of
weight to have zero plural when premodified by another quantitative
word. For example:
(a) How many people live there? About three dozen/Several hundred/
More than five thousandlAlmost four million.
(b) My son is nearly six foot tall.
The tickets cost four pound fifty each.
Three pound/stone of potatoes, please.
But in set (b), zero is much less common than the use of inflected plurals
and in some cases zero is largely dialectal (,She lives five mile from me').
Moreover, items in set (a) have normal plural forms when not preceded by
numerals:
Dozens (and dozens) (of people) crowded inlo the room.
I have no precise idea how many people live there: thousands
certainly, perhaps millions.

5.41

97

Ordinarily singular
5.43

(a) Proper nouns such as London or NDI'rOlilol'a are plural only in such
circumstances as are described in 5.26[.
(b) Noncount nouns such as cheese or solidority can be plural when used
to indicate partition by quantity or quality (5.2). Abstract nouns in
the plural indicate instances of the phenomenon concerned (as in
'many injustices') or intensification oflhe phenomenon (as in " must

9a

Gender

Noun nd determiner.

This barracks is
These barracks are

express my regrets'). Intensification accounts also ror the plural or

some concrete noncount nouns; ror example. wood in the sense or
'rorest':

NOTE

} heavily. derended.

The data is/arc insufficient.

This is a beautirul little wood.

Their house is in the middle or those extensive I',.'ood.)'.
(c) The noun news and certain other items ending in s:
(i) nouns in ics such as acoustics, physics
(ii) names or diseases such as mumps, shingles
(iii) words for some games such as billiards, dominoes, jives
But when polities refers to an individual's views, it is treated as plural
("Her politics are becoming more extreme') and ror some speakers
such disease words as mumps can also be plural. Again, when sratistics
is used loosely to mean 'figures' it can be plural and have a
corresponding singular: 'There is one surprising statistic in your
report. '
(d) Collective nouns such as commiflee, council, gOI'emment, team
(though in BrE these are often treated as plural aggregate nouns: 'The
committee were unanjmous'; cf 5.44).

99

But many aggregate nouns are not plural inform; thus caltle, clergy,
offspring, people, police, poultry, I'ermin. Here again there is vacilla
tion between singular and plural with some items:
The clergy is/are strongly opposed to divorce.
er 5.43(d).
NOTE

Some nouns could be regarded either as ordinarily plural' or as havi ngzcro plural
(5.39). Thus
'

She has onc ()ffspring/several offspring

Did he leave offspring?

. .
We are organlzmg

series
.
th ree furlher series

{ a new

} of lectures.

Others have a si ngular with some shift of meaning. Thus beside 'She used her
brains in defeating her opponent', we can have 'She has a good brain', meaning
approximately 'a good qualilY of brains'; beside 'He didn't receive his wages last
week', we ean have 'He has a living wage', meaning 'a level of "'ages Ihat can
support him .

Unlike aggregate nouns, collective nouns retain singular determiners even where
plural concord is used: 'This commitlee were unanimous.'

'

Ordinarily plural

5,44

(a) Binary nouns are those that refer to entities which comprise or are
perceived as comprising two parts: tools and instruments such as
binoculars, forceps, scissors; articles or dress such as jeans, pall/s,
trousers:
These scissors are too blunt.
Those trousers don't match your shirt.
Number contrast is usually achieved through quantity partition (5.2)
with a pair of, sel'eral pairs of With binary nouns like glOl'es or socks,
where the two pairs are more obviously separate, the unit is readily
divisible into two singulars.
He was wearing a green sock and a brown sock,
Contrast:
There is a stain on

{ the left leg or your trousers,

(?) your left trouser.

(b) Aggregate nouns are those that rerer to entities which comprise or
may be perceived as comprising an indefinite number or parts. These
may be plural in form, as ror instance arms ('weapons'), commlmica
lions ("means or communication'), dara, goods, media, olltskirts,
remains, troops, works (,factory'). With some items there is vacillation
between singular and plural; ror example

Gender
5.45

In English, gender is nOI a reature or nouns themselves (as in such

languages as German or Russian). Rather, it relates directly to the
meanings of nouns, with particular rererence to biological sex. Gender
then enters the province or grammar by determining the selection or
rererence pronouns: wh, personal, and reflexive (6.2jJ. 6. 1 3, 6 . 1 7). Thc
wh items who and which oblige us to distinguish two broad gender classes,
personal and nonpersonal, the rormer largely human in rererence, the
latter largely nonhuman and including inanimates:
This is the pedestrian who witnessed the accident.
That is the cow which has just had a calL
Then within the personal gender class, the personal and reflexive
pronouns relate to male and remale sex:
PI ease

heIp my

{husband;
he has hurt himself
.
wife; she has hurt herself

But the sexrelated pronouns can be used or items marked as nonpersonal

by the wh pronouns, as in

100

Nouns and determine,.

Gender

But, especially in BrE, such collectives can take plural concord with the
personal whpronoun:

She is the cow which has just had a calf.

She is the ship which was launched last month.

The audience, who were largely students, were soon on their feet as
they cheered the performers.

In consequence, we have a rather complex pattern or gender classes, with

some overlapping, as summarized in Fig. 5.2.

/personal

'-

GENDER

EXAMPLE

PRONOUNS

male
remale
dual

boy
girl
doctor

common

baby

who, he
who, she
who, he/she
who, he/she/it
which/it
which, it
who, they
which, he/it

\ p0.ial

collective

animate

family

miliar ammal:
male
bull

."."\ :.::"

less ramillar
animal
---manimale-

_
_
_

Fig. 5.2

:::

weasel
lI'ifldoll'

{
{

{
{
{

NOTE

(a] Nouns morphologically marked for gender often tend to be avoided, especially
where the sex of the referent is irrelevant; in consequence, nouns with dual gender
such as aUllior, clllIir(persoll). poet, slIpenisor. may be preferred to (/Ulhores',
chairman, poetess,foreman.

[b] Although unmarked forms have traditionally been expressed as male while
subsuming female ('k/(m is mortar, 'If any person is caught stealing from this
store, he will be prosecuted': '16.4), reaction against sexual bias has resulted in
evasions such as:
A

doctor
parelll
singer

may appeal if

he or she wishes.
Ihey wish.

(c] Countries and ships (especially by name) arc often trcated as female: 'France is
increasing her exports', 'The Lotus sank when she struck a reef'.

which, if/he/(she)
which. ir

Nouns referring to animals and Inanimates

5.47

These commonly occur in male andjemale pairs such as/other mother,

boy-girl, king - queen. In some cases. the remale member is morphologi.
cally marked: god-goddess, hero -heroine, usher - ushereIle, man .....
IIOf1/all. With widower- widow, it is (he male that is marked.
But many personal nouns can be regarded as having dual gender, since
they can be male or remale in reference as required; ror example, friend,
guest, parelll. and person. Most orthese are nouns or agency such as artist,
cook, doctor, inhabital11, librarian, !lowdist, professor, singer, speaker.
studem. leacher, writer. By contrast. commOIl gender applies to those
nouns like baby, illfalll. child, which though rererring undoubtedly to male
or remale human beings make gender so irrelevant that we can use the
neuter pronoun it(s) :
_

The baby lost if.\' parents when if was three weeks old.
The remaining class or person.rererring nouns is collecril'e where. lih
the common gender nouns, the sex or the persons concerned is irrelevant'
as is shown by our use or it and which:

Further collectives: army, association, class, club, community, company,

council, crew, crowd,family,jirm, government ,jury, party, team, university.
Some occur with the definite article, for example: the clergy, the
intelligemsia, lhe public. Some are proper names, rorexample: the Vatican,
Longman, General Motors, British Gas, E\,erton (rootball team).

(who), he
which, slle/ir
(who). she
which. he/she/ir
who. he/she

Nouns with personal reference

5.46

101

T e comml1ee. which met soon after it was appointed. had difficulty

In agreeing its method or procedure.

Among animals, we must distinguish between what we may call the

FAMILIAR and the LF.s5 FAMILIAR. The rormerembrace the range oranimals,
birds. etc, in which human society takes a special interest, and which
significantly impinge on familiar experience (ror example. in rarming or as
domestic pets). Many or the nouns ror these occur in MALE and FEMALE
pairs, as with personal nouns, often with he -.\'he as the rererence pronoun
though usually with which as the relative:
This is the bull ll'hich has a brand mark on his/fits} back.
This is the cow which had Iter/fits) first calr when she/fir} was
already seven years old.
Other such pairs include ram ....... ewe, slllllioll ...... mare, hen ...... cock (erel) , and
there are some with morphological marking, as in lion - lioness, riger
tigress. But rrequently, despite such pairs as dog ..... bitch, onc or the two is
used with dual gender, or an item outside the pairing (such as sheep, beside
ram ..... ewe) so operates:
This horse is two years old; isn't site beautirul?
This horse has sired his first roal.
But LESS FAMILIAR animals constitute by far the majority orcreatures in the
animate world. Squirrels, ants, starlings, and moths may be fancirully

102

Noun. ancl cletermlner.

Cllle

The genitive and the oM:onstructlon

referred to as he or she, but for the most part they are treated
grammatically as though they were inanimate:
Do you see that spider?
Do you see that balloon?

5.49

II's hanging from the beam.

from the beam.

11'S hanging

We frequently find a choice between using a premodifying genitive and a

postmodifying prepositional phrase with of; the similarity in meaningand
function has caused the laner to be called by some the 'ofgenitive'. For
example:
"
There were strong objections from

As distinct from pronouns (6.6f), English nouns have only two cases, the
unmarked COMMON case and the marked GENITIVE. The latter is sometimes
called the 'possessive', by reason of one of the Thain functions of the case
(as in The child's coat, 'The coat belonging to the child').
The genitive inflection is phonologically identical with the regular
plural inflection (5.36) with a consequent neutralization of the case
distinction in the plural:
The jkau/ was grazing.
One /kauzj tail was waving.

The /kauz/ were grazing.

AIJ the jkauz/ tails were waving.

With irregular nouns where no such neutralization can occur, a fourfold

distinction is observed:
The /manj was watching.
The /manzj car was locked.

The jmenj were watching.

The /menzj cars were locked.

Orthographically a fourfold distinction always obtains, since the

genitive ending is always spelled with an apostrophe: before the ending for
the singular, after it for the plural:
One cow's tail
NOTE

All

These are father's trousers.

Let's go

10

the front of the house.

The chief of staff ..... The chiefs of staff

The chief of staff's role ..... The chiefs of staff's role
But where postmodification is less institutionalized, such a 'group genitive' though common informally - is often avoided in favour of the oJ-construction
(5.49): 'The name oJ the man in the dark suit.'
[b] In being phonologically identical with the plural, the regular genitive plural is
sometimes called the 'zcro genitive'. Such a zero genitive is common with names
that end in /z/, especially if they are foreign names:
Socrates' /-ti:zl doctrines
Moses' I-zlz/ laws
But Dickens' novels jdlkmz/ or /dlkmzlz/
Note the zero genitive also in some expressions such asJor goodness' sake.

the lO
J t,re tS
' ha b'Itants o,r
' ,and.

*These are the trousers of

father.
*Let's go to the house's
front.

Genitive meanings
5.50

The meanings expressed by the genlllve can conveniently be shown

through paraphrase; at the same time, we can compare the analogous use
of the oj-construction (cj 5,50j),
(a) Possessive genitive:
Mrs Jolmsofl 's coat.
The ship 's funnel.

Mrs Johnson owns this coat.

The ship has a funnel.

CfThe funnel of the ship.

(b) Genitive of attribute:
The victim 's outstanding courage,

the cows' tails

[a] Where noun phrases with postmodification do not have the plural inflection at
the cnd (5.36 Note [bJ) there is a distinction between genitive and plural: compare:

{ the island's inhabitants.

But although both versions in this instance are equally acceptable, with a
choice determined largely by preferred focus (cf l 8.5ff), for the most part
we must select either the genitive or the ofconstruction. For example:

Case
5.48

103

The victim was very

courageous.

CfThe outstanding courage of the victim.

(c) Partitive genitive:
The heart's two vc "tricles.

The heart contains two ventricles.

CfThe two ventricles of the heart.

(d) Subjective genitive:
The parents' consent.

The parents consented.

CfThe consent of the parents,

(e) Objective genitive:
The prisoner's release.

(. . . ) released the prisoner.

CfThe release of the prisoner.

([) Genitive of origin:

104

Noun nd determiner.

Mother's letler.
England's cheeses.

The letter is from Mother.

The cheeses were produced in England.

We must Iry to gel our money's worth.

)
The grammalical status of the genitive

CfThe cheeses of England.

(g) Descriptive genitive:
Children 's shoes.
A doctor's degree.
NOTE

As determiner

The shoes are designed for children.

The degree is a doctorate.

5.52

(. A the new briefcase.)

(*The this new briefcase.)
(*The Joan's new briefcase.)

This equally applies when the genitive is a phrase incorporating its own
determiner.
My cousin's new briefcase.
My handsome cOllsin's new briefcase.

( '+ My new briefcase.)

In other words, items preceding the genitive relate to the inflected noun,
such that a phrase like

Gender and the genitive

That old gentleman '5 son

The genitive is not used with all nouns equally but tends to be associated
with those of animate gender, especially with those having personal
reference (S.4Sf). For example:

must be understood as 'The son of that old gentleman', and not as 'That
son of the old gentleman:
But an exception must be made where the preceding item is a
predeterminer, since this may relate either to the genitive noun as in [ I J or
to the noun that follows as in [2].

The dog's name.

Segovia's most famous pupil.
The sludelll 's precious possessions.
The commiuee's decision.

Geographical names take the genitive inflection, especially when they are
used to imply human collectivity; thus China's policy more plausibly than
China's mountains. So too with other strictly inanimate nouns when used
with special relevance to human activity or concern: The hOlel's occupants
rather than The hotel'sfurniture, The book's true importance rather than
The book 's colour.
NOTE

For the most part, genitives function exactly like central definite
determiners and thus preclude the cooccurrence of other determiners.
A new briefcase.
The new briefcase.
This new briefcase.
JOUII 'S new briefcase.

The distinction between (a), (b), and (e) is rar rrom clearcut and much depends on
gender(cf5.51) and on contextual viewpoint. In general. thecloscr the relation can
be scen 10 literal possession, the more suitable is the genitive; by contrast,
attribution and partition are usually more appropriately expressed by the 0/'
construction. Where both genitive and o-construction are grammatically
f
possible, the decision often turns on the principle orcndrocus or cndweight (18.5
and Note [a));
My rather's DEATH _The death ormy FATHER
John's age -The age or my oldest and dearest rriend

S.Sl

105

(al The part played by personal gender in admitting the genitive is well illustrated
by the indefinite pronouns:
the shadow a/somebody.
somebody 's shadow.
.
i thlnk I can sce down there the shadow o/something.
somethillg's shadow.

(bl l n some expressions. the genitive depends less on the noun so inflected than on
the noun rollowing. The items edge and sake are especially notable in this
connection:
He stood at the water's edge.
She did il ror her country's sake.
With 1I'0rth, no 0/- variant is possible:

(C/also . . . the edge or the water)

(C/ also . . . the sake or her country)

We attributed both the girls' success to their hard work.

(ie the success of both the girls)
Both the girl's parents were present.
(ie both the parents of the girl)

[11

[21

As modifier
5.53

Where the genitive is used descriptively (S.SO(g)), however, it functions

not as a determiner but as a modifier with a classifying role. Determiners
in such noun phrases usually relate not to the genitive but to the noun
following it, as can be plainly seen from the following, where the singular a
could obviously not cooccur with the plural ll'omen:
They attend a women's university in Kyoto.
So also. other modifying items in the noun phrase are less likely to relate to
the genitive noun than to the noun that follows it; thus in
She lives in a quaint old shepherd's cottage.
it IS probably the cottage that is quaint and old, not the shepherd.
Grammatically, some phrases can be ambiguous, though it would be rare
for the context not to make the meaning clear:

106

Nouns and determiners

Ca.e

)
One o/George's sisters is coming to stay with us.
A sister 0/ George 's is coming to stay with us.

Where did you find these children's clothes?

5.54

(Either ' These children had lost their clothes'; genitive as determiner. Or
'These clothes were obviously made for children'; genitive as modifier.)

It is the latter that is called the 'post-genitive' (or 'double-genitive').

The independent genitive

Bibliographical note

It is common to ellipt the noun following the genitive i f the reference is

contextually clear. For example:

On noun classes, see Algeo ( 1 973); Allerton ( 1 987); Scppanen ( 1974).

On reference and determiners. see Auwera ( 1 980); 8urton-Roberts ( 1 977);
Oeclerck ( 1 986); Hawkins ( 1 978); Hewson ( 1 972); Kaluza (1981); Kramsky
( 1 972); Perlmutter ( 1 970); Takami ( 1 985).
On number, see Hirtle ( 1982); Juul ( 1975); Lehrcr ( 1 986); Sorensen ( 1 985). On
gender and case. see Dahl (1971); Jahr Sorhcim ( 1 980).

Jenni/er's is the only face I recognize here.

(ie Jennifer's face)
He has a devotion to work like hisJalher 's.
(ie his father's devotion to work)

By contrast, with the DJ-construction, that or those usually replaces the

corresponding item:
The wines DJ France are more expensive than those o/California.
(ie the wines of California)
A special case of the independent genitive occurs when the unexpressed
item refers to homes or businesses:
When I arrived at Fred's, I found I'd come on the wrong day.
My butcher's stays open late on Fridays.
She wouldn't miss SI Martin's on Easter morning.
In most such instances of the 'local genitive', one could not specify
uniquely the unexpressed item, and in many cases it would sound artificial
if one attempted a fuller phrase, often because what is meant is more
abstract and general than any specific noun would convey:
I

NOTE

hate going to rhe dentist's (? surgery, ? place, ? establishment).

With the names of major firms, what begins as a local genitive develops into a
plural, often so spelled and observing plural concord:
l1arrod's is a vast store.
lIarrods arc having a sale.

A further development is to drop the ending and to treat the item as a collective (cl
5.46).

The post-genitive'
5.55

Since in its determiner role, the genitive must be definite (5.52), we can be
in some difficulty with a sentence like
George s sister is coming to stay with us.

If it needs to be understood that George has more than onc sistcr, this can
be expressed in one of two ways, each involving a partitive 0/
construction:

107

I:
,

Central pronouns

6
6.1

NOTE

Pronouns

As we noted in 2.9, pro-forms play a vital role in grammar (see especially

1 2. 1.ff). One category of pro-forms is particularly associated with noun
phrases and this is the PRONOUN. How wide-ranging and heterogeneous
this category is becomes apparent from considering the italicized items in
the following:

PklMAkY
PERSON

, ,,

But as with pro-forms in general, all these pronouns have onc thing in
common: their referential meaning is determined purely by the grammar
of English and the linguistic or situational context in which they occur.
Beyond this, it is necessary to see pronouns as falling into the following
classes and subclasses:
CENTRAL

2nd

perSOnal - eg: I, me, Ihey, them

reflexive - eg: myself, themselves
possessive- eg: my/mine, their/theirs

-eg: which, that

INTERROGATIVE - eg: who, what
DEMONSTRATIVE - eg: this, those

l,d

RELATIVE

positive
INDEFINITE

negative

UniVersal - eg: both, each

assertive - eg: some, several
nonassertive - eg: any, either
- eg: nobody, neither

We follow the tradition of applying the term 'personal pronoun' only 10 a subclass
of the central pronouns. Whal are here termed 'possessive pronouns' are often
treated as a third case (genitive) ofthc primary pronouns; on the paired forms of
possessives (eg: my/mine). see 6.16.
Table 6.2 Central pronouns

As it turned out, somebody offered Elaine a bicycle at a price which

she and her friends knew was well below Ihat of a new one.

109

6.3

NUMBER

SUBJEcnVE OBJECTIVE

ANU GNDER

singular
plural

REFLEXIVE

CASE

C""

POSSESIS VE
DETERMINER

INIJPENI)ENT

FUSCT10N

FUNCTION

m,

myself

w,

"'

ourselves

singular

yoo

yoo

yourself

yOUf

yours

plural

yoo

yoo

yourselves

your

yours

singular
masculine

he

him

himself

his

his

singular
feminine

'he

he<

herself

he<

hers

singular
;1
nonpersonal

;1

ilself

its

(its)

plural

them

themselves

their

theirs

they

my

mine
ours

PERSON distinguishes the speaker or writer ( I st person) from

the addressee
(2nd person) and from those persons or things which are neither (3rd
person):
I hope that you will express an opinion on them.

I fpronouns of different persons are coordinated, the sequence is treated as

I st person ifit includes I or we, 2nd person ifit includes you but not I or IIe.
Thus:
You and I can go together, can't we?

Central pronouns
Personal pronouns
6,2

Like all the central pronouns, the personal pronouns display a person
contrast; that is, they have separate 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person forms. In the
3rd person, there is a three-way gender contrast: masculine, feminine, and
nonpersonai. There are also number contrasts (singular, plural) and in the
personal subclass a I st and 3rd person contrast in case also (subjective,
objective). The system of central pronouns is presented as a whole in Table
6.2.

You and

{ Gillian } agree WIt. h thai, don'tyou.

she

If neither 1st nor 2nd person pronouns occur in the coordination, the
sequence is of course 3rd person:
Fred
He

} and {M,Dna } met in Tunis, didn't they?

sle

The ordering of pronouns in coordination is important from the view

point of style and courtesy: the I st person comes last (especially if it is the
singular) and the 2nd person usually comes first:

110

Pronouns

You,

Centr.1 pronouns

{k, } and I will still be at work.

Why didn't they invite you and

Look at your hand, Jack; you've cut yourself

Keep your voices down, children; you must behave yourselves.

John?
me?
her?

But, while you . . . yourselves is straightforwardly the plural of more than

one addressee, each of which might be addressed as you . . . yourself, the
plural with the 1st person is on quite a different basis. We is not the plural
of I (We, that is, I and I and I are glad to see you') but a pronoun
meaning I and one or more other people (,We, that is, Jill and I', 'We the
undersigned'). See below, 6.10.

3rd person coordinates usually have the masculine before the feminine,
the pronoun before the noun phrase:

He and she
were both elected.
She and another student
6.4

enforces a three-way distinction on the 3rd person singular, with

masculine, feminine, and nonpersonal fonns (5.45ff):

NOTE

6,6

Corresponding to the genitive case in nouns (5.48ff), we have in pronouns

the subclass of possessives, treated below in 6.16:

Someone is knocking so I'd betler go and let h . . ? in.

An ambilious player must discipline h . . ?self

The girl's dog bit an old man's ankle.

Her dog bit his ankle.
6.7

An ambitious player must discipline himself or herself

More generally, where an informal disregard for strict number concord is

felt tolerable, the gender-neutral plural is used:
Someone has parked their car right under the 'No Parking' sign.
NOTE

6.S

Many people are uncomfortable about such forms, however, especially in

writing, though the subject variants are almost equally objectionable in
seeming unnatural. Where an operator can be added, of course, the
problem of choice satisfactorily disappears:

NUMBER has to be treated separately for each of the three persons of

pronouns. With the 3rd person, number is closest in value to that with
nouns:

With the 2nd person, there is a number contrast only in the reflexive
pronoun. Compare:

The choice of subjective and objective forms does not depend solely upon
the strict grammatical distinction between subject and object. Rather,
usage shows that we are concerned more with subject 'territory' (the pre
verbal pari of a clause) in contrast to object 'territory' (the post-verbal
part ofa clause). In consequence of the latter consideration, it is usual in
informal style to find objective fonus selected in such instances as the
following:
His sister is taller than him.
Whoever left the door unlocked, it certainly wasn't me.

The graphic device s/he to embrace he and she is oflimited value since there is no
equally convenient obje<:tive, possessive. or reflexive rorm (though rull rorms are
onen used, such as him/her).

A male officer and a woman officer interrogated the prisoner but the
officers disagreed over procedure.
He and she interrogated the prisoner but they disagreed over
procedure.

CASE in personal pronouns involves a distinction absent from nouns,

marking broadly the grammatical roles of subject and object. Compare:
The policeman detained this young woman.
He detained Irer.
The lVoman resisted the policeman.
She resisted him.

This causes problems, especially when there is no basis for deciding

between masculine and feminine, either because the gender is unknown or
because it must be inclusive:

Traditionally, the masculine can be used as the unmarked form (2.7)

covering male and female reference in such cases, but sensitivity to sexual
bias makes many people prefer a cumbersome coordination:

In archaic style, there is a set orsingular2nd person pronouns thou (objective thee).
a special subjective plural form ye.

thy(selj) , thine, and

GENDER

He has hurt his hand.

She asked henelf why she had bought it when its lens was so
obviously scratched.

111

His sister is taller than he is.

See

NOTE

also 6. I I .

[al l n contraSI with except which is always treated as a preposilion and thererore
rollowed by the objective case ('Nobody except her objected'), there is vacillation
over prepositional bill, many people preferring the subjective form irit is in subjecl
'territory'. Thus:

112

Pronouns

Central pronouns

Nobody but she objected.

The pronoun It

Even in object territory, but can be followed by either form, as with as and than:

6.9

Nobody objected but she/her.

[bJ The frequency of the coordination you and I seems to have resulted In a
tendency to make it case-invariant, though such examples as the following are felt
to be uneasily hypereorrect:

Since this last noun phrase is a nominalization ( 1 7.23) of a clause ("You

are assessing the problem'), it is easy to see that it can refer to the content
of whole sentences and sequences of sentences:

Specific reference

I don't like to say ;/ but I must. You have lost your job because you
didn '{ work hard enough. You have only yourself to blame.

Central pronouns resemble noun phrases with Ihe in normally having

definite meaning, and they also usually have specific reference. In the case
of 3rd person pronouns, the identity of the reference is typically supplied
by the linguistic context, anaphorically as in [ I ] or cataphorically as in [2]
(c/5.14):

Such a cataphoric use of iI with sentential reference is analogous to the

extrapositional il (1 8.23ff):
It has to be said that yOll have los' your job because . . .

There is all exceIJen/ museum here and everyone should visit it. [ I ]
When she had examined the patient, 'he doctor picked
up the telephone.
[2]

Analogous too is the anticipatory il in cleft sentences ( 1 8 . 1 8!):

II was only last week that the death was announced.

In [1], il is understood as 'the museum'; in [2], she is understood as 'the

doctor'. Cataphoric reference is conditional upon grammatical subordi
nation; thus [2] could not be restated as:

In many cases where it seems to be superficially anaphoric, it is to be

explained in terms of this anticipatory use with subsequent ellipsis.
Compare:

She examined the patient and then Ihe doe/or picked up the
telephone.

I asked where she lived and it turned out to be in my street.

The phone rang and ;t was the police.
On the other hand, it as a prop ('dummy') subject frequently occurs where
no plausible sentential reference can be claimed:

Anaphoric reference has no such constraint, and [2] could be replaced by:
When the doctor had examined the patient, she picked up the
telephone.
On the other hand, the relative freedom ofanaphoric reference can result
in indeterminacy as to identification:

If it stops raining, we can go out for a walk; but we must be home

before il gets dark.
NOTE

A prop it is not confined to subject function:

I take it that she has declined the invitation.
He had a hard time of it in the army.

Ms Fairweather asked Janice ifshel could come into her room; she!
seemed to be more upset than she had ever seen her.
English grammar determines only that the italicized items have singular
feminine reference; it does not determine the specific identities. In such a
case, the speaker/writer would have to make sure that the larger context or
the situation left it clear whether, for example, she! referred to Ms
Fairweather or to Janice and whether she2 had the same reference as she ! .
Did Ms Fairweather ask for the interview because Janice seemed upset or
is Janice reflecting that the interview is sought because Ms Fairweather
seemed upset?

Any singular noun phrase that does not determine reference by he or she is
referred to by it ; thus collectives, noncount concretes, and abstractions:
The commiItee met soon after ;1 had been appointed.
He bought some salmon because ;1 was her favourite food.
When you are ready to report it, I would like to know your
assessment of the problem.

Let's you and I go together then.

Between you and I, there was some cheating.

6.8

113

The 1st person plural forms

6.10

The pronoun for the 1st person plural is a device for referring to T and
one or more other people. The latter may be INClUSIYF. of the addressee(s):
I'm glad to see you, Marie, and I hope we (ie y ou and I') can have a
long talk.
Ladies and gentlemen, I hope we (le y ou and 1') can agree this
evening on a policy for the future.
'

'

114

Centrat pronOtlns

Pronouns

The latter is akin to the persuasive we associated with sermons and

political speeches as well as with scholarly writing; for example:

115

Whatever you others do, we here would be willing to leave now.

Could you there collect your passports at the desk?

We must increase our vigilance if we are not to fall victim to

temptation.
As we saw in Chapter Three, we can trace the origins of human
conflict to . . .

(d) Prepositional phrases, with 1st person (usually plural) and 2nd
person:
It is very much the concern of

The artificial nature of the inclusiveness in this last example (which really
means 'As I hope you saw in Chapter Three . . .') is accentuated in the
rhetorical use of we, where the reference is to a general human collectivity
-possibly in the remote past -and where paraphrase by 'you and I' may be
unthinkable:

{;u } in the learnedprofessions.

(e) Emphatic reflexives:

I myself, she herself, they themselves

(f) Universal pronouns, with plurals:

In the eighteenth century, we had little idea of the effect that

industrial inventions would have.

We all accept responsibility.

You both
They each

Artificial inclusiveness of a different kind is found in the informal we used

by doctor to patient:
And how are we (ie 'you') feeling today?

} need help.

(g) Relative clauses, chiefly in formal style:

The obverse of this occurs in the exclusive use of the 1st person plural
where 'you' the addressee is not included:

We who fought for this principle will not lightly abandon it.
He or she who left a case in my office should claim it as soon as
possible.

Ms Rogers and I have finished the report, Minister; shall we (ie 'she
and I') leave it on your desk?

They that ( * They who) is rare, those who being preferred.

Related to this is the traditional 'editorial' we:

We can now reveal that the visit was cancelled because of threatened
terrorist activity.
NOTE

The royal we, now restricted to highly fonnal material such as charters. can be
regarded as an extreme fonn of exclusive we.

There is very limited scope for modification and it largely concerns the
personal pronouns with the objective case (cf 6.7):
(a) Adjectives, chiefly in informal exclamations:
Poor me!

Clever you!

6.12

In the type of modification illustrated in 6. I I (g), most instances have

generic rather than specific reference, as in the proverbial
He (ie 'Anyone') who hesitates is lost.

For ordinary purposes, the pronouns we, you, and they have widespread
use as generics; for example:

Modification of pronouns

6.11

Generic reference

Good old him!

(b) Appositive nouns, with plural ist and 2nd person:

Will you others please wait here?
You nurses have earned the respect of the entire country, and we
politicians must see that you geL a proper reward.
Us locals are going to protest. (familiar)
(c) Here and there, with 1st person plural and 2nd person respectively
(the latter tending to sound rude):

We live in an age of moral dilemmas.

You can always tell if someone is lying. (informal)
They'll soon find a cure for cancer. (informal)

[I)
[2)
[3)

In each case, the subject could be replaced by the generic otle but with
major stylistic and semantic differences. Stylistically, one would be morc
fonnal in each case, but especially so in [3]. Semantically, we retains the
inclusionary wannth of implied 1st person involvement (6.10), yOIl
comparably implies special interest in the addressee, while they detaches
the general observation equally from both the speaker and the addressee.
In consequence, it is especially convenient in relation to regret or
disapproval:
I wonder why they don't repair the roads more often.

116

Pronouns

Centre' pronotms

The reflexlves

6.13

Janet

The reflexive pronouns are always coreferential with a noun or another

pronoun, agreeing with it in gender, number, and person:

Fred closed the door behind him.

Fred draped a blanket about him.

The reftexives here are coreferential with Veronica (as appositive subject),
The dog (as object), and He andhis wife (as indirect object). By contrast, in
He and his wife poured them a drink.

In such cases, context alone would show whether him referred to Fredor to
someone else; replacement of him by himselfwould of course remove any
doubt but this would be unusual unless emphasis were required.

[4]

the indirect object them refers to people other than the subject.
The coreference must be within the clause; thus we have a contrast
between

NOTE

With some common existential expressions (JB.30ff), the reflexive is rare or

impossible in the prepositional complement:
She hadn't any money on her.
I have my wire with me.

Penelope begged Jane to look after her. ( = Penelope)

Penelope begged Jane to look after herself. ( = Jane)

On the other hand, there are idiomatic phrases in which the prepositional
complement must be reflexive:

But the item determining the reflexive may be absent from the clause in
question; for example, imperative clauses are understood to involve 2nd
person, and nonfinite clauses may reveal the subjcct in a neighbouring
main clause:

They were beside themselves with rage.

I was sitling by myself
Contrast:

Look at yourseJf in the mirror!

Freeing itseJffrom the trap, the rat limped away.
NOTE

They were beside me. ( near )

I was silting by her. ('near')
'

laJ Where a pronoun objC1:t is only partially coreferential with the subject. the
reflexive is not used. Thus beside '{ could make myself an omelette' We could
make Qurse/l'es an omelette' , we have '{ could make us an omelette'.
Ibl Appositive use of reflexives is associated with the need ror emphasis.
.

6,14

The possesslves

6.16

As shown in Table 6.2, most of the possessive pronouns differ in form

according as they function as determiners or as independent items.
Compare:
These are

They pride themselves on their wellkept garden.

The witness was suspected of having perjured himself.
So also absem oneself. ingratiate oneself, hehm'e oneself, though with this
last the reflexive can be omitted. With some other verbs. there is a
threefold choice:
[1]
[2]
[3]

[1]

So also wash, shave, hide, prepare etc.

6,15

'

A few transitive verbs require that subject.and object are coreferential:

She dressed herself with care.

She dressed with care.
She dressed him with care.

told a story about

Janet)
her ( =I= Janet)
=

But where the prepositional phrase is adverbial (especially relating to

space: cf8.2, 8 . 1 6jJ), coreference can be expressed without the reflexive:

[1]
[2]
[3]

Veronica herseJf saw the accident.

The dog was scratching itself.
He and his wife poured themselves a drink.

{ tOOk a photo of }{ herseJf(

117

Prepositional complements coreferential with an item in the same clause

take reflexive form where the preposition has a close relationship with the
verb (as in the prepositional verbs look at, look after, listen 10: cf 16.5jJ).
The same holds in sequences concerned with representation:

BUT

{ Miriam's }books. ..... These books are { Miriams.

,
ler
That is my bicycle.
Which are their clothes?
Is this his car?
Those are ifS pawmarks.

.....
....
---

,letS.
That bicycle is mine.
Which clothes are Iheirs?
Is this car his?
*'!Those paw-marks are its.

When the emphatic (wIry) OWII follows a possessive (the only form of
modification admitted), there is no difference between determiner and
independent function:
That is my OWII bicycle. .... That bicycle is my ow".
With this modification, even its can now sometimes assume enough
weight for independent status:
The cat knows that this is The cat knows that this dish is
its ('ery) own dish.
its (very) own.

116

NOTE

Pronouns wttflout . person contr...

Pronouns

119

Zero has a similar range, lacking only the subject function:

Possessives are used with items such as parts of the body without any feeling of
tautology:

The actor
The play

She shook her head:

I tried to kccp my balance.

}{ ( ) I admired

( ) I was attracted to

} is new to London.

A major difference between the two series is that items in (2) can operate
only in restrictive clauses. See 17,8.
Interrogative pronouns

Pronouns without a person contrast

6.18

Relative pronouns

6.17

who

Relative pronouns comprise two series:

Compare:
I'd like tocomeand see the house

{r }

you have for sale.

Of these

The man

WItat

is a neighbour.

Th a or
Th p y

thal pleased me
Ihal I admired
that I was attracted to

is new to London,

'
{is best? .
whleh
}
do you like most?
students,

{cars,

{is in that box?

were you wearing that day?

But what and which can also be determiners (5.3), and in this function the
noun phrase can be personal or nonpersonal, the difference then being
that which assumes a limited choice of known answers:
Whal doctor(s) would refuse to see a patient?
Which doctor (s) [or those we are discussing) gave an opinion on this
problem?

But see 17,8.ff.

In series (2), Ihat can be used without reference to the gender of the
antecedent or the function within the relative clause, except that it cannot
be preceded by a preposition:

{
}

what

When what is used as a pronoun, the questioner assumes that the reference
is nonpersonal:

While who and whom share gender reference. their difference in form
reflects the case distinction, subjective and objective respectively, within
the relative clause:

which

With which, reference can be both personal and nonpersonal:

Are you the doctor who looked after my daughter?

That is the hospital which is to be expanded.
.
doctor
.
whose phone number I gave you.
That IS the
hospltaI

who greeted me
whom I greeted
10 whom I spoke

whose

Who owns this house?

Who (m) does this house belong to?
To whom does this house belong? (fonnal)
Whose is this house'!

In neither series are there distinctions of person or number, but in ( I ) we

have some distinctions of gender and case. With who and whom the
antecedent must have personal gender (5.45); with which it must have
non personal gender; with whose the antecedent is usually personal but can
also be nonpersonai. Thus:

whom

The first four are identical with series ( I ) of the relative pronouns (6.17),
but there are notable differences both in their reference and in their
grammar within the clause. Whose as well as who and whom can be used
only with reference to items of personal gender; nor is whose restricted to
determiner function. While whom can function only as the objective case,
who can be both subjective and (especially in speech) objective except after
a preposition, To illustrate these points:

( I ) wh- items: who, whom, whose, which

(2) thot and zero, the latter indicated below as ( )

There are five interrogative pronouns:

As determiner, whose retains its personal reference:

Whose house is this?
NOTE

The distinction between who, what, and which is brought out in a set like the
following:

120

Pronoun. without . person conlrt

Pronoun.

These figures havejusl been compiled; those of yours are out of date.

Who is his wife? The novelist Felicity Smith. (cf 5. 1 1)

What is his wife? A novelist. (cf 5.15. 23)
Which is his wife? The woman nearest the door.

In consequence, this/these tend to be associated with cataphoric reference

(5.14), that/those with anaphoric reference:

Demonstrative pronouns

6.19

Watch carefully and I'll show you: this is how it's done.
So now you know: that 's how it's done.
This is an announcement: will Mrs Peterson please go to the enquiry
desk.
And that was the six 0 'clock news.

The demonstratives have the same formal range and semantic contrast
both as pronouns and as determiners (5.5), this/these suggesting relative
proximity to the speaker, that/those relative remoteness:

this
We shall
(picture)
compare these
(pictures)

.
here with

that
(Picture)
those
(pictures)

over there.

NOTE

this plastic bag. ....., this

this kitten . ...., ?this
this woman.- this

Especially in inrormal usage, a rurther extension of the polarity tends to equate

this/these with the speaker's approval. and especially that/those with disapproval:
How can this intelligent girl think of marrying thar awful bore?

But while all can be used as determiners irrespective of the gender of the
noun head, as pronouns the reference must be to nouns of nonpersonal
(and usually inanimate) gender:
In the garden, I noticed

121

Indellnlte pronouns

6.21

An exception is where the demonstrative pronoun is subject of a be-clause

with a noun phrase of specific reference as complement:
That is my kitten.
These are the children I told you about.
Cl also 'Who is that l' 'Who is il?' beside 'Who are YOII?' 'Who is she?'
Occasionally lOO the demonstratives may be used as pronouns with
animate reference where there is ellipsis:

Indefinite pronouns are heterogeneous in form and they embrace also a

wide range both of meanings and of grammatical properties. They are
characterized as a whole, however, by having a general and nonspecific
reference which the term 'indefinite' seeks to capture. Equally, they are
characterized by having functions directly involved in expressingquantity,
from totality ('all') to its converse ('nothing'). Reference in some cases
invokes gender, such that items in -body are personal, items in -thing
nonpersonal. Quantification in some cases invokes countability and
number. such that each is singular count, both dual count, while some may
be noncount or plural count.
Several of the indefinites can function both as determiners and as
pronouns. as we shall see in what follows.

I attended to thal patient but not this (onc).

As in the example, however, it would be usual to add the pronoun one.
A further partial exception is that those with postmodification ( 1 7.2)
can readily have personal reference:
Will ,hose seated in rows 20 to 30 now please board the aircraft.
Success comes to those who have determination.
NOTE

Whether as determiners or pronouns. the demonstralives ean be modified by

predeterminers (5.7ff):
She painted 011 (of) those (pictures) last year.
His fee was twenty dollars but now it s twice that (amount).

The universal items

6.22

We may first consider the compound indefinites (e-eryone, t!1'erybody,

everything; no one, nobody, nothing). noting that all except no one are
written as single words. These function only as pronouns, and despite
their entailment of plural meaning they take singular verbs:
The room was full of youngsters and everyone/everybody was
listening intently to the speeches.
I appealed to the whole crowd, but no one/nobody was willing to get
up and speak.

'

6.20

The deictic or 'pointing' contrast between this/these and that/those is not

confined 10 spatial perception. While this morning usually refers to
'today', that morning refers to a more distant morning, past or future.
More generally, ,his/these have more immediate or impending relevance
than that/Those:

Father was very particular about how his tools were arranged in the
workshop; he knew where everything was supposed to be and he
insisted that nothing was ever to be misplaced.
These and the other universal indefinites are shown together in Table
6.22.

Pronoun. w"hout . per.on contr...

122

123

Pronoun.

Table 6.22:

ach
candidate will be individually interviewed.
very

Universal indefinites

Where they differ is that each is more targeted on the individual among the
totality, every on the totality itself. In consequence, every is subject to
quantitative modification as in

COU'T
NUM8ER

NONCOUNT

F\]NCTION

Posi/h'e

PERSONAL

NONPERSONAL

everyone

everything

everybody

Almost every candidate was over the age of twenty-five.

pronoun

By contrast with each, none is not restricted to singular reference, though

plurals like the rollowing are objectionable to some users:

each

singular

every
determiner
pronoun

all/both

determiner

all/both

Hundreds were examined but nOlle were acceptable.

,11

each

With the determiner no which corresponds to none, however, plural is as

universally used as the singular:

plural

Negatil'e

no one

No photography is permitted during the ceremony.

There were no passengers on the train.

nothing

nobody
pronoun
singular

NOTE
none

none
pronoun and
determiner

plural

pronoun

singular or

determiner

6.24

none

With all and both, we make plural and dual universal rererence:
The factory produces luxury cars and all are for export.
Police interviewed the (two) suspects and both were arrested.

"0

These two items also have a predeterminer function:

All these cars are ror export.
Both (the) suspects were arrested.

[aJ The forms in -one arc slightly preferred by most users (esp in BrE) to the
corresponding pronouns i n -body.
[b] The pronouns in -olle and -body have a genitive:

The converse of all is no (lie) (6.23); that of both is neither, usually with
singular verb concord:

Safety is eleryones rcsponsibility. but in this case the accident seems to have
been nobody's fault.

Police interviewed the (two) suspects but neither was arrested.

[cl Pronunciation obscures the origin of the compound nothing: /nIr.Olry/.

[dJ Though el'erJ'lI'here and nOl'l'here chiefly function as indefinite adverbials. they
can also be pronouns:

It has a parallel determiner function:

Neither suspect was arrested.

EI'erywhere is draughty and nowhere is comfortable.

6.23

n otherwise pl ural

The knives were each tried in turn.

neither

plural

NOTE

The individualizing role of each can be preserved

environments:

Two further indefinites are each and none, both able to operate
irrespective of gender with singular reference:
Many members hesitated but although each was pressed to act, 1I0lle
was in the end willing.
There were several knives in the drawer, but although each was tried
in turn, none was sharp enough to cut through the rope.
Each (but not none) can also function as a determiner, in which role it is
closely paralleled by every:

NOTE

As with each (6.23 Note). all and both can appear medially.

The cars were all for export .

The (two) suspects were both arrested .
In this function all is used freely with a noncounl reference otherwise largely
confined 10 its prcdctcrminer function:
The money had all been spent.
All the money had been spent.

124

Pron04Jn.

Pronoun. without . person contr'

Partitive indefinitcs

6.25

Table

In dealing with the partitives (see Table 6.25), we must make a primary
distinction between (a) those in assertive use, and (b) those in non-assertive
use (2. 1 1 ) :
(a)

.
.
{someone } chmbmg
that tree.
I can see

(b) OId .you see

{ anyone } .

FUNCTION

ASlf'r/;I'f'

pronoun

COUNT
PERSONAL

NONP(RSONAL

someone

something

NONCOUNT

somebody
determiner

a (an)

pronoun and

",m,

"'m'

determiner
NO//al5ertil'f'

pronoun

anyone

anything

anybody
singular

anyb0dy
J couldn't find anything to read.
I'd like nuts, if you have any.
I'd like wine, if you have any.
All the students work hard and J don't think any will fail.

either

plural

When used pronominally, some and any usually have clear contextual
reference to a noun phrase. Both occur more freely as determiners:
6.26

The examples above illustrate the use of these items with personal,
nonpersonal, count, and noncount reference. But il should be further
noted that with any the number distinction is typically blurred:

determiner

'"Y

pronoun and

'"Y

determiner

any

The partitives include quantifiers, which may (a) increase or (b) decrease
the implications of some; thus beside 'There are some who would
disagree', we have:
(a) There are many who would disagree.
(b) There are afew who would disagree.

The woman said she'd seen an animal running for cover, but her
companion said that he hadn't seen any animal(s) at all.
NOTE

NUt.l8ER

plural

.
the VICIOlty.
. . ?

(a) I would love some nuts and some wine, please.

(b) If you haven't any nuts, I'll not have any wine, thank you.

6.25'. Partitive indefinites

singular

someb0dy
There's something I want to tell you.
There are nuts here; please have some.
There is wine here; please have some.
All the students speak French and some speak Italian as well.

125

Analogously with noncount reference:

The bread looked delicious and I ate

la] On -one and -body, see 6.22 Notes la] and [b].
[bJ Corresponding fairly closely to the negative neither (6.24). there is the
nonassertive eilher:

some,
a great deal,
a little,

This use of quantifiers is not paralleled exactly in nonassertive contexts,

where the contrast is rather between total and partial exclusion:

The police did not arrest eilher (suspect).

There aren't allY who would disagree. ( = No onc)

There aren't mallY who would disagree. ( A few)
The wine was inferior and I didn't drink o"y, ( = None)
The wine was inferior and J didn't drink nIuch. ( A little)

le) Beside the partitive some (m] as determiner, a stressed form (sAml can be used
with singular count nouns in the sense 'a certain' (5.6 Note (b)):

'Some 'man slopped me to ask the way.

Id] Like el'f'rYlI'iJere. nowhere (6.22 Note Id)), we have somewhere, anywhere; in
AmE also -place.
(el Assertive forms can be used in nonasscrtive 'territory' when the presupposition
is positive:

Can you see someone in the garden ( = There is someone in the garden: can
you sce him/her'?)
Would you like some wine ( = I invite you 10 have some wine).

As well as being pronouns, many, a few, a little, and much can be

detenniners.
The oj-partitins

6.27

It is typical of the indefinites which have both a pronoun and a determiner

role to fuse these roles in of-expressions where the final part is a personal
pronoun or a noun preceded by a definite determiner; for example:

126

PronCMIns

PronCMIna without . person contr..

t

Some are doing well.

Some sllldents are doing well.
the students
Some of these students are doing well.
them

Three ofmyfriends are coming to dinner.

So too the ordinals, and these can be used with both count and noncount
expressIOns:
A/one quarter of his books were destroyed in the fire.
She regulates her life carefully, devoting at leastjive-sixths ofherfree
time to practising at the piano.

Thus, with singular count partition:

each of
one of
any of
(the students)
either of
none of
neither of

With hal/, there is considerable freedom in usage; as a predeterminer, it

must itself be without a preceding determiner:
I saw half the

I saw

half
a half
one half

of the

{ performance. }
players.

There was another 0/ those unexplainedjires in the city yesterday.

(ollr supporters)

all of
some of
a great deal of
much of
more of
most of
(Beethoven '.5 music)
laJ little of
less of
least of
any of
none of
Comparative forms can be preceded by items of absolute meaning:
There were afell' more of our supporlers than I had expected.
She played much less of Beelhol'en 's music than we had hoped.

6,28

players.

Outside of-partitives, another has only limited use as a pronoun:

Bu. cf:
There have been many fires in the city recently;
another was
reported yesterday.
severaI were

With noncount partition:

NOTE

{ performance.

In o/-partitives or otherwise pronominally, it may be determined:

With plural count partition:

all of
both of
some of
many of
more of
most of
laJfe", of
fewer. -est of

127

As well as one, the other cardinal numerals are readily used in

of-partitives:

By contrast, other does not enter into of part itives, but in its plural form is
otherwise common in pronoun usage:
You should treat olher.f as you would like to be treated yourself.
NOTE

raJ In association with each and one, olher and (wOlher function as reciprocal
pronouns. For example:
One student will often help anolher.
Each of us must support the Oilier.
.
eaCh olher.
Thechlldren were very fond of
one anolher.

[bJ The pattern (in figures and words) of the cardinal and ordinal numerals is as set
out below. As ordinals. items are usually preceded by Ihe, as fractions by Q or one:
'thefourth of July', 'Q Ihird of a litrc'.
o nought.

zero

l one

1st first

2 two

5f ive

2nd second (as/rac/iQI/. a half)

3rd third
4th fourth
5th fiflh

6 six

6th sixth

7 seven

7th seventh

3 three

4 four

126

Pronouns

8 eight

8th eighth

9 nine

9th ninth

10 ten

10th tenth

I 1 eleven

11th eleventh

12 twelve

12th twelfth

13 thirteen
14 fourteen

13th thirtnth

15 fifteen

15th fifteenth

16 sixteen
11 seventeen

16th sixteenth

18 eighteen
19 ninetn

14th fourteenth

17th seventeenth
18th eighteenth
19th nineteenth

20 twenty

20th twentieth

21 twenty-one

21 st twenty-first

22 twenty-two

22nd twenty-second

23 twenty-three

23rd twenty-third

24 twenty-four (etc)
30 thirty
40 forty

24th twenty-fourth (ete)

40th fortieth

50 fifty

50th fiftieth

60 sixty

30th thirtieth

10 seventy

60th sixtieth
70th seventieth

80 eighty

80th eightieth

90 ninety

90th ninetieth

100 a/one hundred

100th hundredth

120 a/one hundred and twenty

120th hundred and twentieth

1 ,000 a/one thousand

1,500 a/one thousand five hundred
2,000 two thousand (etc)
100,000 a/one hundred thousand
[ ,000,000 a/one million
1,000,000,000 alone billion

I ,OOOth thousandth
l.500th thousand five hundredth
2,OOOth two thousandth (etc)
100,OOOth hundred thousandth
I ,OOO,OOOth millionth
I ,OOO,OOO,OOOth billionth

Bibliographical note

pronouns in general, sce Boli nger (1979); Jackendoff (1968); Stevcnson and
Vitkovitch (1986),
On central pronouns, sce Helke (1979); JlIcobsson (1968); Sahll (1987);
Scppanen (1980); Thavenius ( 1 983); on reciprocal pronouns, see Kjellmer (1982);
on indefinite pronouns, scc Sahlin ( 1 979): on numerals. see Hurford (1975).

On

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives
Characteristics of the adjective

7.1

Four features are commonly considered to be characteristic of adjectives:

(a) They can freely occur in ATTRIBUTIVE function, ie they can premodify
a noun, appearing between the determiner (including zero article) and
the head of a noun phrase:
an ugly painting, the round table, dirty linen
(b) They can freely occur in PREDICATIVE function, ie they can function as
subject complement, as in [I]. or as object complement, as in [2]. eg:
The painting is ugly,
He thought the painting ugly.

[1 J
[2J

(c) They can be prernodified by the intensifier very, eg:

The children are very happy.
(d) They can take COMPARATIVE and SUPERLATIVE forms. The comparison
may be by means of inflections (-er and -est), as in [3-41, or by the
addition of the premodifiers more and most (,periphrastic cornpari
son'), as in [5-6J:
The children are happier now.
They are the happiest people I know.
These students are more ime/Jigent.
They are the most beautlful paintings I have ever seen.

[3J
[4J
[5J
[6J

Not all words that are traditionally regarded as adjectives possess all
these four features. The last two features generally coincide for a
particular word and depend on a semantic feature, gradability. The
adjective atomic in atomic scientist, for example, is not gradable and we
therefore do not find )'ery atomic or -more atomic. Gradability cuts
across word classes. Many adverbs are gradable, and since they also take
premodification by I'ery and comparison, these two features do not
distinguish adjectives from adverbs.
The abilily to function attributively and the ability to function
predicativeiy are central features of adjectives. Adjectives like happy and
infinite, which have both these features, are Iherefore CENTRAL adjectives.
Those like utter that can be only attributive and those like afraid that can
be only predicative are PERIPHERAL adjectives.

130 Adlectlve nd .dverb.

NOTE

AdJective.

Some suffixes are found only, or typically, with adjectives, eg:

comfortable
-Jul: playful
-ish: greyish
-ous: dangerous
-able:

[b) When we require adverbs corresponding to -Iy adjectives such asfriendly, lit-ely,
and masterly. we normally use an adjective construction, thereby avoiding the
double suffix -lily:
She received us in afriendly way (NOT: She received usfriendlily.)

However, many common adjectives have no identifying rorm. eg: good, hot, /iule,
),oung. fat .
The adjective and other word classes

Adjectives and adverbs beginning with a7.3

Adjective and adverb homomorphs

7.2

Normally there is a regular difference of form between an adjective and a

corresponding adverb in that the adverb is distinguished by its -iy suffix. In
a rapid car, rapid is an adjective; in He drove rapidly, rapidly is an adverb.
However, there are some words that have the same form, without the -Iy
suffix, in adjective and adverb functions, eg:

t lere.

Another difference is that a-adjectives refer to temporary states and

cannot be part of the predication after verbs of motion; a-adverbs, on the
other hand, denote direction after such verbs.

And sometimes there are two forms: one may be used as either adjective or
adverb and the other is an adverb with an -Iy suffix:

Jcan went

{ .asleep/.alert. {adjectives]
abroad/away. [adverbs]

Common a-adjectives include ablaze, afloat. afraid. alert, alone,

ashamed. asleep. aware, awake.

Take a deep breath. [adjective]

e

NOTE

Finally, there are some words in -Iy that can function both as adjectives
and as adverbs, eg:
I caught an early train. [adjective]
We finished early today. [adverb]
That was a kindly gesture. [adjective]
Will you kindly refrain from smoking? [adverb]
They include a set of words denoting time, eg: daily. hourly, monthly,
weekly.
la] Where there is variation. some people prerer the -Il' rorm ror the adverb
runction. particularly in rormal style. The adjective rorm cannot precede the verb:
Ted will pay

} [ dJcctlves
" "
)
} [adverbs)
asleep" }
" "
[adJectlves)
fungrY .
abroad. }
[adverbs]

asleep"
hWIgrY.
abroad.
tIfere.

Have you seen her lately? ('recently']

NOTE

.
The patIent seemed

Sometimes there is also an -Iy adverb form but with a different meaning:

ep" (esp informal) }

[ad verb)
{dlleep
, Iy.

Some words beginning with a- are adjectives and can be used predicatively
with both be and other copular verbs, but the a-adverbs can be used only
with be. The distinction differentiates adjectives from adverbs.

The patIent was

Bill has a fast car. [adjective]

Bill drove fast. [adverb1
Norma arrived in the late afternoon. {adjective]
Norma arrived late in the afternoon. [adverb]

Breathe

{ ;:: } pay for his mistake.

Ted will

-al: seasonal
-ic: scientific
-less: useless
Ay: dirty

131

{;:/Y } for his mistake.

la] Alert and aloofarc rreely used attributively. Most other a-adjectives can occur
attributively only when they are modified: a somewhat afraid soldier, the fast
asleep children. a really (lliw: student (,lively').
[b) Some a-adjectives freely take premodification by I'ery and comparison. eg: l'ery
afraid, more alert. Others do so marginally, eg: asleep and awake.

Adjecth'es and nouns

7.4

Nouns commonly function as premodifiers of other nouns (cf 17.35):

the bus station, a business friend, student grants
However, they do not share other characteristics of most adjectives:
(a) There is no corresponding predicative function:
the bus station - The station is bus.
(b) They cannot be modified by 'ery:
a very bus station

132

AdJective.

AdJ.ctlve. and adverb.

Note however the change of premodifier in: I'er), much an Englishman- I'er),
English: and the use ofthc indefinite article (a sure sign of noun status) in afool and
an Englishman,
Ib] Some noun forms can function both attributively and predicatively, in which
case wecan perhaps regard them as adjectives. They denote style or material from
which things are made:

(c) They cannot take comparison:

*a busser station
Furthermore, nouns have other features which distinguish them from
adjectives; for example anicle contrast (the bus/a bus), number contrast
(olle bus/two buses), genitive inflection (the student 's essays), premodifica
tion by an adjective (the young student ).
The basically nominal character of a premodifying noun, such as
garden in garden tools, is shown by its correspondence to a prepositional
phrase with the noun as complement: tools/or the garden. Compare also:
the city council - the council /or the city
a stolle wall
- a wall (made) oJstolle
August weather - weather (usual) in August

that concrete floor - That floor is concrete.

Worcester porcelain ,.... This porcelain is Worcester.
those apple pies
- Those pies are apple. (informal)

Adjectives and participles

7.S

a thick wall
hot weather

NOUNS

an annual custom

She is hoping to publish an annual

for children.
There was only one black in my class.
You won't find many classics in our
library.
She considers herself an intellectual.
The king greeted his nobles.
He's a natura/ for the job.
Our six-year-o!d is at school.

a black student
a classic book
intellectual interests
a noble family
a natural skier
a six-year-old boy
NOTE

[Ill] Like adjectives, nouns can function as subject complement after copular verbs,
in particular after be:

That man is afoo/.

The noise you heard was thunder.
She became a IIIIfSe.
Some nouns can also be used within the subjeclcomplement after seem (esp BrE):
Hc seems afool. l=foolish]
Your remark seems (complete) nonsense to me. [= nOllsensica/]
My stay there seemed sheer bliss. (= blissful]
His friend seems very much all Englishnuln. [ = very English]

PREDICATIVE USE

AITRIBUTIVE USE

His views were very surprising.

The man seemed very offended.

...... his surprising views

...... the offended man

They include forms in wed that have no corresponding verbs:

Some items can be both adjectives and nouns. For example, criminal is
an adjective in that it can be used both attributively (a criminal al/ack ) and
predicatively ( The al/ack seemed criminal to us). On the other hand,
criminal has been converted into a noun in The criminalpleadedguilty and
They are vio/em criminals. Here are other examples of conversion from
adjective to noun:
ADJECTIVF.5

There are many adjectives that have the same suffixes as participles in ing
or wed (including other forms corresponding to wed, c/3.2, 3.91). These arc
PARTICIPtAl ADJECTIVES:

Such a correspondence is not available for attributive adjectives:

a long poem
the urban council

133

The results were unexpected.

Her children must be downhearted.
All his friends are ta/ented.
His lung is diseased.

...... the unexpected results

- her downhearted children
- his ta/ellled friends
...... his diseased lung

When there are no corresponding verbs (*to unexpect, *to dolt'llheart, *to
ra/ell!, *10 disease), the forms are obviously not participles.
When there is a corresponding verb, attributively used ed forms
usually have a passive meaning, eg:
10S1

NOTE

property ...... property that has been 10.1'/

[a] In some cases the -ed participle is not interpreted as passive, The passive
interpretation is excluded if the corresponding verb can be used only
intransitively:

the escaped prisoner ('the prisoner who has escaped']

the departed guests ['the guests who have departed')
But even in other instances, the participle relates to the intransitive use of the verb;
thus the passive interpretation is impossible in:
a grOlI'n boy {'a boy who has grown (up)']
It is unli kely in:
thefaded curtains ('the curtains which have faded'.]
the retired manager ('the manager who has retired')
Predicative use occurs only with some of these participial adjectives:
The curtains arefaded lThe curtains have faded')
Her father is now retired.

134 AdjectJves and .dve"'"

Adjecti..

For the -ed form in this example, the participle interpretation focuses on
the process, while the adjective interpretation focuses on the state
resulting from the process. For the -ing form the difference is perhaps
clearer. In the sentence John is insulting, with no object present, the
participle interpretation is implausible because the verb is normally
transitive.

Her son is grown. (dubious in BrE. but full-grown or grown-up is fully

acceptable)
The guests arc departed. (archaic)
[b) Sometimes there is a corresponding verb, but it has a different meaning. We can
therefore have ambiguous sentences where the ambiguity depends on whether the
word is a participle or a participial adje<.:live:

{AOJEcnVE:

PARTICiPlE:

{ADJECflVE:

PARTICIPLE:

7.6

She is (very) calculating (but her husband is frank).

She is calculating (our salaries). [' . . . so don'{ disturb her
while she is doing the arithmetic'.)
They were (very) relieved (to find her at home).
They were reliel'ed (by the next group of sentries).

NOTE

Orten the difference between the adjective and the participle is not c1ear
cul (cl 17.30ff). The verbal force of the participle is explicit for the -ing
form when a direct object is present. Hence, the following -ing forms are
participles that constitute a verb phrase with the preceding auxiliary:

The participle sometimes reaches full adjective status when it is compounded

with another elemenl:
[b]

It is breaking my heart. - It is (very) heart-breaking.

[cJLike participle adjectives,-ing and -ed participles can be attributive. as the following

examples show:

I,
I

Some verbs have different participle forms for verbal and adjectival use:
You have drunk too much.
Have you shaved?
The shirt has shrunk.

The man was offended by the policeman.

He is appreciated by his students.
She was misunderstood by her parents.

crooked
naked

Her views were very alarming.

You are very frightening.
The man was very offended.

The man was offended.

jagged
wicked

learned
Il'retched

Syntactic functions of adjectives

His views were very alarming his audience.

In the absence of any explicit indicator, the status of the participle form is
indeterminate:

dogged
ragged

Thc suffix of aged is pronounced as a separate syllable lid! when the word is
predicative or is attributive or a personal noun (The man is aged; an aged mall
old'). but not. for example. in all aged wine or a man agedfifty.

We might therefore expect that the presence of very together with an

explicit indicator of verbal force would produce an unacceptable sentence.
This is certainly so for the -ing participle form:

Tfhe man was very offended by the policeman.

- drunk(en) driving/driver
- a clean-shal'en young man
"'" a shrunken shirt

Note the pronunciation Ildl of the ending -ed in some adjectives. eg: belOl'ed
IblIAVld/. Other examples:

For both participle forms. premodification by the intensifier very is an

explicit indication that the forms have achieved adjective status:

However, with the -edparticiple, there appears to be divided usage, with

increasing acceptance of the cooccurence of I'ery with a by-agent phrase
containing a personal agent:

a married couple
his published work
the captured prisoner

her crying children

a winning team
boiling water

Similarly, the verbal force is explicit for the -ed form when a by-agent
phrase with a personal agent is present, indicating the correspondence to
the active form of the sentence:

[a) Generally, -ed participle rorms accepting very can retain I'er)' when they
cooccur with a b),-phrasecontaining a nonpcrsonal noun phrase that expresses the
notion of cause or reason:
I'm I'ery disturbed by your attitude.
We were I'ery pleased by his behaviour.

Her views were alarming her audience.

You are frightening the children.
They are insulting us.

135

Attributive and predicative

7.7

Adjectives are attributive when they premodify the head of a noun phrase
( 1 7.29):
a small garden

popular ballads

They are predicative when they function as subject complement or object

complement (cf 10.5):
He seems careless. (C,)
I find him careless. (Co)

136

AdJective. and adverb.

AdJectlv..

Adjectives are subject complement not only to noun phrases, but also to
finite clauses and nonfinite clauses:

[b] In several institutionalized expressions (mostly in official designations), Ihe

adjective is postpositive, eg: the presidenl elecl, heir apparenl, allorney general.
nOlary public. body politic, proofpositil'e.
[cl Adjectives ending in -able and -ible can be post positive, as well as attributive,
when they are modified by another adjective in the superlative degree or by certain
other modifiers: lhe best use possible, lhe grealeSI insult imaginable. lhe only aClor
suilable; the adjective phrase is then discontin uous (cflhebes( possible use and 7.9).
Some can be postpositive without this constraint, eg: lhe stars "isible, rhers
lIavigable. These convey the implication that what they are denoting has only a
temporary application. Thus, lhe Slars visible refers to stars that are visible at a
time specified or implied. while lhe visible Slars more aptly rerers to a category or
stars that can (at appropriate times) be secn.
Postposition is usual for absem, presen/, concerned. and involl'ed when they
designate temporary as opposed 10 permanent attributes:

That you need a car is obvious.

Whether she will resign is uncertain.
To complain may be dangerous.
Playing chess can be enjoyable.
Adjectives can also be object complement to clauses:
.
I consider
NOTE

{ what he did

} .

.
foolish.
lak'109 such nsk s

The adjC(.;tive functioning as object complement oflen eltpresscs the result of the
process denoted by the verb:
He pulled his belt lighl.
He pushed the window open.
He writes his letters large.

The soldiers preJell/ were his supporters.

II1
121
(3)

[d] Appoillled. desired, required, followed, paSl, and preen/ing can also be
postpositive as well as attributive, eg: a/ the lime appoilllet/, in years paSI.

The result can be stated for each sentence by using the verb be:
His belt is liglll.
The window is open.
His letters are large.

Adjectives wilh complementation

1 1 ,)
12,)
(30)

Postpositive
7.8

Adjectives can sometimes be postpositive, ie they can immediately follow

the noun or pronoun they modify. We may thus have three positions of
adjectives:
PREDICATIVE:
AITRIBUTIVE:
PQSTPQSITIVE:

This information is useful.

useful information
something useful

[ IJ
[2J
[3J

A postpositive adjective can usually be regarded as a reduced relative

clause:
something Ihm is useful

[3 a)

Compound indefinite pronouns and adverbs ending In -body, -one.

-Ihing, -where can be modified only postpositively:
Anyone (who is) intelligent can do it.
I want to try on something (that is) larger.
We're not going anywhere ,ery exciting.

Of course, adjectives that can occur only attributively (cf 7 . 1 7ff) are
excluded:
something (which is) main
NOTE

137

somebody (who is) mere

[aJ Postposition is obligatory for proper in the meaning 'as strictly defined', eg: the
CilY of London proper.

7.9

Adjectives with complementation normally cannot have attributive

position but require post position. Compare:
a suitable actor

BUT NOT:

a suitable for Ihe part actor

The complementation can be a prepositional phrase or a lo-infinitive

clause:
I know an actor suitable for the part.

(I]
They have a house larger than yours.
(2]
The boys easiest 10 leach were in my class.
(3]
Students brlll'e enough to attempl the course deserve to succeed. [4]

If the adjective is alone or merely premodified by an intensifier,

postposition is not normally allowed:
They have a house (much) larger.
The soldiers (rather) limid approached their officer.
However, if the noun phrase is generic and indefinite, wc can postpone
coordinated adjectives, or adjectives with some clause element added,
though such constructions are formal and rather infrequent:
Soldiers limid or cowardly don't fight well.
A man usually hOliest will sometimes cheat.

[5J
[6J

The more usual constructions are premodification or a relative clause:

Timid or cowardly soldiers . . .
A man who is usually honest . . .

(Sa]
(6a)

The adjective phrase can be discontinuous (cf7.8 Note [c)): the adjective
is attributive and its complementation is in postposition. Thus, equivalent
to sentences [2) and [3]:

138

They have a larger house Ihall yours.

The easiest boys to teach were in my class.
NOTE

AdJective. and adverbs

AdJective.

(2al
(3al

The emotionally disturbed and the physically and memally

handicapped need the aid of society.
The 'ery wise avoid such temptations.
The young ill spiril enjoy life.
The old who resisl change are brushed aside.

(al An adjective modified by enough, loo, or so can be separated from its

complementation if the modified adjective is placed before the indefinite (or zero)
article of the noun phrase:
She is brme enough a student 10 allempl lhe course.
It was 100 boring a book 10 read.
They are so difficull people 10 please.

[7]
[8]
[9]

NOTE

But with enough and 100, this construction seems to be possible only if the adjective
phrase is part of the subject complement or object complement:

Brm'e enough a student to altempl the course deserves to succeed.

(7b)

With so, the construction is also possible if the adjective phrase is part of the
subject:
A man so difficull
I cuIl a man
So diffi

He is acceptable to bOlh (Ihe) old and (the) young.

Also in some of-constructions:

a by no means irresponsible action

-an action (which is) by no means irresponsible

Adjectives can function as heads of noun phrases, which (like all noun
phrases) can be subject of the sentence, complement, object, and
prepositional complement. Adjectives as noun-phrase heads, unlike
nOuns, do not inflect for number or for the genitive case and they usually
require a definite determiner.
Adjectives are typically used as heads ornoun phrases to rerer to certain
rairly well-established classes of persons: eg: the brave, Ihe weak, Ihe
maladjusted, Ihe elderly, rhe underprivileged.
There are three types of adjectives runctioning as noun-phrase heads,
and these are exemplified in the rollowing sentences:
(a) The innoeem are often deceived by the unscrupulous. (7. 1 1 )
(b) The induSlrious Dutch are admired by their neighbours. (7. 12)
(c) She admires the mystical. (7. 1 3 )

The number of jobless is rising.

Type (b): th, Dutch
7.12

As with type (a) in 7. 1 1 . these noun phrases normally have generic

rererence and take plural concord. The adjectives in question are
restricted to words ending in -(i)sh (eg: British, Spanish, Welsh), cll (eg:
Dutch, French), -ese (eg: Chinese, Japanese), and the adjective Swiss.
NOTE

These adjectives can in turn Ix modified by adjectives, which are normally

non restrictive:
the indusrrious Dutch ('the Dutch, who are industrious']

Postmodifying prepositional phrases and relative clauses can be either restrictive

or nonrestrictive (cf 17.3):

Adjectives which can premodify personal nouns (the young people) can be
noun-phrase heads (the young) with plural and generic reference denoting
classes, categories, or types of people. The adjective can itself be
premodified [3-5] or postmodified [6-7];
[I]
The poor are causing the nation's leaders great concern.
There i s a lack o f communication between the young and the old. [2]
[3]
The extremely old need a great deal of attention.

Some adjectives denoting nationalities (cJ 5.33J) can be nounphrase

heads:
The industriolls DUlch are admired by their neighbours.
You French alld we Brilish ought to be allies.

Type (a): the innocent

7.11

fal Modification of the adjective is usually restrictive, eg (5): 'he I'ery I\ise. Inflected
comparison forms of the adjective are also possible (rhe wiser). Comparative
inflection and adverb modification are indications of the adjective status of these
noun-phrase heads, while modification by adjectives (as in rhe IlUngr)' poor) is
more typical of nouns, and modification by relative clauses is normally an
indication of noun status.
[b] The definite determiner is normally the generic definite article Ihe. Note,
however, the use of the possessive determiner in:

The adjectives can function without a determiner if they are conjoined (cf5.20):

[bJ Exceptionally, certain short prepositional phrases may also premodify an

adjective in attributive position:

7.10

[4]
[5]
[6]
(7]

We will nurse your sick. clothe your naked, and feed your hungry.
It is the duty of the Government to care for our poor, our unemployed.

} 10 please must be hard to work with.

.

Adje<:tiYes as heads of noun phrases

139

The Irish (who /il'e) in America retain sentimental links with Ireland.
The DUlch. for many of whom speaking English is second nalure, have
produced many of the greatest grammarians of the English language.
Type (c): 'he mystical
7.13

Some adjectives can function as noun-phrase heads with abstract

rererence. They include, in particular, superlatives, in which case we can
sometimes insert a general noun like thing in its abstract sense:

AdJective.

the letter'), but it normally does so specifically in relation to the

performance of an action.

The latest (thing/news) is that he is going to run for re-election.

Unlike types (a) and (b), type (c) adjectives functioning as noun-phrase
heads take singular concord:
They ventured into the unknown, which was
The best is yet to come.

Type (c) is restricted chiefly to certain fixed expressions. Thus. for

example, the supernatural, lhe exotic, the unreal are more likely to occur
than the lovely, the foreign, the exciting, with abstract, generic reference.
NOTE

la] Some of these adjcctives can be modified by adverbs:

The very be.H is yet to come.
He went from the extremely sublime to the extremely rit/ieu/ous.
IbJ There are some set expressions in which an adjective wilh abstract reference is
the complement of a preposition:

He lefl Jor good.

in pllb/k/pril'ate/secrel
in shorl
on fhe sly

He enjoyed it 10 the Jull.

from bad 10 worse
out oJ fhe ordinary
in common

NOTE

Here too it is possible to substitute an adverb for the adjective with little or no
difference in meaning (cJ content disjuncts in 8.42):
Slralfgely, it was she who initiated divorce proceedings.

7.IS

The contingent clause can also refer to the object of the superordinate
clause. in which case it usually appears in final position:
You must eat it when fresh.

NOTE

Exclamatory adjective clauses

7.16

Its implied subject is usually the subject of the sentence ('The chairman is
anxious for a vote'). However, if the clause contains additional clause
constituents. it can be related to a noun phrase other than the subject:

(How) wonder/ulf

(How) good of you.'

Such clauses need not be dependent on any previous linguistic context. but
may be a comment on some object or activity in the situational context.

Sometimes the adjective phrase can be replaced by an adverb phrase

with little change of meaning:

In this function, the adverb phrase is like the adjective phrase in referring
to an attribute of the subject ('The man, who was rather nervous, opened

Adjectives can be exclamations, with or without an initial It'h-element:

Excel/elll!

She glanced with disgust at the cat, now quiel ill her daughter'S lap.

Ralher nervous, the man opened the letter.

Rather nervously, the man opened the letter.

The clause can also refer to the whole of the supcrordinatec\ause (which would be
realized in the subordinate clause by the pro-form it). In such cases the
subordinator cannot be omitted:
Whl'lI (it is) necessary, he can be taken 10 the doctor.
You must come as SOOIl as (it is) possible.

The clause is mobile:

The chairman called for a vote, anxious/or a quick decision.

Contingent verbless clauses

One type of verbless clause, which is often introduced by a subordinator,
expresses the circumstance or condition under which what is said in the
superordinate clause applies:
( Whether) righl or wrong, he always comes off worst in an argument
because of his inability to speak cogently.
Whenjit. the Labrador is an excellent retriever.
I/ wel, these shoes should never be placed too close to the heal.

Adjectives can function as the sole realization of a verbless clause (c/ 14.6,
1 5.34/) or as the head of an adjective phrase realizing the clause:
The man, quietly aSSerlil'e, spoke to the assembled workers.
Unhappy with the resull, she returned to work.
Glad 10 accept. the boy nodded his agreement.
Anxious/or a quick decision, the chairman called for a vote.
Long and Illltidy, his hair played in the breeze.

The implied subject of the clause can be the whole of the supcrordinate clause:
Sfrange. it was she who initiated divorce proceedings.
Most imporfam, his report offered prospects ofa great profit.
More remarkable still, he is in charge of the project.

Verbless clauses

7.14

141

Syntactic aubelassltlcRtlon ot adjectives

Attributive only

7.17

In general, adjectives that are restricted to attributive position, or that

occur predominantly in attributive position, do not characterize the
referent of the noun directly. For example, old can be either a central
adjective or an adjective restricted to attributive position. In that old man

142

Adlectlv and adverbs

AdJKtlv..

(the opposite of that young man), old is a central adjective, and can thus
also be predicative: That man is old. On the other hand, in the usual sense
of an old/riend of mine ['a friend of old, a longstanding friend'}. old is
restricted to attributive position and cannot be related to Myfriend is old.
In this case, old is the opposite of new (,recently acquired']. The person
referred to is not being identified as old; it is his friendship that is old.
When adjectives characterize the referent of the noun directly (that old
mall. Myfriend;s old) they are termed INHERENT, when they do not (an old
friend o/mine) they are tenned NONINHERENT (cJ 7.25).
NOTE

7.18

lotal nonsense 7- *The nonsense was total.

lotal destruction ..... The destruction was tOlal.

Further examples of adjectives as amplifiers that arc attributive only:

uller folly
a close friend
an extreme enemy
a great supporter
a strong opponent

I
7.19

plain nonsense
the simple truth
an outrighl lie
sheer arrogance
a sure sIgn

On the other hand, when they are noninherent, amplifiers are attributive
only:
a comp/ere fool f *The fool is complete.
afirm friend f *The friend isfirm .
Complere refers to the completeness of the folly. andfirm to the firmness of
the friendship (in which sense it is asterisked here).
In addition, amplifiers are only attributive when they are used as
emphasizers, conveying principally emphasis rather than degree. For
example, 10101 in total nonsense is an emphasizer, while in tolal destfllction
it is an amplifier and has a literal application ("the destruction of
everything'). Hence the contrast:

his chief excuse

the exacr answer
the sole argument
the specific point
the very man

Again. some of these have homonyms. For example, certain in a certain

person is a restrictive (equivalent to 'a particular person'), while in a
certain willner it is an intensifier (equivalent to 'a sure winner').
NOTE

Notice the use of very as a restrictive adjective:

You are the l'ery man I want.

(b) AMPLIFIERS scale upwards from an assumed norm, and arc central
adjectives if they are inherent and denote a high or extreme degree:
a complele victory- The victory was complete.
great destruction - The destruction was greal.

Restrictive adjectives
Restrictive adjectives restrict the reference of the noun exclusively,
particularly, or chiefly. Ex:amples, within noun phrases, include:

a certain person
the principal objection
the same student
the only occasion
a particular child

(a) EMPHASIZERS have a general heightening effect and are generally

attributive only, eg:
a true scholar
a clear failure
pure ['sheer'] fabrication
a real ['undoubted'] hero
a cerlain winner

the ahsolute limit

a complele stranger
his enrire salary
a perfect stranger
total irresponsibility

(c) DOWNTONERS have a lowering effect, usually scaling downwards

from an assumed norm. They are relatively few (eg: slight in a slight effort,
feeble in a feeblejoke) and can be ignored for our present purpose, since
they arc generally central adjectives.

A few adjectives with strongly emotive value are restricted to attributive position.
though the scope of the adjective clearly extends to the person referred to by the
noun, eg: you poor man, my dear lady. lhm wrelched woman.

Intensifying adjectives
Some adjectives have a heightening effect on the noun they modify, or the
reverse, a lowering effect. A t least three semantic subclasses of intensifying
adjectives can be distinguished:
(a) emphasizers
(b) amplifiers
(c) downtoners

143

7,20

Adjectives related 10 adverbs

Some noninherent adjectives that are only attributive can be related to
adverbs, even though they are not intensifying or restrictive. They include:

my former friend
an old friend
past students
a possihle friend
the present king
an oC('Qsional visitor

['formerly my friend']
['a friend of old']
['students in the past']
['possibly a friend']
('the king at present']
['occasionally a visitor']

Some adjectives require implications additional to the adverbial:

the late president ['the person who was formerly the president (but is
now dead)']
If the adjectives premodify agentive nouns, the laller also suggest a
relationship to an associated verb:

144

AdJectlvend edverbs

a big eater
a clever liar
a hard worker
a hea l'Y smoker
a sound sleeper
NOTE

Adjec:tf.....

["someone who eats a loC)

['someone who lies cleverly']
['someone who works hard']
['someone who smokes heavily']
['someone who sleeps soundly']

He is a/raid to do it. ['He fears 10 do it.']

They are/ond o/ her ['They like her.']
That is lantamount to an ultimatum. {'That amounts to an
ultimatum.']
.

NOTE

The noun can be inanimate:

rapid calculations " calculations made rapidly')
occasional showers rshowers occurring occasionally')
a fasl car ('a car that can go fast')
a/as! road ('a road on which onc can drive fast')

7.21

[bl Some of the adjectives that are restricted to predicative posItIon have
homonyms that can occur both predicatively and attributively, cg:

the conscious patient-The patient is conscious. (= 'awake')

Cl: He is CO"SciOIlS of his faults. (= 'aware'l

Semantic subclasslflcatlon 01 adjeclives

Stative/dynamic

7.23

Predicative only

7.22

Adjectives that are restricted, or virtually restricted, to predicative

position are most like verbs and adverbs. They tend to refer to a (possibly
temporary) condition rather than a characteristic. Perhaps the most
common are those referring to the health (or lack of health) of an animate
being:

able (to + infinitive)

a/raid([ilat, of, about )
answerable (to)
averse (to,/rom)
aware (0/)
conscious (that, 0/)

fond (of)
glad ([hat, 10)
happy ([ha[, to, with, about )
luath (10)
subject ([0)
tan[amoum (10)

Some of these adjectives must lake complementation (eg: subject to and

tantamounl to), and many normally do.
Many of these adjectives closely resemble verbs semantically:

*Be tall.

On the other hand. we can usc /unny as a dynamic adjective:

I didn't realize he was beingfiml1J'.

Her story was very fill/ny.

Adjectives that can be used dynamically include brD l'e, calm, cheerfitl,
conceited, cruel, /oolish, friendly, JimllY, good, greedy, helpful, jealolls,
naughty, noisy, tidy.

However, many people use such adjectives as attributives too, for

example:

A large group of adjectives that are restricted to predicative position

comprises adjectives which can take complementation (,[ 16.38ff):

Adjectives are characteristically stative. Many adjectives, however, can be

seen as dynamic. In particular, most adjectives that are susceptible to
subjective measurement arc capable of being dynamic. Stative and
dynamic adjectives differ syntactically in a number of ways. For example,
a stative adjective such as rail cannot be used with the progressive aspect
or with the imperative:
*He's being rail.

He felt ill/poorly (both esp BrE)/well//aillt/wllwdl.

A well person need see a doctor only for a periodic checkup.

laJ Sick is the exception among the 'health' adjectives in that its attributive use is
very common:

the sick woman (, The woman is sick.')

Adjectives related to nouns

Some denominal adjectives (ie adjectives derived from nouns) are
restricted to attributive position:

an atomic scientist ['a scientist specializing in the theory of atoms']

a criminal court ("a court dealing with crime']
a crimina/ lawyer ('a lawyer specializing in cases of crime']
a polar bear ('a bear living near the pole']
a medical school ('a school for students of medicine']
musical comedy ['a comedy accompanied by music']
a tidal wave ['a wave produced by the tide']

145

Gradable/nongradablc

7.24

Most adjectives are gradable. Gradability is manifested through

comparison:
tall
beautiful

- tal ler
-more beautiful

- tallest
-most beautiful

It is also manifested through modification by intensifiers:

)'ery tall

so beautiful

extremely useful

Gradability applies to adverbs as well as adjectives (c/7.39ff).

All dynamic and most stative adjectives (eg: rail, old) are gradabJe;
some stative adjectives are not, principally denominal adjectives like
atomic (scientist) and hydrochloric (acid), and adjectives denoting proven
ance, eg: British.

140

7.25

NOTE

Adverbs

Adlectlves and adverbs

Inherent/noninherent

I + IV

your present annual turnover

Most adjectives are inherent. For example, the inherent adjective in a

wooden cross applies to the referent of the object directly: a wooden cross
is also a wooden object. On the other hand, in a wooden actor the adjective
is non inherent: a wooden actor is not (presumably) a wooden man. Some
other examples:

1 1 + 111

a /unny red hat

1 1 + IV

an enormous tidal wave

1 + 1 1 + IV

cerlain rich American producers

INHERENT

NONINHERENT

afirm handshake
a perfect alibi
a certain result
a true report

a firm friend
a perfect stranger
a certain winner
a true scholar

Adverbs
Characterlltlcs of the adverb

7,27

Modification or a noun by means or a noninherent adjective can be seen as an

extension or the basie sense or the noun. Thus a firm friend is 'u rriend whose
rriendship is firm', and (l perfect .stranger is 'a stranger who is perrectly strange'.

(b) premodifier of adjective and adverb (7.32f):

When two or more adjectives cooccur in attributive position, the order of

the adjectives is to a large extent determined by their semantic properties.
The principles for the order of items in premodification are discussed in
17.41. Here we will only mention the major positional ranges of adjectives
in premodifying position.
In the premodification structure of the noun phrase, adjetives are
placed between the determiners and the head of the noun phrase (c/ 1 7.2).
We distinguish four zones:
(I)

They are quite

1 + 11

certain important people

I + III

the same restricted income

{happlly marne. d.
happ

The most conspicuous example of an adverb that functions only as a

modifier of adjectives and adverbs, and not as a clause element, is I'ery.
(For I'ery as an adjective, c/7. 1 9 Note.)
Morphologically, we can distinguish three types of adverb, of which
two are closed classes (simple and compound), and one is an open class
(derivational):
(a) SIMPLE adverbs, eg: just, only, well. Many simple adverbs denote
position and direction, eg: back, down, near, oul, under.
(b) COMPOUND adverbs, eg: somehow, somewhere, there/ore.
(c) DERIVATIONAL adverbs. The majority of derivational adverbs have the
suffix: Iy, by means of which new adverbs are created from adjectives
(including participial adjectives): odd -- oddly; interesting - illlerest
illgly. Other, less common, derivational suffixes are:

PRECENTRAL

Here, after the determiners, is where peripheral, nongradablc adjectives

are placed, in particular the intensifying adjectives, (c/ 7. 18) eg: certain,
definite, sheer, complete, slight.
(11) CENTRAL
This zone is the place of the central adjectives, (c/ 7. l ) eg: hungry, ugly,
funny, stupid, silent, rich, empty.
(Ill) POSTCENTRAL
This zone includes participles, eg: retired, sleeping, and colour adjectives,
eg: red, pink.
(IV) PREHAD
This zone includes the 'least adjectival and the most nominal' items, such
as denominal adjectives (c/ 7.21) denoting nationality, ethnic back
ground, eg: Austrian, Midwestern, and denominal adjectives with the
meaning 'consisting of', 'involving', 'relating to', eg: experimemal,
statistical, political, statutory. In the prehead zone we also find nouns in
attributive position (c/ further 17.35).
On the basis of this classification, we can expect the following order:

There are two types of syntactic functions that characterize the traditional
adverbs, but an adverb need have only one of these:
(a) clause element adverbial (c/7.31):
He quite forgot about it.

Ordering of adjectives in premodlflcatlon

7.26

147

wise:
ward (s):
/ashioll:

clockwise
northward(s)
schoolboy fashion

ways:
style:

sideways
cowboystyle

The adverb and other words classes

Conjunct adverb and conjunction

7.28

A few adverbs functioning as conjuncts (c/8.43.ff), such as so and yet.

resemble coordinators both in being connectives and in having certain
syntactic features. In particular. these adverbs cannot be transposed with
their clause in front of the preceding clause. Thus, the order of the
following two clauses (with the conjunct adverb so in the second clause) is
fixed:

148

Adjectives and adverbs

We paid him a very large sum. So he kept quiet about what

he saw.

Adverbs

Examplcs of subjuncts:
[I]

We haven't yet finished.

Would you kindly wait for me.

I f we reverse the order of the clauses, the relationship between the two
clauses is changed, and so must now refer to some preceding clause:
So he kcpt quiet about what he saw. We paid him a very
large sum.

By contrast, disjuncts and conjuncts have a more peripheral relation in

the sentencc. Semantically, DlSJUNCTS (cf S.40) express an evaluation of
what is being said either with respect to the form of the communication or
to its meaning. We identify disjuncts with the speaker's authority for, or
comment on, the accompanying clause:

[2]

However, the conjunct adverbs differ from coordinators in that they can
be preceded by a coordinator:
We paid him a very large sum, and so he kept quiet about
what he saw.

Frankly, I'm tired.

Fortunately, no one complaincd.
They are probably at home.
She wisely didn't attempt to apologize.

[ I a]

Reaction signal and initiator

7.29

Certain other items must be positioned initially. They are important

because of their high frequcncy in spoken English. Some are restricted to
the spoken language. These can be assigned to two small classes:
(i) 'reaction signals', eg: no, yes, yeah, yep, I, hrn, rnhrn
(ii) 'initiators', eg: well, oh, ah; oh we", well then, why <esp AmE)

(cf 8.43) express the speaker's assessment of the relation

between two linguistic units, eg:
CONJUNCTS

She has bought a big house, so she must have a lot of money.
We have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does
nothing about it.
All our friends are going to Paris this summer. We, however, are
going to London.
If they open all the windows, then I'm leaving.
I didn't invite her. She wouldn't have come, anyway.

Adverb and preposition

7.30

There are various combinations of verbs plus particles (c/ 16.3jJ). Since a
preposition is normally followed by its complement, the particle is an
adverb if the verb is intransitive:
The plane has taken off.
When a noun phrase follows the particle, the verb may still be an advcrb.
The particle in the phrasal verb in [I) is an adverb because it can be
transposed to follow the verb, as in [la]:
They turned on the light.
They turned the light on.

Adverb as modifier

7.32

[I ]
[ I a]

easily debatable
openly hostile

quietly assertive
readily available

Some premodifiers express 'viewpoint' (c/8.33):

Adverb as adverbial

politically expedient ('expedient from a political point of view')

theoretically sound
technically possible

ADJUNCTS and SUBJUNCTS are relatively integrated within the structure of

the clause (c/ S . 1 3, 8.32). Examples of adjuncts:

Slowly they walked back home.

He spoke to me about it briefly.

really beautiful
very good
just impossible

Some premodifiers are rclatcd to adverbs that express such notions as

manner and means but also have some intensifying effect:

[2]
[2a]

Syntactic functions of adverbs

7.31

Modifier of adjective
An adverb may premodify an adjective. Most commonly the adverb is an
intensifier or emphasizer (c/8.36f):
extremely dangerous
deeply concerned
perfectly reasonable

In contrast, 10 in [2] is a preposition, part of the prepositional verb take to,

because its position is fixed, as we see from [2a1:
They took 10 us.
*Thcy took us 10.

149

NOTE

Enough may postmodify an adjective: old enough. Like may also postmodify an adverb,
though ndeed
i
tends to go with a premodifying very: carefully enough, very easily indeed.

150

Adjectives and adverbs

Correapondence between adjective and adverb

NOTE

7.33

surprisingly well
so clearly

Adverbs modifying other adverbs can only be intensifiers. On postmodi

fying enough and indeed, see 7.32 Note.
A few intensifying adverbs, particularly right and well, premodify
prepositions:

Other of-phrases precede the determiner:

I had a bit of a shock.

[bJ Ever can be an intensifier with interrogative wh-words:

Why ever should she apply for such a post?

7.36

the downstairs hall

the above quotation

an away game
NOTE

They recovered roughly (half) their equipment.

inside information

Else can postmodify:

raj compound indefinite pronouns and compound adverbs in -body. -one, -where.
elc:
somebody else, someone else 's. nowhere else. something else

(c) cardinal numerals (c/6.28 Note [b]):

[bJ interrogative wh-pronouns and wh-adverbs :

Over/under (two hundred) deaths were reported.

who el.e. what el.fe. how else. when else

(d) ordinals and superlatives (cf7.39) in which case a definite determiner

is obligatory:

[e] singular all, much, a great/good deal, a lot, !illle:

We counted approximately (the first) thousand votes.

She gave me almost (the largest) piece of cake.
7.35

the hall dowflStairs

the quotation above

A very few may only premodify:

Nearly <everybody) came to our party.

Modifier of noun phrase

A few intensifiers may premodify noun phrases and precede the
determiner when they do so. The most common among adverbs are quite
and ralher (esp BrE):

her trip abroad

the way ahead

Others may either premodify or postmodify:

Modifier of pronoun, predeterminer, and numeral

Intensifying adverbs can premodify:
(a) indefinite pronouns (c/6.21ff):

(b) predeterminers (c/5.7ff):

Some time and place adverbs postmodify nouns;

the meeting yesterday
the meal afterwards

The nail went right through the wall.

He made his application lVell within the time.
Her parents are dead against the trip. <informal)
7.34

raj Kind of and sort of (both informal) usually follow the determiner:
This must be a sorl ofjoke.

Modifier of adverb and preposition

An adverb may premodify another adverb:
very heavily
extremely quickly

151

all else. much else, !illle else.

Adverb as complement of preposition

7.37

Some place and time adverbs function as complement of a preposition:

over here
near there
from abroad
from behind

We had quite a party.

They were quite some players.
It was rmher a mess. (esp BrE)

since recently
till /hen
from now
for ever

The predeterminers such and what have a similar function:

He is such a fool.

What a mess they made!

A few intensifiers precede the indefinite article when it is equivalent to

the numeral one:
They will stay for aboul a week.
Nearly a thousand demonstrators attended the meeting.

Correspondence between adjective and adverb

7.38

We have earlier observed (7.27) that open-class adverbs are regularly,

though not invariably, derived from adjectives by suffixation. There is
another sense in which adjectives and adverbs are related. A correspon
dence often exists between constructions containing adjectives and

152

Comparl.on ot adJectly.. and adyerb.

AdJectlye. and adnrbs

(c) Comparison to a lower degree is expressed by less and least :

constructions containing the corresponding adverbs. The simplest illus

tration is with adverbs equivalent to prepositional phrases containing a
noun phrase with the corresponding adjective as premodifier:

This problem is less difficult than the previous one.

This is the least difficull problem of all.

He liked Mary considerably.

- He liked Mary /0 a considerable ex/em.
She explained the process brillialJlly.
- She explained the process ill a brillialll mallller.
He wrote frequently.
- He wrote on frequent occasions.
Politically, it is a bad decision.
"-' From the political point of view, it is a bad decision.

For higher degree comparisons, English has a three-term inflectional

contrast between ABSOLUTE, COMPARATIVE, and SUPERLATIVE forms for
many adjectives and for a few adverbs. In Table 7.39 the three inflectional
forms are displayed with their periphrastic equivalents.
Table

somebody who sleeps hem'ily

somebody who wasformerly a student
a friend who acts faithfully
a typewriter that types lIeally
He writes legibly
She is truly a scholar
It was maillly the reason

7.39 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs

ABSOLUTE

COMPARATIVE

SUPERLATIVE

high
5001/

higher
sooner

highest
soolleSf

complex
conifortably

more complex
more conifortably

most complex
most coniforlably

INFLECTION

Here are some other examples of adjective-adverb correspondences:

a heavy sleeper
a former student
a failhful friend
a Ileal typewriter
his legible writing
a true scholar
the maill reason

153

adjective
adverb
PERIPHRASIS

adjcctive
adverb
NOTE

Comparalives oradjcctives and adverbs, whether inflectional or periphrastic. can

be modified by intensifiers:
much easier
much more difficult
very much beuer
very much more carerully

Comparison 01 adjectives and adverbs

somewhat shorter
a lot more inconvcnient
a good deal sooner
a great deal more easily

Similarly, superlatives ean be modified by intensificrs:

7.39

With gradable adjectives and adverbs there are three types of

the youngest candidate ever

the most remarkable result ever
by rar the best solution
the most absurd answer by rar

COMPARISON:

(a) to a higher degree

(b) to the same degree
(c) to a lower degree
The three types of comparison are expressed by these means:
(a) Comparison to a higher degree is expressed by the inflected forms in
-er and -est or their periphrastic equivalents with more and 11I0s1 :

} than Susan.
{ cleverer
more c e\'er
.
cle\lerest }
.
Anna IS the {
student In the class.
,
11I0s1 Clever

.
Anna IS

(b) Comparison to the same degree is expressed by as (or sometimes

so) . . . as:
Anna is as tall as Bill.
Anna is not

{:; } tall as John.

Inflected superlatives can be premodified by I'er)', ir a definite detennincr is

present: of rhe I'er), lasl moment, lhe very youngesl. But neither periphrastic
superlatives nor comparativcs can be premodified by I'er)'.

7.40

The comparative is generally used to express a comparison between two

persons, two items, or two sets:
Jane is cleverer than her sister.
Jane is clel'erer than all the other students in the class.
The superlative is generally used when more than two are involved:
Jane is the clel'erest of the three sisters.
Jane is the cleveresf of all the students in the class.
With the superlative, Jane is included in the group and compared with the
others.

154

NOTE

AdJective. and adverb.

Comparln of adlKtiv and adv.rb.

More and most have other uses in which they are not equivaient to the comparison
inHections. Notice the paraphrases in the following two uses of more:

(b) In bases ending in a consonant followed by -y, y changes to -i before

-er and -est:

He is more than happy about it. ['He is happy about it to a degree that is not
adequately expressed by the word happy.')
He is more good than bad. ['11 is more accurate to say that he is good than
that he is bad.')

angry

p"re

Most may have an intensifying meaning, as in Della is a most efficient publisher.

free

A small group of highly frequent adjectives have comparative and

superlative forms with stems which are different from the base:

lar
NOTE

- besl
- worst
-furthest
-farthest

(aJ Old is rcgularly inHcctcd as older- oldest. I n allributive position, particularly

when referring to the order of birth of members of a family, the irregular fonns
elder-eldest are nonnally substituted (especially in BrE):
My elder/older sister is an artist.
His eldest/oldest son is still al school.
However, elder is not a true comparative in that it cannot be followed by tha1l:
M Y sLster
O
oLS t hree years

{ older } than me.

*eider

rb] Well ['in good hcalth'] and ilI!"in bad hcalth' (csp BrE)J are inflcctcd likc good
and bad, rcspectively, for the comparative: He/eels better/worse. He is beller can
mean either (a) 'He is well again' or (b) 'He is less i][".

Regular forms of comparison

7.42

big

But contrast:
lIeat
thick

NOTE

-bigger

- biggest

-nearer
- tlricker

- neatest
- tlrickest

-p"rest

-freer

-freesl I'fri:lst/

There is a variant spelling in:

cruel

{ - crueller
- crueler

- cruellest
-cruelest (esp AmE)

Choice between inflectional and periphrastic comparison

7.43

(a) Monosyllabic adjectives normally form their comparison by

inflection:
low

- lower

- lowest

(b) Many disyllabic adjectives can also take inflections, though they
have the alternative of the periphrastic forms:

politer/more polite.
O
.
Her chI ldren are
(tire) po/itest/(lhe) most pO/lie.

Disyllabic adjectives that can most readily take inflected forms are those
ending in an unstressed vowel, syllabic /1/, or r, eg:
-y:

With adjectives taking the regular inflections, certain changes in spelling

or pronunciation may be introduced in the base of the adjective when the
suffixes arc added.
(a) A single consonant at the end of the base is doubled before -er and
esr when the preceding vowel is stressed and spelled with a single letter (cf
the spelling of verb forms, 3.6):

-purer

(d) Syllabic /1/, as in simple, ceases to be syllabic when inflections are

addedo
(e) Even for speakers who do not pronounce final r, the r is pronounced
before the inflection, as in poorer.

Irregular forms of comparison

.... better
- worse
-fllrther
-farther

-angriest

The same applies if the base ends in -ee:

Comparison of adjectives

good
bad

-angrier

(c) If the base ends in a mute (unpronounced) -e, this e is dropped before
the inflection:

She i s more keen than wise. (,She is keen rather than wise.')

7.41

155

-ow:
-le:

ear ly . easy. funny, happy, noisy, wealthy, pretty

mellow. narrow, shallow
able, feeble, gentle, noble, simple

(c) Trisyllabic or longer adjectives can only take periphrastic forms:

beautiful
- more beautiful [BUT NOT: *beautiful/er]
- the most beautiful (BUT NOT: -beautiful/est)

Adjectives with the negative un-prefix , such as unhappy and rmfidy, are
exceptions:
- unlrappier - unlrappiest

- untidier- untidiest

156

NOTE

Adjectives and adverbs

Comparison 01 adjectives and adverbs

[a] Participle forms which are used as adjectives regularly take only periphrastic
forms:

big (small ), bright (dim), fat (thin), heavy (light ), large (liltle), strong
(weak).

- mosl interesling
-mosl wounded
..... most worn

- more interesling
- more wounded
- more worn

interesling
wounded
worn

157

How heavy is your computer?

How accurate is that clock?

Some adverbs are also used as an unmarked term in how questions, eg:

[b] Most adjectives that are inflected for comparison can also take the periphrastic
forms with more and mosl. With more, they seem to do so more easily when they
are predicative and are followed by a Ihan-clause:

How much does it cost?

Howfar did you drive today?

He is more wealthy than I thought.

NOTE
Comparison of adverbs

7.44

For a small number of adverbs, the inflected forms used for comparison
arc the same as those for adjectives. As with adjectives, there is a small
group with comparalives and superlatives formed from different stems.
The comparative and superlative inflections are identical with those for
the corresponding adjectives good, bad, and/ar, and the quantifiers much
and little:
badly
well
little
fa,
much

,... worse
- bel/er
- less (lesser)
,..,further
'""'farther
-more

How young he is! ('He is extremely young!']

HolI' old he is! ('He is extremely old!']
Bibliographical note

On adjectives and adverbs, see Bolinger (\ 967a); Vendler ( 1 968); Warren ( 1984).
On adverbs. see bibliographical note in Chapter 8.
On comparison and intensification, sce Bolinger ( 1 967b. 1972a); Bresnan
( 1 973); GnUlloman Cl a1. ( 1 973); Rusiecki ( 1 985).

- worst
- best
- least
-furthest
-farthest
-most

Adverbs that are identical in form with adjectives take inflections if the
adjectives do so : fast, hard, late, long, quick. They follow the same spelling
and phonological rules as for adjectives, eg: early '""' earlier ...... earliest :
The unmarked term in measure expressions

7.45

Ifwe use the marked term, as in HolI' young is John?, we are asking a question that
presupposes that the relevant norm is towards the lower end of the scale, ie that
John is young, whereas the unmarked term in HolI' old i. John? does not
presuppose that John is old. Notice that neither term is neutral in exclamations:

We use the adjective old in measure expressions (x years old) when we

refer to a person's age, regardless of the age:
M r Jespersen is 75 years old.
His granddaughter is two years old.
In the scale ofmeasurement. oldindicates the upper range (He is old) but it
is also the unmarked term for the whole range, so that She is two years old
is equivalent to Her age is TWO years. The measure adjectives used in this
way are the following, with the marked term in parentheses:
deep (shallow) high (Iow) long (shorT) old (young) tall (short)
thick (thin) wide (narrow)

These unmarked terms are also used in howquestions and, again, they
do not assume the upper range. How oldis she? is equivalent to What is her
age? Other adjectives are also used in the same way in how question s, eg:
-

Semantic roles

8
8.1

The semantics and grammar of adverbials

The adverbial element (A) in clause structure has a wider range of roles
than the other four elements, subject (S), verb (V), object (0), and
complement (C). This is reflected in its having a wider range of meanings,
of forms, of positions, and of grammatical functions; not least, it is
reflected in our ability to include several adverbial elements within a single
sentence. The following example illustrates not only multiple occurrence
but also a variety of meanings, forms, positions, and grammatical
relations:
Next Tuesday (A I), I shall probably [A2l visit her mother in London
[A 3l for an hour or so [A4] to see ifshe's feeling better [AS], unless
she telephones me before that [A6].

159

She was born in 1980.

(b) Duration o//orward span, as in:

I shall be in Chicago until Thursday.
(c) Duration 0/ backward span, as in:
We have been at the airport since midday.
(d) Frequency, as in:
They very seldom wenl to see their parents.
(e) Relationship between one lime alld another, as in:
She must still be in her office.
NOTE

Duration may indicate a span that does not distinguish between 'rorward' and
'backward'; ror example:
rorget exactly when I arrived but

am staying here for six months

altogether.

Semantic roles
Space
8.2

Process
8.4

(a) Manner, as in:

Adverbials can express five different types of spatial meaning:

The minister explained his policy very clearly.

(a) Position, as in:

(b) Means, as in:

The dog was asleep on the grass.

By her insight, she grasped the patient's real problem.

(b) Direction, as in:

(c) Instrument, as in:

They walked down the hill.

I have difficulty eating with chopsticks.

(c) Goal. as in:

(d) Agency, as in:

She hurried 10 the station.

Penicillin was discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming.

(d) Source, as in:

This book cannot be taken /ram the library.
(e) Distance, as in:
We mustn't go very much/urther.
Time
8.3

Adverbials distinguish five types of temporal meaning and there are

analogies both semantic and formal with the spatial meanings of 8.2:
(a) Position, as in:

Here we have four types of meaning:

Respect
8.5

An adverbial can be used to provide a point of reference with respect 10

which the clause in question derives its truth value. For example:
She helped him with his research.
In the following, if legally meant 'lawfully, not illegally', the adverbial
would be the manner subclass of process (8.4(a; normally, however, it
would mean 'on points of law, with respect to law':
They are advising me legaliy.

"

160

Contingency
8.6

Semantic roles

The semantics and grammar of adverbial.

Here we have six types of meaning expressed adverbially;

(a) Cause, as in:

She helped him a lil/le with his research.

\

Formal realization
8.9

She died 0/ cancer.

(b) Reason, as in:

An adverb phrase with an open-class (2.6) adverb as head:

(c) Purpose. as in:

You should have opened it ( ( a bit) more} carefully.

He bought the book to study metaphysics.

A noun phrase (I 7. Iff):

(d) Result, as in:

They had travelled a I'ery long way.

He read the book carefully, so he acquired a good knowledge of

A prepositional phrase (9. 1 ):

metaphysics.

Rowena hurried across the field.

(c) Condilion, as in:

A verbless clause (14.3):

If"e reads lhe book carefully, he will acquire a good knowledge of

Whell ill doubt the answer is 'no'.

metaphysics.

A nonfinite clause (14.3):

(f) Concession, as in:

She realized, lying there. what she must do.

Though he read the book carefully, he didn't achieve much

knowledge of metaphysics.

A finite clause (14.3):

We sent for you because you were abselll yesterday.

Modality
The truth value of a sentence can be changed (eg enhanced or diminished)
by the use of adverbials. We distinguish three ways:
(a) Emphasis. as in:

8.10

She cerUJinly helped him with his research.

(b) Approximation, as in:
They are probably going to emigrate.
(c) Restriction. as in:
I shall be in Chicago ollly until Thursday.
Degree
8.8

Like adverbials of modality in changing the truth value of a sentence.

adverbials of degree add a special semantic component. gradability. There
are two types:
(a) Amplification, as in:
He badly needed consolation.
(b) Diminution. as in:

The A-element can be realized by a wide range of linguistic structures:

An adverb phrase (2.4) with a closed-class (2.6) adverb as head:
(Just) then, the telephone rang.

He bought the book through an interest in metaphysics.

8.7

161

Some of these realization types occur more frequently than others:

prepositional phrases are very common and nonfinite clauses relatively
rare, for example. Some are particularly associated with specific
meanings, grammatical functions. and adverbial positions: noun phrases
with time adjuncts, for example. and finite clauses with end position.
Position

8,11

As compared with other sentence elements (2.3), the A-element can be

placed with relative freedom in several positions in a sentence:
I
iM
M
mM
eM
iE
E

By thell lhe book should have been returned to the library.

The book by then should have been returned to the library.
The book should by then have been returned to the library.
The book should have by then been returned to the library.
The book should have been by then returned to the library.
The book should have been returned by ,hell to the library.
The book should have been returned to the library by then.

As the notation implies, there are three main positions: I("i(ial).

M(edial}. and E(nd). but there arc three subordinate variants of M
(initial, medial, and end) and one of E (initial). 1 and E are self-

162

Th manUc. and grammar 01 adverbla'.

explanatory, but the primary M position may need clarification. It is the

position immediately following the operator (2.10) or the copula be:

Hilda [SJ helped Tony [OJ because of his injury [AJ.

It was Hildll that helped Tony because of his injury.
It was Tony that Hilda helped because of his injury.
It was because o/his injury that Hilda helped Tony.

Timothy has at last finished his thesis.

Timothy is at /asl a doctor of philosophy.

The parallels extend to the potentiality for being the focus of subjuncts
(8.32ff):

Where no operator is present, there can be no variants such as eM. and M

is simply the position between the S and the V; it is similarly the position
before V when the S is ellipted:

Only Hilda helped Tony . . .

Hilda helped Tony only because of his injury.

The play daringly explores a hitherto forbidden subject.

Sharon spoke at this point and strongly supported the motion.

to elicitation by question forms:

The choice of position for an adverbial is determined by semantic and

grammatical factors as we shall see in the course of this chapter, but also
by the demands of information processing and the principle of cnd-weight
(18.5 and Note {a)). If no special factors determine otherwise, the
adverbial is placed at E, the position in fact taken in the majority of cases.
NOTE

Who helped Tony?

WIIO{m) did Hilda help?
Why did Hilda help Tony?

Did Hilda help Tony or did Marjorie (help him)?

Did she help him because 0/ his jnjury or (did she help him)

Since the majority or verb phrases combine eilher the main verb alone or the main
verb preceded by only one auxiliary (the operator), i t is natural that the M position
is normally reil to beimmediately berore the main verb form. This helps to account
ror the tendency (despite long-standing disapproval) to place an adverbial
between to and an infinitive ('the split infinitive'). Compare the similarity between
the rollowing:

because she was bored?

Hilda didn't help TOIlY but (she helped) Bill.

Hilda didn't help Tony because 0/ his injury but (she
helped him) because she was bored.

[AJ
[OJ
[AJ

Grace became II teacher [C] ill 1981 [A1 and Hamish also became a
teacher [C] ill 1981 [A].
In 1981, Grace became a teacher and so also did Hamish.
But while these characteristics hold generally for all adjuncts, there arc
three subcategorics ranging in 'centrality' from the obligatory predication
adjunct (which resembles an object in being both relatively indispensable
and fixed in position) to the sentence adjunct whose position is more
variable and whose presence is always optional:

In terms of their grammatical functions, adverbials fall into four main

categories:
Adjunct
Subjunct
Disjunct
Conjunct

We shall deal with these in turn, along with their respective subcategories.

Adjunct

Adjuncts
More than other adverbials, adjuncts have grammatical properties
resembling the sentence elements S, C, and O. Like them, adjuncts can be
the focus of a cleft sentence (18.18/):

[SJ

Finally, irrespective of their position (8.1 1), adjuncts function like other
post-operator elements in coming within the scope of predication ellipsis
or pro-forms (1 2.20, 12.6.8). In consequence, the following sentences are
synonymous:

Grammaticallunctions

8,13

[SJ
[OJ
[AJ

and to alternative interrogation and negation:

Martha alll'ays finishes firs!.

Martha had always finished first.
Martha tried to always finish first.

8,12

[SJ
[AI

predication

{ obligatory
.
optIOnal

sentence

Predication adjuncts
8,14

As their name implies, the relations of predication adjuncts are not so

much with a whole sentence as with its predication, the post-operator
section (2.1 0). This is true for both of the following:

164

Grammatical lunctlon.

The mantlc. and grammar 01 adverbial.

She put the leHer 011 rhe kitchell table.

She found the leHer on the kitchen table.

Wc roresaw a disaster in June.

[I J
[2)

But whereas in [2] the adverbial is optional and its omission leaves an
acceptable sentence('She found the letter'), omission is impossible with [I]
('She put the letter') where the adverbial is thus an obligatory component
of the sentence.
Predication adjuncts are normally placed at E but may be at iE if
another post-verb element is lengthy and complex:

By contrast. the adjunct in the following seems naturally to relate to the subject
and thererore to the time or the roreseeing:
III JIII/e,

8.16

From AWllralia he came and 10 Australia he has returned.

II'llieh:

Clausal realization is common and is convenient in enabling one to

transcend the specifics of location or even semantic role:

[I)
[2)

She still lives where she was born.

They want to know where we are selldillg them.

the platform, Ralph kissed his mother.

These examples reflect the fact that space adjuncts are elicited (again orten
neutralizing semantic role) by the Question where:

This is a characteristic of the sentence adjunct, demonstrating its relatively

'peripheral' relationship to the rest of the sentence as compared with the
relatively 'central' relationship of the predication adjunct in [I).
But the difference does not necessarily lie, as in [I] and [2], in the
adjuncts themselves. The same phrase can be used as either predication or
sentence adjunct, according as it pinpoints new information (18.4) in the
predication or provides general background information for the sentence
as a whole:
(I looked everywhere for it and eventually) I found the letter
[31

Where did you stay?

Where are they going?
Where is the train comingfrom?

. . . but then, in Ihe kilchen, almost by chance, I found the letter.

In many cases, it is convenient to see predication adjuncts as 'objcct-related' and
sentence adjuncts as 'subjcct-related'. Thus in the rollowing the adjunct would
normally be interpreted as relating to the date or the disaster:

(position)
(direction)
(source)

But cf hOlI,/ar as in:

HOIr/ar did you drive yesterday? (distance)
NOTE

[4]

The contexts supplied show that the adjunct in [31 is predicational while
that in [4] is sentential. The parenthesized comma further suggests the
relatively peripheral relation of the adjunct, which might occupy a
separate tone unit in speech (18.3), as it certainly would ifmoved from E:

NOTE

several miles.

He came Ihis way but which direeliol1 did he go then?

But only in the second can the adjunct seem equally natural at/:

(I had totally forgotten about the matter, but then,

almost by chance,) I found the leHer(.) ill the kitchen.

{ a very long way.

So 100 adjuncts of direction with the determiners this, Ihat, and

Since we can utter 'Ralph kissed his mother' without needing 10 add an
adjunct, it follows that in each of the following the adjunct is optional:

ill the kitchen.

Spatial adjuncts realize the roles set out in 8.2 chiefly by means of
prepositional phrases since these roles can be clearly and conveniently
specified through the respective prepositional meanings (9. 4ff). But noun
phrases can be used as predication adjuncts of distance:
They trave11ed

Sentence adjuncts

011

roresaw a disaster.

Adjuncts or space

In striving for rhetorical effect, such adjuncts can even appear at /; for
example in highlighting a balance or contrast, as in:

Ralph kissed his mother on the cheek.

Ralph kissed his mother on the platform.

wc

The semantic roles of adjuncts

She put 011 the lable a letter she had just received from her lawyer.

8.15

165

la] The spatial pro-rorm s here and there have near' and 'rar' orientation as with
rllisand rll(l(6.19).
Ib] The position role with respecI 10 persons is often expressed by a "'illl-phrase:

Where is M ildred? She is (staying) \I'irh her brother.

8.17

Direction adjuncts (whether goal or source) can normally be used only

with verbs of motion or with verbs used dynamically so as to allow a literal
or metaphorical motional meeting:
The boy kicked the ball through Ihe opell lI'ill(/ou'.
She was speaking ;1110 a tiny micropholle.
By contrast, position and distance adjuncts can be used freely with verbs
in stative or dynamic use:

{ ill L "do".
k /t omelres from here.
{ in Yorkshire at present.
He s trave11'mg

They live
'

You could there catch a train to Manchester.

20

With be ,
inversion ( 1 8. \ 6) unless the subject is a pronoun:

a Ion g way.

There he was, waiting in the cold.

Here is the book.

With be, we can have position adjuncts:

In a similar way, predication adjuncts of position and direction can occur

at I:

Charles is on the topjfoor.

Given that the verb is appropriate, more than onc space adjunct can be
used in the same sentence; distance and position as in [I ), direction and
position as in [2] ,
They swam a mile [A I] in the open sea [A2l.
He fell into the water [A I] near that rock [A2l
She walked a /ew steps [AI] (oward.

Down

{from Cairo lAI] to Istanbul. [A2l

We flew
to Is tanbul[AI] from C O/ro [A2).

When adjuncts are coordinated, they must have the same semantic role:
We can meet you in the theatre or Of the s tation.
I drove down Gower Stree tand in to Universi y
t Colle ge.
S.IS

Irrespective of semantic role. space adjuncts are normally at E. but where

two or more adjuncts are clustered at E, they are ordered as follows:
distance-direction (source, goal) - position
For example:
She walked a fe w steps lA1 ] towards him [A2] in the darkened room
[A3] ,

Adjuncts of position can be more easily moved to I:

On the fOp offhe buildin g, two men were gesticulating wildly.

Some adjuncts, especially if short, can also be at M :

distance and direction

My mother did not live in a nei ghbouring stree t.

But sentence adjuncts can be at 1 and remain within the scope ofnegation:
Itr

Many people eat in restaurants [AI} in London [A2l

Direction adjuncts of goal and source may also be paired, with a choice of
order dependent largely on information processing ( 1 8 . 4ff) :

swooped.

In negative sentences, predication adjuncts must be at E:

Since space adjuncts (especially of position) can enter a hierarchical

relationship, we can also have two adjuncts even of the same semantic
role:

In London, many people eat in restauranls.

It

In a nei ghbourin gstree tlived my mother.

[I)
[2)
[3J

The order here is essential in order to match the logical relationship. but
since the larger location is relatively peripheral, this referring adjunct (but
not the other) may be at I:

{ swooped
the hawk.
.

S.19

Delhi, it sometimes did not rain for months on end.

Adjuncts of time
We tend to use the language of spatial dimensions figuratively when we
refer to time. In consequence, adjuncts of time are predominantly realized
by prepositional phrases, with figurative adaptation of the prepositional
meanings (cf9.9ff). For example:
The music stopped at midn i gh t.
0"

lire followin gday ,

I completed the painting in fWO days.

But in addition, a wider range of structures is available for time than for
any other type of adjunct. Noun phrases, as in:
They visit her ever y mon th.
Finite verb clauses, as in:
Stay in bed until your fempera ture comes down.
Nonfinite clauses, as in:
Travellin g011 the C Olllille m, I miss the English pub.

Verbless clauses, as in:

I go to the theatre as often as possible.
Closedc1ass adverb phrases, as in:
She (almost) always leaves home before 8 a.m.
Opcnclass adverb phrases, as in:

168

The .emanUc. and g,ammar oladverbiai.

Grammatlcal lunctlon.

He spoke to me about it quile recenlly,

Adjuncts of duration and span

Time-position adjuncts
8.20

8.21

Time-position adjuncts can be elicited by the question word when and the
time specified may be narrowly stated or len rather vague:
?
.
When dI d she arnve,

{AI

10.15.

Some 1IOlIrs ago,

Moreover, the lime position ilselfmay be narrow as in [I) or broad as in

Adjuncts may express duration of specific ( , for ten minutes') or indefinite

( , for a short time') length, the durations in question being in the past, the
present, or the future:
[1 1
She worked in China for several years,
At present his grandchildren are staying with him for "few days, [2)
I intend to go skiingfor ,"ree lreeks,
(31

[2], irrespective of the specification:

Mozarl was born

{in,

1756,

,
III the elgllleelllh ceflfllry,

the eigl!teelllh century,

d in
,
M ozar! IIve
.
III

a period ofgreat musicat creativity,

[I]
[2)

The general anaphoric pro-form for time-position reference is ,"en and it

is nonnally associated with the past, especially in contrast to now:
I worked in publishing thell, but 110111 1 work for an advertising firm,
But then can refer equally to a time in the future:
She will telephone you tomorroll' afternoon and hopes that you will
be able to speak to her thell,
Nor is 1I0W necessarily confined to present-time rererence; in the following
example, 11011' means 'by that time', 'then':

1'----------

------

'NOW'

'V , ------ ?-.:..:..::..:.

,---------I+ - --------

-- ----

'a few days'

[11

121

But this sequence can be readily reversed if cnd-weight (1 8,5 Note [a)) or
other communicative requirement is to be served:
I lived there ill rhe fifrie, [A I] when my first child II'as born (A2).
Out of context, a II'hen-clause may

be ambiguous:

Tell me when you're ready,

This may be a noun clause as object (,Let me know the lime at which )'01/'/1 be
ready') or a time-position lIdjuncI (' Whell you're ready, let me know'),

'three
weeks'
131

Although in [3}, we know the precise duration, in none of the sentences [I],
[2], or [3] can we relate the beginning or end of the periods mentioned to
the speaker's 'NOW', By contrast, adjuncts offorward and backward span
specifically relate duration to such a 'NOW' (or other fix.ed point of
orientation), though again without necessarily being definite about the
length of the duration itselr,
Forward span is particularly associated with rill and ullti/:
I shall be in my office until jil'e 0 'clock,
'NOW'

'V

Like spatial adjuncts of position, time-position adjuncts can be in a

hierarchical relation. usually with the one denoting the longer or
superordinate period coming second:
I'll see you 01 nine [AI] on Monday [A2),
The doctor wants to see you again [A 1] atf erw

__
_
_

'Several
years'

They had been courting for two years and he now felt that she knew
his worst faults,

NOTE

169

+- - ---- - --

'five o'clock'

The beginning of the time span is fix.ed in relation to the speaker's

orientation point. but its terminus is as indicated by the adjunct only if the
clause is positive:
He waited ullliI she returned,
'she retumed'

'THEN'
'V

V
-'-_.
----"--- ------ 'f---------

----- wait --

----

--,

.,

By contrast:

But adjuncts with since must specify a definite starting point; if the span is
more general,for can be used or a noun phrase without for:

"

He didn't wait untit she returned,

'THEN'

'she returned'

\l

+-------

wait

------

\l

..

I.

,
She was runnmg her own busmess

'she returned'

'THEN'
\l

- - - -- - - -. period of nona rrival ------ ....

'

\l

1. - - ------------- .1
-

'running he r
own business'

I slept till nine o'clock,

'THEN'

Finally. we may note since-clauses according as these clauses do or do

not have verbs in the perfect:

'nine o'clock'

\l

1------

___

She has become much better off since she has worked with us,
She has become much better off since she worked with us,

slept ------ ..

'THEN'

[I]
[2]

In both cases, the period of improvement extends to the present, but

whereas [IJ entails that she still works 'with us', [2] implies that she does
not. If the verb in the since-clause does not itself involve duration, on the
other hand, the contrast is less absolute:

didn't sleep till "i"e o'clock,

'nine o'clock'

\l

__
____ __
__ __

_+
?-

\l

He's been getting bad headaches

__
____
__ __

1 _________

slept ------....

Backward span is particularly associated with since and the perfect aspect:
I

"

(Jor) quae Iong wile.

'NOW'

Compare also:

8,22

{for three,years,

\l
6.

'he arrived'

__
____

\l

- - - - -------- - - - - - - - - ----+

Irthe backward span is not to be related to the speaker's orientation point,

the verb phrase is not in the perfect, and we are now dealing simply with
duration which may be definite or indefinite, For example:

He didn '( arrive umit she returned,

'NOW'

With negative clauses and verbs of momentary meaning, on the other

hand, the span indicated by the adjunct marks the extent of the
nonoccurrence of the momentary action:

1-

have been in my office (for) several hours.

have been in my office since "i"e o'clock.

{SiICe he Jajoined the army, [3]

smce he Jomed the army,

[4]

While [3] certainly entails that he is still in the army, [4] leaves it open as to
whether or not he is still in the army.
NOTE

laJ Span may be specified also byfrom . up to, over, by, before, and by noun phrases
like this past (momh), these last (few days), this next year:

We'll be he
'NOW'
,

1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --+

'nine o'clock'

\l

re up to midday,
She has worked here only this last week,

The beginning and end of a span can be indicated by the correlativesfrom

(esp BrE),Jrom . . . through (esp Am E ), between , , . and:
The office is closed between one and /1-1'0 0 'clock.

. .

, to

--

GrammaUul functions

172 The ..mantlcs and grammar 01 adverbial.

Unlike the adjuncts in (a) and (b), those in (c) and some of those in (d) can
be used in antithetic sentence sequences:

[b) Especially informally, especially in AmE. and especially where the main clause

refers

10

the present. backward span can be expressed without the perfect:

Often he takes his medicine, but often he doesn't.

She occasionally greets me but occasio'lOJly she doesn't.

Things lIrl:' much worse since you lefl.

I never saw you here before.

Items from (a) and other subsets as sentence adjuncts can readily cooccur
with predication adjuncts from (b), (c), or (d):

[c) Adjuncts of duration and span usually answer questions of the form How
long . . . ., or more specifically Till when . . . ? Since when ... .,

Generally (a), they are cOlllinllally (b) complaining.

He (almost ) nel'er (d) goes out at night normally (a).
Sometimes (d), the dog barks repeatedly (c).

Time-frequency adjuncts

Definite frequency
8.23

It is necessary to distinguish frequency of occasion ('How many timesT)

from frequency of period within which occasions took place ('How
oftenT). The former are normally predication adjuncts. the lalter sentence
adjuncts, and when in a hierarchical relation these are placed in the morc
peripheral position:

Time-relationship adjuncts
8.25

Veronica came to see me twice. [occasion]

Vcronica came to see me daily. [period]
Veronica came to see me twice [0] daily [p].
Each year [p] I have to make a presidential address three times [0].
Here we must, on both semantic and grammatical grounds, distinguish
four subsets:
(a) Denoting usual occurrence (normally, generally, ordinarily. etc). as in
Jenny IIsrwlly goes to bed before midnight.
Sincc onc can speak of something normally not occurring, it is a
characteristic of these adjuncts to be sentential and 10 be capablc of
preceding a clausal negative:
Usually, Jcnny doesn't go

to bed before midnight.

(b) Denoting univcrsal frequency (a/ways, continually. permanf!lIIly, ctc),

as In
He has been asking for you incessantly.
(c) Denoting high frequency (often. time and again. repealedly, etc), as in
Shc has had plays broadcast freqllently.
(d) Denoting low frequency (occasionally, rarely, seldom, never, etc), as in
I I'ery seldom play golf these days.
If placed at I. some items in (d) can oblige us to invert subject and
operator:
Nel'er have

I experienced such rudeness.

The lime adjuncts which express a relationship bctween two time

positions arc of three types:
(a) Typically denoting a temporal sequence, as in
When did you previollsly go to the dentist?
(b) Typically implying a concessive relation. as in
I don '( understand (el'en) NOW.

Indefinite frequency
8.24

173

(c) Typically contrasting one time with another. as in

Maureen should complain about it again.
NOTE

BUllime relalionship is often expressed by subjuncls (cf8.35) such asa/r(!(I(/),. still,

Jel.

Positions of time adjuncts

8.26

Although like other adjuncts, lime adjuncts arc most frequently at E. all
Iypes can readily take the 'scene-setting' I position:
Ihe economy started to recover.
For many years, no one seemed interested in buying thc house.
Normally, late nights have a bad effect on me.
Even after that, he refused to cooperate.

III

1982,

But M is also common ror time adjuncts, especially those realized by

adverbs:
She has recently completed a new play.
We may no l oflen get such an opportunity,
Where time adjuncts cooccur in the same sentence. lime duration tends
to be most 'central', time position most 'pcripheral', so that if the three
main types all occurred at E they would most likely be ordercd as in:
I was there /or (l short while [dur] el'ery day or so [freq] last year. [pos]

174

NOTE

The ..mantle. and grammar of adverbial.

GrammaUeat funcUons

Placing of a timc adjunct is acutely affccted ir there is a decided orientation

towards either the subjcct or the object; efS.IS Note.

Process adjuncts
Manner adjuncts
8.27

Manner adjuncts are chiefly realized by adverb phrases, by like-phrases,

as-clauses, and by prepositional or noun phrases involving such nouns as
way and manner; for example:

Ic} All process adjuncts are normally placed at E. though manner adjuncts can be
at M. Cooccurrencc of process adjuncts is by no means unusual; for example:

I.'I
i

She was accidentally [manner) struck with a racket [instrument] by her

partner [agent].

8.29

There are close semantic similarities between means, instrument, and

agent, and there is considerable overlap in realization. The means and the
agent are often expressed with by-phrases, but the latter is grammatically
distinct in correlating with the passive (and hence corresponding to a
transitive clause); for example:
He was killed by a terrorist.( - A terrorist killed him.)
A means adjunct, on the other hand, can easily occur in a transitive clause:

She influenced me by Irer example.

ID

He was killed with a hunting knife.

But means and instrument adjuncts can share realization with adverbs;
thus means in:
10

treat the patient surgically. ( = 'by means of

Similarly, instrument in:

She examined the specimen microscopically. (where the adverb is
here intended to mean 'with a microscope')
NOTE

{;;;:

S
;::'

lQltas." concemed.
in respect to law.
from a legal standpoint.

Adjuncts of contingency

Adjuncts of means, instrument, and agency

They decided
surgery')

neighboUr is advising me

Respect is a relationship often expressed by subjuncts or disjuncts (8.33,

8.41), but when adjuncts are involved they are usually predicational and
are placed at E.

Manner adjuncts are almost always at E, but although thus associated

with the greatest rhetorical weight in a clause, there is no simple
interrogative device for eliciting them.

Instrument adjuncts differ from both means and agent adjuncts

generally being realized by with-phrases:

Adjuncts of respect
A wide range of realization is available for adjuncts that express the

respect in which the truth value of a sentence is being claimed. For

exam e

She looked at him coldly.

He walks like his/other.
Please don't speak in that rude way.
They cook ((in) tire) French style.
I wish I could write a' you do.

8.28

175

la} Ifin the last example, microscopically meant 'in microscopic detail'. the adjunct
would be one or manner (S.27) and could be gradable, '(quite) microscopically'.
Ib) Means and instrument adjuncts ean be elieited by how-questions: 'How are you
travelling to Hamburg?' 'By air/By Lufthansa'.

8.30

Contingency relations are commonly expressed by disjuncts (8.41), but

adjuncts are often used for reason and its correlate purpose, both ofwhich
can be elicited by the same question forms, Wiry .. . ? What . .. /or? as in:
He did it

{because he was angry.[reason)

to reliel'e his allger.

[purpose]

As well as by finite clauses, reason adjuncts are realized by prepositional

phrases and nonfinite clauses: for example:
She made the sacrifice/or Iter son.
There were many deaths /rom malnurrilion.
With him being so angry, I didn't tell him the worst part.
Purpose adjuncts are realized by nonfinite (infinitive) clauses:
.

The dnver slowed down

{(in order) } to aVOId. an acculem.

.
(so as)

In formal style, finite clauses can occur:

Inoculation must be carried out lest the disease spread.
He died (in order) that others might live.
But some forms of finite clause are used more generally:
Turn the gas off in case there's an explosion.
We'd better leave now so we can get home be/ore dark.
When the concessive relation is expressed by an adjunct, this takes the
form of a prepositional phrase:
She gave the lecture despite her illness.

176

The semantic. and g,ammar 01 adverbial.

Subjunct.

Contingency adjuncts are usually scntential and although nonnally at

ArchireclUrally, the plans represent a magnificent conception.

they are commonly (especially those of purpose and concession) placed

at I.

But there can be other forms of realization:

From a personal I'iewpoint, he is likely to do well in this post.
Looked at polith.'(llly, the proposal seems dangerous.

Relative poSitions of adjuncts

8.31

Looking now at the whole range of adjunct types (8. 16-8.30), we can
consider some general principles of their relative ordering in cooccurence:
(a) the order, especially of sentence adjuncts, can be dictated by such
considerations as what can be taken for granted and what needs lO
have most impact (cf I 8.4ffon information processing);
(b) shorter adjuncts tend to precede longer ones.
But subject to (a) and (b), where adjuncts cluster at E, they will tend to
occur in the following sequence:

Especially in AmE, we find adverbs in -wise:

Weathenvise, the outlook is dismal.
Courtesy subjuncts
8.34

It is less usual to find more than one adjunct at I ,

would tend to follow a converse order; eg: space (or process) - time.

Courtesy subjuncts obviously involve the semantic category manner but

arc quile distinct from manner adjuncts. Contrast:
She kimJ/y [subjunct] offered me her seat.
(,She was kind enough to offer . . .')
She offered me her seat kindly [adjunct].
('She offered me her seat ill a kind manner.')

Subjuncts
Subjuncts have a subordinate and parenthetic role in comparison with
adjuncts; they lack the grammatical parity with other sentence elements
that we saw as criteria! in 8.13. There are two main types, each with
sub types (Fig 8.32). Those with narrow orienration are chiefly related to
the predication or to a particular part of the predication. Those with wide
orienralion relate more to the sentence as a whole, but show their subjunct
character in tending to achieve this through a particular relationship wilh
one of the clause elements, especially the subject.
wide orientation

narrow orientation

Fig

'Would you like a drink?' 'Please'.

'Here is your drink: Thanks.

emphasizer
intensifier
focusing

subject
predication

8.32

Viewpoint subjuncts

The subjuncts which express a viewpoint are largely concerned with the
semantic concept of respect, are predominantly expressed by nongradable
(7.1) adverb phrases, and are characteristically placed at /. For example:

with the imperative), thanks is at E:

'(Will you) please have another helping:

" really have had enough. thanks:

courtesy
item

Though thanks (or thank .1'(11) communicatively matches please as a response

form, there are few grammatical similarities except that both can occur in
isolation:

While please usually occurs at M (

Wide orientation
8.33

NOTE

viewpoint

SUBJUNCT

A small number of adverbs in -Iy, along with please. serve to convey a

formulaic tone of politeness to a sentence. They normally occur at M :
You are cordially invited to take your places.
He asked if I would please read his manuscripl.

respect - process - space - time - contingency

8.32

177

Narrow orientation
Item subjuncts
8.35

The commonest item to be associated with subjuncts is the subject of a

clause, with the subjunct operating in the semantic area of manner but
distinguished from the corresponding manner adjunct by being placed all
or M:
She has cOllsistently opposed the lawyers's arguments.
This does not mean that her own arguments have been conducted
consistently but that she has been consistent in always opposing the
lawyer's.
Many such subjuncts express volition. as in:
I menriollally, they said nothing to him about the fire.
With great reluctance, he rose to speak.

Subluncta

wish I could darned well find that book.

They told him to get the hell off their land.
I

Since many predication subjuncts are idiomatically linked with particu

lar verbs, they are best treated under phrasal verbs in 1 6.2ff. Here,
however, wc should mention the subjuncts associated with the expression
of time. The uses of already. still, and yet as time-relation subjuncts can be
summarized as follows:
Declarative positive:
I

Others occur only in certain grammatical environments, notably a/ways

and well with modalized verb phrases:
Even if you didn't know where I was, you could always have
telephoned to ask.
She said that she had no money and that may well be true.

{:;/ady } admire him. (but: Iyel admire him.)

Declarative negative, with subjunct preceding the negative:

NOTE

I still haven't spoken to him. (but: *' already/ye! haven't . . .)

Certainly not.

Intensifiers
8.37

Is he already/slill/yet here? (all three - esp yet- also at E )

Interrogative negative:
Isn't he already/still/yet here? (all three - esp yet also at E )
-

NOTE

as negative time-relation subjuncts:

He doesn't work ror us any more/longer.

He no longer works ror us.
She said she would sec me 110 more.

(b) Decreased intensification to various degrees is realized by dowmoners,

as 10:

(b) Other common time subjuncts arejusI, (lI)el'er, the first cooccurring mainly
with the perrect or progressive:

They have practically forced him to resign.

I n spite of his manners, I rather like him.
She SOrl of laughed at the idea. (informal)
I was only joking.
He didn't in lire least enjoy the party.

I've jusl finished my supper.

She wasjusl talking to him a moment ago.
don't el'er
They
seem to read books.

Especially at the extremes of intensity, subjuncts of (a) and (b) can be

given emphasis by appearing at :

Emphasizers
8.36

Emphasizers are subjuncts expressing (largely at iM or M) the semantic

role of modality with a reinforcing effect on the meaning of a sentence. For
example:
I

{IIY } can't believe a word he says!

simply

Some emphasizers are characteristic of very informal speech; for example:

The intensifier subjuncts are broadly concerned with the semantic

category of degree, indicating an increase or decrease of the intensity with
which a predication (usually containing an attitudinal verb) is expressed.
They characteristically appear at M.
(a) Increased intensification to various degrees is realized by amplifiers,
as m:
They fully appreciate the problem.
He has completely ignored my Question.
She was badl)' in need of help.
How (I'ery much) they must have suffered!

fa] Ally more and any longer runction as nonassenive, and 110 more and 110 longer

{lIel'er

Emphasizer subjunctscan rrequently occur as responses; thus to the question 'Are

you willing to help?' we might have
(Yes) cerlainly.
Sure(ly) . (esp Am E)
(Yes) illdeed.

Declarative negative, with subj unct!oIJowing the negative:

, yet drive.
.
He can t
drive yet.
?He can't still drive/drive still. (*He can't already drive.)
Interrogative positive:

179

J understand your attitude tOlally.

She won't mind in the slightest.
NOTE

[al Some intensifiers occur only in specific environments; ror example, possibly
with cant 'I} in nonasscrtive clauses:
She can't possibly expect you to wait so long.

180 Th mantk:. and grammar 01 adverbial.

DI.Junct.

As wel l as relaling to attitude. inlensifiers are used in respect or quantity and

time:
I paid him great deal ror his advice.
She slept a litlle in the arternoon.

[b]

8.39

With either of these items at I, there is subject-operator inversion:

Focusing subjuncts

They had neither met the author, 1I0r had they (el'en) read any of his
novels.

Special allention may be called to a part of a sentence as broad as

predication or as narrow as a constituent within a phrase. There are two
types of focusing subjunct that can so operate; one is reslrictil'e, as in:

Cfalso:

I merely wanted to know his name. (ie I didn't want to know

anything else)
O"ly her sister visited her in hospital. (ie No one else did so)

She had bOlh written poems and (also) had some published.
We must ignore 1I0r only his manners but (also) the way he is
dressed.

The other is addirive, as in:

Such correlation is frequently achieved through a construction resem

bling a clert sentence ( 1 8 . J 8):

Fred had also invited his mother-in-law. (ie in addition to others)

I'en on Sundays, my doctor is willing to come and see me. (ie in
addition to ordinary working days)

It was 1I0tjust that she ignored me; it was particularly that she was so
pointedly nice to my wife.

With most focusing subjuncts, the usual position is immediately before

the part to be focused, and if that is the whole or part of the predication,
the position is M. As with negation, therefore, there is the possibility of
ambiguity:
She had

{:; } questioned her patients the previous week.

y
also

Since it is normal to give the prosodic emphasis to the final phrase of a

sentence, this would usually be spoken, read. and understood with the
focus on the time adjunct. But of course in speech, the focus could be
clearly placed on any of the three post-operator constituents.

. QUF.5TIONED her patients . . . (ie as opposed to ex.amining them)

. questioned her PATIENTS . . . (ie as opposed to her colleagues)
. questioned her patients the PREVIOUS week . . (ie as opposed
to the current week)
.

In writing, care can be taken to place a focusing subjunct in close

proximity to the pari required (and prescriptive tradition urges this
particularly with only). Usually this is before the item Conly her patients')
but may be after it Cthe previous week ollly'), and this is obligatory with
alone and too ('her patients lOO') but is disallowed with just and generally
with el'ell (?'the previous week even').
NOTE

In focusing wh-items. exactly and just are common:

I know exactly where to find him.

Jus/ when did you send in your application?

Focusing can involve correlative constructions. For example:

I saw her neither that day nor the day after.
They had neither met the author Ilor (el'ell) read any of his novels.

II

8.38

181

More formally, IIOt ollly and lIot merely can be in I-position with
consequent subject-operator inversion:
Not merely have I lent you money; I have (also) helped you get jobs.

Dlsjuncts
8.40

Where adjuncts are seen as on a par with such sentence elements as S and
O. while subjuncts are seen as having a lesser role, disjuncts have by
contrast a superior role to sentence elements, being somewhat detached
from and superordinate to the rest of the sentence. There are two broad
types, each with subtypes (see Fig 8.40). First we have the relatively small
class of STYLE disjuncts, conveying the speaker's comment on the style and
form of what is being said and defining in some way the conditions under
which 'authority' is being assumed for the statement. Thus where [I] is
stated as an unsupported fact, (2) is conditioned by a style disjunct:
Mr Forster neglects his children.

[I]

From my personal observation, Mr Forster neglects his children. [2]

The second type is the much larger class of CONTENT disjuncts. making an
observation on the actual content of an utterance and on its truth
conditions:
To the disgust ol"is neighbours, Mr Forster neglects his children. (3)

DisJunct. 183

182 The semantics and grammar 01 adverbial.

DISJUNCT

style

{modality and manner

NOTE

respect

Privately,

{relating to certainty
content

H e was drunk, because he couldn 't stand.

Fig 8.40

Style disjuncts
8,41

Many style disjuncts can be seen as abbreviated clauses in which the

adverbial would have the role of manner adjunct:
Frankly, I am tired.
(cf: 'I tell you frankly that J am tired'.)

Sometimes the disjunct has full clausal form:

If I may say so without giving you offence, J think your writing is

rather immature.

More often, a clausal disjunct is nonfinite, as in to be frank, putting

it
.

bluntly, considered candidly.

The semantic roles of disjuncts fall under two main heads:

(a) Manner and modality, thus involving items such as crudely,frankly,
honestly, truthfully; eg:

(To put it) briefly, there is nothing J can do to help.

You can, in all honesty, expect no further payments.

(b) Respect, thus involving items such as generally, literally, personally,

strictly; eg:

Strictly On terms ofthe rules) , she should have conceded the point to

her opponent.
J would not, (speaking) personally, have taken offence at the
remark.
From what he said. the other driver was in the wrong.
It will be seen that disjuncts in (b) often constitute ways of guardedly
'hedging' the accompanying statement. A particular case of this arises in
metalinguistic comment in which the disjunct draws attention to a point of
tenninology:
In a word, he is a traitor, though J would not say that he had literally

betrayed anyone.

was Henry ever in prison?

This can mean either ., ask you privately to tell me' or 'I ask you to tell me
privately'.
[b} Disjuncts in (b) can bcexpressed by if-, since- and becau.e-clauses, but the latter
must be at :

relating to evaluation

Although not restricted as to position (and while some, as we shall see, arc
often at M), most disjuncts appear at J.

When used in questions, disjuncts in (a) may relate to the speaker or to the
addressee:
ra]

Content disjunets
8.42

Comm.ent on the content of an utterance may be of two kinds:

(a) relating to certainlY;
(b) relating to evaluation.
Both can be expressed by a wide range of adverb phrases, by prepositional
phrases and - especially those in (a) - by clauses.
(a) Certaimy. These disjuncts comment on the truth value of what is
said, firmly endorsing it, expressing doubt, or posing contingencies such
as conditions or reasons. For example, beside the statement 'The play was
written by Francis Beaumont', we may have:

{
The play was

UndoubtedlY
apparently
perhaps

} written by Francis Beaumont.

Compare also:
In essence, the judge called her evidence in question.
Since she had no time to have rhe carfixed, Rachel telephoned for a

taxi.
The proposal would have been accepted if the chairman had put it
more forcibly.

(b) Evaluation. These disjuncts express an attitude to an utterance by

way of evaluation. Some express a judgment on the utterance as a whole,
including its subject:
Wisely, Mrs Jensen consulted her lawyer.

('Mrs Jensen was wise in consulting her lawyer.')

So also correctly, cunningly, fooJishly, ju.\'l1y, rightly, stupidly, etc. Other

evaluation disjuncts carry no implication of comment on the subject:
Naturally, my husband expected me home by then.

('It was natural for my husband to expect me back by then' - not

'My husband was natural . . )
.'

So also curiously, funnily (enough), strangely, unexpectedly, predictably,

understandably, disturbingly, pleaSingly, regrettably, fortunately, happily,

luckily, sadly, amusingly, hopefully <<;sp AmE>, signijicanl1y. Prepositio-

ConJunctl 185

184 Th. ..mantlc. and grammar of adverbial.

[b) As well as cQIUleclillg utterances, some ofthe commonestconjunctssuch as 1I0W

and so have a major role as discourse inilialors. Consider the following as the first
words of a street encounter:

nal phrases and relative clauses (sentential and nominal) involving such
lexical bases are also used:
To my regret, she did not seek nomination.
What is especially fortunate, the child was unhurt.
We were not, which is surprising, invited to meet the new members of

So you're better again. Bill!

Here an eXlralingu;slic situation seems to be conjoined as it were, with an
appropriate Iingw!uic reaction to it: ) sec you up and about, so) conclude you've
recovered rrom your illness:
The commonest discourse initiator or all (well) is less easy to account for
plausibly. When used connectively it has a Iramilional function ('Given that my
previous point is well founded, my next point is . . :). as in:

staff.

NOTE

'

la) The semantic difference between the relationships in (a) and (b) is underlined by

the fact that sentence paraphrases for (a) cannot involve putative should (14. 14),
whereas those for (b) always can:
(a) Obviollsly, the child is recovering.
..... 'It is obvious that the child is recovering.'

I hear you've bought a new house; well, when arc you moving?
Note the rollowing exchange in Matt Cohen's novel Flowers of Darkl1l'.u (1981):

(b) Fortunalely, the child is recovering.

-'It is fortunate that the child

{ OUld be } recovering.'

'Well: said Donna.

'Well: Annabelle replied. Well was always Donna's opening remark,
delivered in a way to make clear that she knew Annabelle was in the midst of
some inadmissible train of thought.

rb) Just as in 10 my regrel (in contrast to regreuably) it is made explicit as to who

feels the regret. so with some adverbs wc may add such a specification with afor
phrase, For example:

(c) Conjuncts can semantically endorse a connection already expressed by

grammatical subordination; for example:

Luckily (for Peler), the doctor arrived speedily.

I see her regularly because she is, by ,he way, a friend of my brother's.

ConJuncts
8.43

As their name implies, conjuncts serve to conjoin two utterances or parts

of an utterance, and they do so by expressing at the same time the semantic
relationship (eg of time or contingency) obtaining between them. For
example:

The semantics or conjuncts

8.44

We now group some of the commoner conjuncts according to their

semantic roles:
A:

LISTING

(i)

E"'"lleratil'e, as in:

The candidate is a fine teacher, a broadcaster of some experience,

and a respected drama critic. A ll the same, there is a feeling on the
committee that someone younger should be appointed.
The conjunct all the same here connects two separate sentences. indicating
a concessive relation between them: despite the candidate's high qualifica
tions. some members of the committee were not satisfied.
As in this example, conjuncts are usually at I. but their connective role is
often achieved more smoothly when they are placed at M:

In the firs! place, the economy is recovering, and secondly

unemployment is beginning to decline.
Cf also for one ,hing (. , . for aI/other thing), lIeX1, then (again).
finolly; especially in formal and technical use, we find a . . . b . . . c
. . . , one . . , two . . . three . . .

(ii)

She has the ability, the experience. and abOl'e aI/ the courage to
tackle the problem.

The cinema has lost none of its attractions in India and the film
industry has in comequence continued to flourish.
Although some conjuncts (such as the informal though) commonly appear
at E, this position can somewhat obscure the connective role.
NOTE

la) Conjunets often correspond to adverbials in an otherwise unexpressed clause:

My wife is very busy this evening, and {I tell you something] il/ addiliol/, she
is not reeling very well.

Additil'e, as in:

Cfalso/urlill'rmore. morem'er, what is more, similarly, ill addition. 011

top of that.

B:

SUMMATIVE,

as in:

He was late for work, he quarreJ1ed with a colleague, and he lost

his wallet; all ill all. it was a bad day.
e/also altogether. Ol'eroll, therefore, ill sum. to sum up.

r
166 The semantics and grammar of adverbial.

C:

APPOSITIVE,

as m:

There was one snag; namely. the weather.

ConJunctl 187

Cooccurrence and correlation

8.45

So (resuhive] I did reasonably well, 011 in all [summative].

Then [inferential] she'll get the job nevertheless [concessive]?

Cl also that is (to say), ie, for example, eg, in other words,
specifically.
D:

RESULTIVE,

Conjuncts from the same set are sometimes used in reinforcement; for
example, the additive items in:

as m:

I got there very late, so I missed most of the fun.

Moreover, he had in addition a qualification in accountancy.

C!also therefore, as a result, accordingly, in consequence, 0/ course.

E:

INFERENTIAL,

More usually, such reinforcement occurs through conjuncts appearing

along with compatible conjunctions. These may involve coordination (as
with and so, but yet, or rather) or subordination (as with if . . then,

as in:

You haven't answered my question; in other words, you disap

prove of the proposal.

although . . . still) :

Even If you're taking the car only a short distance, you should
nevertheless have your driving licence with you.

Cfalso in that case, so, then, otherwise, else.

F:
(i)

CONTRASTIVE

Re/ormulotory and replacive, as in:

Cfalso (or) better, more accurately, in Oilier words, alias, worse.

Antithetic, as in:

Bibliographical note

rather.

They had expected to enjoy being in Manila but instead they both
fell ill.
Cfalso on the cmlfrary, by contrast, on the other hand, then.

(iii) Concessive, as in:

My age is against me: still, it's worth a try.
Cf also, however, nevertheless, yet, all the .Wln/e, of course, that said.
and several informal expressions such as anyhow, anyways <esp
AmE), stiJI and all <esp AmE), only, though.
G:

TRANSITIONAL

(i)

Discoursal, as in:

Let me introduce you to my sister, and by the way, did I tell you
that I'm moving?
Cfalso incidentally, now.

(ii)

NOTE

Correlation often seems excessively heavy and fonnal. especially perhaps in causal
relationships (because
. Iherefore). By contrast, reinforcement where no
subordination is involved often seems over-informal (as in DUI slill, she got the
job, though') and in some cases it is regarded as objectionably tautologous (as in
the sequence bUI however).

She's asked some of her friends - some of her husband's friends,

(ii)

Conjuncts from different sets can appear in the same sentence:

Temporal, as in:

The ambulance got stuck in rush-hour traffic and ill the meantime
the child became delirious.
Cf also meanwhile, originally, subsequently, eventually.

For general studies of adverbials, sce Buysschaert ( 1982); Greenbaum ( 1969);

Guimier( 1988); Huang(1975); Nilsen ( 1972): with a theoretical emphasis, Bartsch
(1976), Emons ( 1974): Schreibcr (1972); Ungerer (1988).
On particular subsets of English adverbials, see Aarts (1989b); Bolinger (1972):
Dudman ( 1984); Hartvigson ( 1 969); Heny (1973); Jacobson ( 1 978, 1981); Lee
(1987); Schiffrin ( 1985): Svartvik (1 980).
On adverbial collocations, see Backlund ( 1970); Crystal (1966); Greenbaum
( 1970).
On adverbial positions, see Jacobson (1964, 1975).
On intonational aspects of adverbial usage, see Hall iday ( 1967); Taglicht
( 1983).
Other relevant studies include: Anderson (1976); Greenbaum ( 1 973): Halliday
and Hasan ( 1976); Lakoff (1975): Larson ( 1 985).

1
OeferrH prepositions 189

9
9.1

After and. however, subjective rorms are sometimes round in hypercorrect usage;
,/6.7 Note [b).

Prepositions and prepositional phrases

Prepositions are a closed class of items (2.6, but c/9.3) connecting two
units in a sentence and specifying a relationship between them. For
example:
(I don'l like to) drink out o/a cracked cup.
(He was) very grateful/or her help.
The elderly man in the raincoat (looks ill.)

(4]

Prepositions may be simple or complex (9.3), and in either case their

complements arc usually noun phrases; but they can also be nonfinite
(illg) clauses or nominal (wh-) clauses. For example:
Ilear
.r
top 0)

0"

from
ill terms of

NOTE

9.2

[I]
[2]
[l ]

In all three, the second unit is thepreposilional complemellt, but in [I] the
link is to a verb phrase, in [2J an adjective phrase, and in (3) a noun phrase.
The sequence of preposition and its complement is known as a
prepositional phrase, and its role may be to act as a postmodificr in noun
phrase structure (such that the whole sequence The elderly man in 'he
raincoat of[3] constitutes a complex noun phrase: 17.lfJ). But as we have
seen in Chapter 8, prepositional phrases can also function as adverbials,
and the 'link' can then be between the prepositional complement and a
whole clause. Compare, for example, the adverbial in [4):
I" a few minutes, we'll know the result of the blood test.

Deferred prepositions

We have paid for the car.

,..., The car has been paid for.
(b) Where the prepositional complement is thematized ( 1 8.23ff) In
sentences with infinitive or illg clauses; thus
It is unpleasant to work with that man.
,..., That mall is unpleasant to work with.
It is not worth listening to his advice.
-- His advice is not worth listening 10.

In addition, there are circumstances where deferment is oplional,

depending chieRy on stylistic preference. Where the prepositional
complement is an interrogative pronoun, deferment indeed is normal:
What are you looking (l!?
Who is she talking about?

the control tower

In such cases. the close relation between the verb and the preposition
(16.5f) makes alternative arrangement awkward and rare. Elsewhere,
there can be a choice:

the financial estimates

scrutinizing the results
what you were saying
where she was sitting

Who did you sell your house to?

To whom did you sell your house? (fo rmal)

A similar choice is more general where Ihe prepositional complement is a

relative pronoun:

[a1 Ahhough also having a nominal runction. that-clauses and infinitive clauses
cannot be prepositional complements. Compare:

J was surprised

at her angry response.

at hearing her objection.

01 what

she said.
Lo hear her objection.
that she responded so angrily.

[b1 A prepositional complement is 'object territory' (6.7) and personal pronouns

are thererore in the objective case:

They moved towards me/us/him/her/them.

Though prepositions normally precede their complements, there are

circumstances in which this cannot happen:
(a) Where the subject of a passive construction corresponds to the
prepositional complement in the active analogue; thus

The building (that ) you're standing ill frollt of was designed by

Lutyens.
The building ill frolll of It'hic" you are standing was designed by
Lutyens. (formal)
NOTE

(aJ With some simple prepositions (such as 'hrough) and most complex ones (such
as because of in addition to), dererment is virtually disallowed.
[b] Superficially resembling dererred prepositions are prepositional adlwbs,
identical in rorm with the corresponding prepositions except that, unlike them,
they are never unstressed. Compare:

190

Preposition. and pr.po.ltlona' phr....

Pr.po.ltlonal meaning. 191

Until you recover, you must 'stay in the 'house.

Until you recover, you must 'stay 'in.
I should have parked the car behind the house but I lcft it infrom.

'I
I

Simple and complex prepositions

9,3

The commonest prepositions are a small number of monosyllabic items

such as at./or, in, on, 10, with, typically unstressed and often with reduced
vowel except when deferred. Compare:

9.4

Though the relationship between two linguistic units as mentioned in 9. 1

may be wide-ranging in meaning, most or them are either spatial or
figuratively derived rrom notions or physical space. Consider in as used in
the following examples:
I like being in this room.
She'll finish the work in the present month.
His lire is in danger.
They told me this in all seriousness.

I
I

Positive

Negative
Position

Destination

Position

to

al

(away)from

away/rum

-+

0-

. -+

Some prepositions or roreign origin are not thoroughly 'acclimatized' in

general use; for example. quo, re, vis-a-vis, a propos.
[b) Items or quasi-preposition status include near ( to ) which admits comparison
('He came and sat nearer thefrom ') as well as than and as which can also be - and
for some people can only be - conjunctions:

(to)

Oil

off

(a]

She is taller than ' am. (than as conjunction)

She is taller than I. (than as conjunction with ellipsis: rather ronnal)
She is taller dum me. (/han as preposition)
of

admit alternative genit ive

for the sake of the ramily"'" ror the ramily's sake

on behalf of my friend - on my friend's behalr

(3)

(4)

Destination

011

le] Some complex prepositions ending in

constructions:

(2)

t ).

"
1

addition to, as a result of

NOTE

[I)

The period ortime in [2], the danger in [3], and the seriousness in [4] are 10
be understood as having the capacity to envelop in a kind or three
dimensional space analogous to the physical room in [I]. We must
thererore begin by understanding the ways in which prepositions rerer to
some of the basic spatial dimensions, as set out in Fig 9.4. This shows three
different kinds or distinction.

What are you looking at [at]?

I'm looking at [at] (his huge telephone bill.

But in addition there are polysyllabic prepositions, some of them

compounds formed historically from the monosyllabic ones (such as
imide, lVithin) or derived from participles (such as during) or adopted rrom
other languages (such as despite , excep
a closed class in comparison with truly open classes like nouns, they are
less literally a closed class than detenniners or pronouns.
The number or prepositions has been increased partly by using still
more participles (ror example, barring , concerning
combining prepositions with other words to rorm 'complex prepositions'.
These are of two main types:
(a) a simple preposition preceded by a participle, adjective, adverb, or
conjunction, as with owing to, devoid of, away from, because of;
(b) a simple preposition followed by a noun and then a rurther simple
preposition, as with in charge of, by means of, at variance with, in

Prepositional meanings

!
I

-----.

in (to)

;n

~
Fig 9.4

(
0/1/ of

c5

of
f

Dimensiontype 0
(point)

Dimensiontype l or 2
(line

or

surface)

om of

Dimensionor 3
(area or
volume)
type 2

Prepositional meaning. 193

192 Prepositions and prepositional phra..s

First, the prepositions are contrasted as 'positive' or 'negative' (such

that off, for example, means 'not on'). Secondly, the prepositions
distinguish between 'destination' (movement with respect to an intended
location) and 'position' (static location). Thirdly, we have three dimen
sion types: one which ignores dimension altogether, treating location as a
point even if in reality it is a continent:

!'lI lie 011 the bed for a few minutes.

There was a child asleep in the bed.
NOTE

[a] While to usually implies achieving the destination,

dircctional:

[b] Though the relationship 'X is on Y' usually involves Y being a horizontal
surface below X, this is by no means necessary:

The second dimension type embraces what is in real space either one
dimensional or two-dimensional:

There are several people on the mountain-side.

. . pictures . . . wall
. . flies . . . ceiling
. . apples . . trcc

She put her toe on the /ine.

They were alone on the tennis-court.

againsl Ihe fenceT)

[cl The use of at, in, on is often idiomatic; thus on earlh but in Ihe world; 'She is
doing well 01 school' is often preferred in BrE, while ' . . . in school is general in
AmE. C/(with different determiner constraints: 5.19) '011 land, al sea, and in (he

Some cows were grazing in the field.

My coat is in the wardrobe.

'

air'.

Space

Relative position

Position and direction

Between the notions of directional movement and static position there is a

cause-and-effect relation which applies equally to (a) the positive
prepositions and (b) the negative prepositions:
(a) Jack ran to the corner and then stood at the corner.
Put the book oll(ro) the top shelf and leave it on the top shelf.
She went into her office and stayed in her office.
(b) Mildred moved /ram Bloomsbury last year and enjoys living away
from the city celllre.
Take the typewriter off the table and leave it off the table.
He walked out 0/ the house and stayed out of the house all afternoon.

9.6

Rather than absolute position, many prepositions indicate the position of

something relative to the position of something else:
The police station is opposite my house.
- My house is opposite the police station.
Some prepositions form antonymic pairs, as indicated in Fig 9.6. A is
above X and B is below X (as X is below A and above B); C is in/ront 0/ X
and D is behilld X (as X is behind C and in/rolll of D ).
abM'

Does this train stop at Lincoln?

Our daughter is at Oxford studying philosophy.
But where that same place is thought of in terms of residence, dimension
type 2/3 is appropriate:
I've never lived either in Uncoln or in Oxford.
Analogously, if the referent is considered as a surface, dimension-type 1/2
is appropriate, while if it is considered as necessarily enclosing, then
dimension-type 2/3 comes into play:

They were rowing on

.
,-,-m
Lake u
r dermere.
was sWlmmlOg all

1
1 --' D

Where places are regarded as points on a route or as institutions to which

one is attached, dimension-type 0 is invoked:

Contiguity with a side surface is often expressed by againsl ('Who left the ladder

The third dimension similarly straddles two actual dimensions: two

dimensional or three-dimensional space:

is more neutrally

She drove 10 Edinburgh (and arrived at6.0).

She drove towards Edinburgh (but that may not be her destination).

He walked to the lamp-post.

They flew to Australia.

9,5

towards

infronl 0/

behind

be/aw

Fig 9.6

Similar to abO)'e and below are over and tinder respectively, though the
latter tend to mean 'directly above' and 'directly below'. Similar to in/ront
0/and behind are be/ore and after, though the latter tend to imply relative
precedence rather than physical position. Like under are the less common
beneath (somewhat formal) and undemearh. With on top of we combine
the sense of 'above' with abutment.

194

Prepositional meanings 195

Prepositions and pt'"aposltlonal phrases

Passage and direction are frequently related to conceptual axes, especially

the vertical and horizontal, as shown in Fig 9.7. With (a) round, on the
other hand, the relation is to a real or fancied point such as a corner or a
centre:

Abutment is also nonnally implied with by, beside, and with:

She left the keys

{ }
th
beside

her purse.

Be careful as you drive round corner..

The children were playing around the park.

By contrast, close to and near (to) generally exclude actual contact; these
prepositions are unique in admitting comparative inflection (7.39):
.

Please move thIs desk

{clOse(r) to } the wall.

But spatial relations are often expressed by orientation to the speaker,

so that 'He lives down the hilf will relate not only to the vertical axis as in
Fig 9.7 but will imply 'further down from where I am speaking' or 'further
down from the place I am speaking about'. Similarly:

near (er ) ( 10 )

With between, we positionally relate two objects or groups of objects,

whereas with among (and amid(sl), more formally) we are dealing with a
more general plurality:

Their house is past the church. (ie 'beyond the church' in relation to
the orientation point)
They have gone across tire moors. (ie 'from here')

There must be space to walk between the chairs and the wall.
I left the letter among my birthday cards.
The converse of bellveen and among is to some extent expressed by around
(esp AmE, round is esp BrE):

There were trees around the house.

--There was a house among the trees.
NOTE

--along

<

[a) The reciprocal relativity of opposite (10) and fa ing is reflected in their
( .28 Note (a]) as their complement:
frequently having reciprocals 6
c

LetS Slt

{j.PPosite

acmg

( to}

each orher.

horizontal axis

acr

>

do

[b) Especially in OrE. about is used like around:

Fig. 9.7

She put her arms ahout him.

[e] Most prepositions of relative position can also be used of relative direction and
destination; for example:

Note that the difference between '(coming) up the road' and '(going) down
the road' may have more to do with personal orientation than with relative

The mouse scampered under Ihe bookc(ISe and disappeared.

9.7

Passage
The notion of passage combines position and motion, disregarding
destination:
The referee complained because people were moving behind the
goalposts.

Other prepositions commonly used for passage are by, over, under, across,
and past. I t is worth noting the parallel between positional on and in on the
one hand and across and through on the other:
on the grass

Ill/I1111

in the grass

There's someone walking up and down the dril'e.

NOTE

laJlust as verbs like com e and go strongly imply the personal orientation. so others
are congruent with prepositional meaning, even to the extent of enabling the
preposition to be omitted; for example climb (up),jump (o'er},jfee (from), pass
(by).

I love walking through woods in spring.

elevation. Cfalso:

I111I1:,I11

across the grass

through the grass

[bJ Prepositions that can convey motion or direction can be used also to express the
static resultative meaning of having reached the destination:
The horse has successfully jumped across lite gap.
(c) Especially when preceded by all and right, prepositions such as Ol-er, (a)round,
and through express pervasive meaning:
Crowds were cheering (all) along the route
There were police ( right) ound th e ho e
r

us .

Prepositional meanings 197

196 Prepositions and prepositional phrases

We can come on Monday or on any other day that you may prefer.
The baby was born on July the twelfth.

Metaphorical extension with spatial prepositions

9.8

With many spatial prepositions, metaphor enables similar but abstract

relations to be expressed. This is particularly striking with time (9.9) but a
wide range of other meanings must also be noted, where the proximity 10
literal use can be readily perceived. For example:
in the room
out of the bottle
beneath the branches
under the noorboards
up the hill
downhill
beyond the post office
over the mountain
from Boston to Bangor:
between the trees
through the tunnel

NOTE

in this book, in some difficulty

out of danger, out of the competition
beneath contempt
under suspicion
up the social scale
down market
beyond endurance
(she is getting) over her illness
when her temperature was over 40C
from generation to generation
between ourselves
through the ordeal

So too wilh an interval that is specifically part of a day:

on Sunday afternoon; on Thursday night.

NOTE

I have to sleep in the afternoon because I cannot sleep at night very easily.
But it can also be vicwed as a period, with the regular use of in:
We heard her coughing several times in the night.
{b] A phrase like in three (Jays may be used to indicate a duration or a point three
days hence; thus 'Hc'll do it in three days' may mean either ' He lI take threc days to
do it' (without commitment 10 when the Ihrcedays will be) or 'Hc'll do it thrce days
'

from now' (thc converse of'Hc did it three days ago').

Time duration

9,10

Some prepositions are used in what would seem a converse relationship:

In answer to How long? we have above all phrases with for:

We stayed in a rented cottage for the summer.

The cow is in calf. ( ...... 1the calf is in the cow's womb)

The office is out ofem-elopes. ( -1AII envelopes seem to be Ollt ofthe office).

The same meaning, with some emphasis on the duration, can be expressed
with fhroughout and aI/ through. By contrast, during indicates a stretch of
time within which a more specific duration can be indicated:

Note also: in/ollt of IlIck

During the summer, we stayed in a rented cottage for a month.

Time

But with appropriate lexical support in the context, the difference between
during and for (throughout, etc) can be neutralized:

Time position

9,9

lal Reference to night may disregard its 'dimension' as in:

Three prepositions, at, on, and in, are used in expressions answering the
question 'When?' and they reflect a concept of time as analogous to space.
Thus at is used for points of time, where time is conceived as being
'dimensionless':
The film will begin at

Try to stay alert

It is not only instants that can be so considered:

the evening.

Duration can be specified by reference to the beginning and ending:

What are you doing or fhe weekend?

She last saw her parents at Christmas.
Chaucer frequently speaks of books because at Ihal lime they were
rare and highly valued.

The office will be open from Monday 10 Friday.

Whilefrom . . . to corresponds tofor ('The office will be openforfive days'),
befween . . . lInd can be used in the more general sense of during:

Where time is regarded as a period, the usual preposition is ill, reflecting

analogy with two- or threedimensional space:

But in expressions referring to days, the preposition is Oil:

durmg

Duration expressions with over carry the implication of a period

containing some divisions or 'fences'. Thus one can stay OI'emight, O'ef the
weekend, ol'er the Christmas period but hardly ?over the ceremony, ?over

7.20 p.m.

In the evening, I listened to some Beethoven records.

Where did he live in his childhood?
I saw her ;n March/ill J988/in the following week.

{ throug/toUl
} the enl/re. ceremony.
.

The office will be open between Monday alld Friday. (ie 10r a period
within the stretch specified').
NOTE

The ex pression/rom to y is chiefly BrE and although it normally means that the
periods x and J' are both included, there can be uncertainty. The corresponding
AmE expression (from) through J' is inclusive.
x

Prepoalllonal meanings 199

198 Prepositions and prepositional phrase.

9,11

Where the complement is animate, the phrase usually means 'intended

recipient':

Duration specifying only a starting point or a terminal point is expressed

by phrases with by, be/ore, from, aller, since, liIl, until, lip 10. For example:

He built a playpcn/or the little girl.

She will be here by Friday night.

She will not be here be/ore Friday nighl.
I worked /rom eighl o 'e/ock (onwards).
I began working (at some time) a/ler eight 0 'clock.
I have been working since eight o 'e/ock.

By contrast, 10 is used with the 'actual recipient":

She presented a plaque 10 Ihe retiring supervisor.
With aI, the goal or target is usually viewed with hostility; contrast:

{ till } Monday a/ternoon.

Hedld not set out
.

He shouted al lhem. ('loudly reproved')

He shouted 10 Ihem. ('called')
The police rushed at lhe house. ('charged')
The police rushed 10 Ihe house. ('hurried')

./

un"

You can stay here till /until/up to IlInch time.

Note the contrast in:

But with aim, point, and above all smile, the target can be viewed neutrally;
contrast:

We slept ulllil midnighl. ( = we stopped sleeping then)

We didn't slccp IIntil midnight. ( = we started sleeping then)
NOTE

With the rather formal pending, the complement usually denotes a period and the
preposition thus roughly corresponds to 'up to the start of and during (the
period)':

She smiled (kindly) at the child.

They laughed (unsympathetically) at the idea.
NOTE

They should cease action pending negotiations.

But the complement can also refer
preposition means 'until':

10

lal The converse of goal is source. ex-pressed usually by from or oul of(but cf9.14
Note le]):

She made it for ml' -from a piece ofpigskin.

X lends 10 Y Y borrows from x.

a poinl of time and in such cases the

Compare also 'He comesfrom America' ( = 'He is an American') in conlrast lo

They should cease action pending the court's decision.

'He has come/rom America ( = 'He was in America recently').

The items prior to and in advance of can rcplace before in formal style.

Ib] When as is used in the sense 'in the role of', the phrase comes close to ex-pressing

reason:

Cause and purpose

9.12

There is a spectrum or relations extending from cause to purpose. For the

part covering cause, reason, and motive, we have prepositional phrases
with items such as because of, on account of, for, OUI o f :
He lost his job because o f his laziness.
She was fined /or dangerous driving.
He misdirected the letter out 0/ spite.
They died /rom exposure,
She can't turn the heating on /or fear 0/ afire oUlbreak.
The plane crashed tl/rough some navigational error.
But ofcourse the notion of'motive' shades into purpose, goal, and target,
for all of which the common preposition is/or:
An appeal is being opened for a new hospital.
They are appealing/or donalions.
We had better set out /or home.
She is applying/or a beller job.

As a subscriber, I ought to have been consulted.

From means to stimulus

9,13

Another spectrum of relations expressed by prepositions covers means,

instrument, agency. and stimulus. The first two respond to the question
'How?' with by used for means and wirh ror instrument, as in:
I go to work by car.
Please send this to the Delhi office by telex.
The burglar entered by the back door.
She won the match wilh her fast service.
He levered it up with a crowbar.

Note the corresponding negative of Wilh:

He managed to open the car without a key,
In contrast to means and instrument, the agent is an animate which
instigates or causes something. I t is expressed by the preposition by, the

200

Prepositions and praposltional phrases

Prepositional maanlngs 201

complement of which frequently corresponds to the subject of a transitive

verb:
This picture was painted by Degas.
-- Degas painted this picture.
I was bitten by a neighbour's dog.
- A neighbours dog bit me.

He entered the room with a worried look.

She set off withollt a care.
NOTE
,

[a]

Manner is also expressed with (un)/ike:

He spoke lI'ilh a barrisler's skill. (Contrast: 'He spoke with a barrister')
Fred. (IIn)like his brolher, is trusted by few. (Contrast: 'Fred is (un)like his
brother')

'

But an agent phrase need not be accompanied by a passive verb phrase:

(b) The sense of accompaniment can shade into or even cooccur with opposition:

People thought the play was by Webster.

She was arguing wilh her brolher. (c!'She and her brother were arguing')

Stimulus and reaction are expressed chiefly by at :

But there is also a contrast between with and against,jor and againsl:

I'm surprised at her attitude.

I would rather have him ilh me than againsl me.

lI'

In AmE this is general, but in BrE with is preferred if the stimulus is a

person:

Are you f ll'

Vor

They were furious with Paul.

.
} the government or agamst

11 ,.

Expressions of accompaniment are used also for possession, so that there is

some interchange between wil"(OIlI), of, and the genitive:

[c)

Other stimulus and reaction prepositions include about, in, of and to:

The pianist has great talcn!. -A pianist Wilh great talent

- A pianist ojgreat lale"t
- The pianist's great talent

was pleased about the choice of date.

Are you interested in quanmm theory?
I think he's jealous of her.
To me, her proposal is broadly acceptable.

Another close tic is with the notion of ingredients'. expressed by lI'ilh and (0111)
of:

With means or transport, 011 plus article can often be used in place ofby plus zero :

The sauce was made lI"ilhjresh cream.

The fence is oj It'ood but the posts are oj concrete.

I often go to work on the 8.15 train.

The use of on here is shown to be means and not locative, since the laller sense
would require in (9.5).

Accompaniment
Especially when the complement is animate, with conveys the meaning 'in
the company of', without the converse:
hope you will come to dinner with yOllr husband. (ie 'accompanied
by')
I hope you will come to dinner wilh us. (ie - usually - 'at our home')
He is going for a walk with his dog.
For once, Jill went without her husband.
I

But the complement need not be animate:

What will you drink with your meal?
I cannot concentrate without silence.
The accompaniment may therefore become a circumstance and the phrase
connote 'manner':

Concession and other relations

9.15

Prepositions expressing concession include in spite ofand its more formal

synonym despite, the still more formal notlllithstant/illg, and the somewhat
informal for a/J, with a/J:
The article is being published

{J;::t of} her disapproval.

For exceptioll, t he chief prepositions are excepl (for), excepting, wilh the
exception of, excluding. apartjrom (esp BrE), asidefrom (esp AmE), but,
and the rarer save, bar. and barring:
Excepl for Ihe u'eather, our stay in Scotland was enjoyable.
Everyone seemed tired but me.

The converse of exception is addilioll, expressed by besides, as we/J Qj', in

addilion to; compare:

. .
except for

the soiOISI.
The orchestra was d Isappomtmg
as we// as

Negali'e condition is expressed by but for, as in:

Modification 203

Bill/or me, the case would have been lost. (ie 'If it hadn't been for

me')

For the relationship respect, we have the prepositions as/or, as 10, aboul,
on the matler 0/, concerning, as regards, with regard to, and the more
formal Wilh reference 10, with respecl to, and re.
Now, aboul your applicalion, are you sure you would like a job of
this kind?
The coat is splendid as 10 the material, but I'm less happy as regards
the cuI.

The pair as to and a!J-jor differ in that the latter tends to introduce a topic
transition:
The coat is splendid but asfor Ihe haf I don't think it suits you.
Many expressions of respect occur in complementation of verbs and
adjectives (Chapter 1 6):
He told her 0/ his problems but was silent on his failed marriage.
They argued aboul the children and quarrelled over money.
One aspect of respect is to make explicit a slandardby which assessment is
made; for this, several prepositions are in common use:
For a teacher, he seems extraordinarily ignorant.
I'm better at squash than ' am as a tennis player.
She is very clever wilh her hands.

Modification
9.16

Both prepositions and prepositional adverbs (9.2 Note (b)) can be

modified in terms of measure and degree by being accompanied by
intensifiers (7.33). For example:

Shortly afler len.

.
She arnved
at ten or shortly a/ler.

He expected to be well ahead of Compton but he finished in factjllst

behind.

Please rehang the picture about halfa metre/ur/her down (the wall).
Though in many cases such modification seems clearly to apply to the
preposition, there are equally cases where it seems to apply to the whole
prepositional phrase:
Should I stand at one side or right in Ihe middle?
Many people are againsl public ownership complelely.

Bibliographical note
For general and theoretical studies of prepositions, see Bennetl (1975); Vester
gaard ( 1 977). Guimier (1981) provides a valuable bibliography.
On specific issues, see Buyssens ( 1987); lacobsson (1977); laworska ( 1 986);
Leech ( 1 969); Lindkvisl ( 1 976); Quirk ( 1 968, Ch. 14).

Syntactic functions 01 clause elements

10

205

The complementation of verbs receives detailed treatment in Chapter 16.

The simple sentence

NOTE

In informal (especially dialectal) AmE. get is used imperatively as an intransitive verb

( = 'leave al once') in type SV: She fold him to get.

Verb classes

10.3
Clause structure

VERBS are followed by no obligatory element, and

occur in type SV (eg: shine).
TRANSITIVE VERBS are followed by an OBJECT, and occur in types SVO
INTRANSlTIVE

Clause types
10.1

A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause, which may be

one of seven types. The types differ according to whether one or more
clause elements (ef2.3) are obligatorily present (cf I 0.4) in addition to the
S(ubject) and V(erb). The V element in a simple sentence is always a finite
verb phrase (ef3. 19).
I.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

7.

The sun (S) is shining (V).

That lecture (S) bored (V) me (0).
Your dinner (S) seems (V) ready (C).
My office (S) is CV) in the next building (A).
I (S) must send (V) my parents (0) an anniversary
card (0).
SVOC Most students (S) have found CV) her (0) reasonably
helpful (C).
SVOA You (S) can put (V) the dish (0) on the table (A).

(eg: bore), SVOO (eg: send), SVOC (eg:jind), SVOA (eg: put).
COPULAR VERBS are followed by a SUBJECT COMPLEMENT or an
ADVERBIAL, and occur in types SVC (eg: seem), SVA (eg: be).
NOTE

SV
SVO
SVC
SVA
SVOO

Luckily, the sun is already shining.

Later, you can perhaps put the dish on the table.

MONOTRANSIT1VE VERBS occur in type

SVO.
SVOO.
COMPl.EXTRANSITIVE VERBS occur in types SVOC and SVOA.

Complementation
10.4

They're eating. [SV]

efThey're eating lunch. [SVO]
efWe elected her our delegate. [SVOC]
We elected her. [SVO]
He's teaching. [SV]
efHe's teaching chemistry. [SVO]
He's teaching them chemistry. [SV001

A given verb can belong, in its various senses, to more than one class, and
hence can enter into more than one clause type. The verb gel is particularly
versatile, being excluded only from type SV (and even then not
universally; cfNote):

We regard [he verbs in these sentences as having multiple class

membership (ef 1 0.2). so that eat (for example) can be either transitive or
intransitive.

He'll get a surprise.

He's getting angry.
He got through the window.
He got her a splendid present.
He got his shoes and socks wet.
He got himself into trouble.

Syntactic functions of clause elements

Through the mUltiple class membership of verbs, ambiguities can arise:

She made a good model. SVO or SVC
I found her an entertaining partner. SVOC or SVOO
He is cooking his family dinner. SVO or SVOO

The elements 0, C, and A in the patterns exemplified in IO.lf are

obligatory elements of clause structure in that they are required for the
complementation of the verb. By that we mean that jfwe use a particular
verb in the relevant sense, the sentence is incomplete when one of these
elements is omitted: eg: Your dinner seems (type SVC) and * You can pUI
Ihe dish (type SVOA ) are unacceptable. In some cases, however, an
element could be considered grammatically optional:
*

[SV]
[SVOA]

Multiple class membership of verbs

SVO
SVC
SVA
SVOO
SVOC
SVOA

The term TRANSITIVE is applied to all verbs that require an object. Transitive verbs
can be further classified:
DITRANSITIVE VERBS occur in type

Optional adverbials can be added to sentences of any of these types:

10.2

There arc three main verb classes, which are exemplified in 10. 1 :

Objects and complements

10.5

There are two subcategories each of object and complement. The two
types of object can cooccur:

206 The .Imple .entenee

lustin poured David some whisky.

Syntactic characterization of clau.. elemen'- 207

In [I} David is the indirect object and some whisky is the direct object.
Whenever there are two objects (in type SVOO) the indirect object
normally comes before the direct object. Although the indirect object is
more central in being closer to the verb, in other respects it is more
peripheral than the direct object: it is more likely to be optional (Juslin
pOllred some whisky), and it can often be paraphrased by a prepositional
phrase functioning as an adverbial (Jllslin pOllredsome whiskyfor Davit/).
The two types of complement occur in different clause patterns. The
subject complement is found in the SVC pattern:
Robert is becoming quite mature.

[2]

The object complement, on the other hand, is found in the S VOC pattern:
Doris considers Robert quite mature.

[l]

In [2] the subject complement characterizes the subject Robert, whereas in

(3] the objcct complement characterizes the direct object Rober,. In (i] and
p] the complement is an adjective phrase, but the same distinction applies
where the complement is a noun phrase:

Benjamin is becoming a conscientiolls student [Cs].

His parents consider Benjamin a conscientiOIlS sllldellt [Col.
Obligatory adverbial.
to.6

Obligatory adverbials typically refer to space. They can be divided into

those occurring in the SVA pattern, in which a location is attributed to the
referent of the subject. and those occurring in the SVOA pattern, in which
a location is attributed to the referent of the direct object. There is a
parallel between obligatory adverbials and complements, which is
demonstrated in the pairs of sentences below:
Daniel stayed very quiet [CsI .
Daniel stayed in bed [AJ.
Linda kept Daniel very quiet [Co].
Linda kept Daniel in bed [Ao).

[I]
[2]
[l]
[4]

In [2] the adverbial is subjectrelated (like the subject complement in [ I n,

and in (4) it is objectrelated (like the object complement in [3]). The
parallel is further evident in the verb classes, and we therefore call the verb
in both ( I ] and (2) copular (since it is equivalent in function 10 the copula
be) and call the verb in both P) and (4) comple,Hransitive (cf 16.24ff).
NOTE

Space adverbials include not only position (in bedin {2J), but also direction (ro bed,
as in John and Linda went 10 bed). Other meanings conveyed by obligatory
adverbials include metaphorical elltensions or space:
The nellt meeting will be in March.
We kept him off cigareHes.

Still others have no connection with spatial meanings:

[I]

They treated her kindly.

He is without ajob.

Syntacllc characlerlzallon of clause elements

10.7

The VERB is always realized by a verb phrase. It is normally present in all

clauses, including imperative clauses (where the subject is typically
absent). The verb determines what other elements (apart from the SUbject)
may or must occur in the clause (cf 1O.3J).
The SUBJECT:
(a) is typically a noun phrase (cfChapters 5, 6, and 17);
(b) normally occurs before the verb in declarative clauses and after the
operator in yes-no interrogative clauses (cf 1 1 .3ff);
(c) determines the number and person, where relevant, of the verb
(c/ I 0 . 1 9);

(d) in finite clauses requires the subjective form for pronouns that have
distinctive case forms (cf 6.6f),
The OBJECT:
(a) is typically a noun phrase;
(b) normaHy follows the subject and verb (but c/ I0.l5J, 1 1 . 1 0, 1 1 .20.
1 8. 1 4f), and if both objects are present, the indirect object normally
comes before the direct object (cf 1 8.26 Note rh]);
(c) may generally become the subject of the corresponding passive
clause;
(d) in finite clauses requires the objective form for pronouns that have
distinctive case forms.
The COMPLEMENT:
(a) is typically a noun phrase or an adjective phrase;
(b) normally follows the subject and verb if subject complement, and the
direct object if object complement;
(c) relates to the subject if subject complement, or to the direct object if
object complement (cf 10.5);
(d) does not have a corresponding passive subject;
(e) in finite clauses requires the subjective form of pronouns in formal use
(especially in Am E), but otherwise the objective form.
The ADVERBIA.L ( cfChapter 8):
(a) is normally an adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, or clause, but can
also be a noun phrase;
(b) is typically capable of occurring in more than one position in the
clause, though its mobility depends on the type and form of the
adverbial;
(c) is optional, except for adverbials in the SVA and SVOA clause types.

208 The simple sentence

NOTE

Semantic roles 01 clauN elements 209

[a) The distinction between obligatory adverbial-and complement is not clear-cut

Semantic roles 01 clause elements

for all prepositional phrases. Some prepositional phrases are semantically similar
to adjective or noun phrases functioning as complement:
They were under suspicion.
Norma was in good health.

They were suspects.

Norma was healthy.

Participants
10.8

Unlike obligatory adverbials, they can be used as complemenlation for copular verbs
other than BE, a characteristic of subject complemenls:

Unfortunately, their child broke my window yesterday.

We similarly find prepositional phrases functioning as object complement:

I don't consider myself at risk.

Charles put me at my ease.

Agenthie, affected, recipient, aHrlbute

Some adverbs can also function as complements:

10,9

[b] Equally, the distinction between optional adverbial and subject complement is
not clear-cut for adjective and noun phrases. We find instances where the adjective
or noun phrase is optional. unlike clear cases of subject complement:

The typical role of the direct object is that of the AFFECTED participant: a
participant (animate or inanimate) which does not cause the happening
denoted by the verb, but is directly involved in some other way:
h

Sometimes there is a close connection between the verb and the final element:

lames sold his digital watc yesterday.

The sun shone bright.

The door banged .shut.

The typical role of the indirect object is that of the RECIPIENT

participant: ie of the animate being that is passively involved by the
happening or state:

[e] After some verbs, noun phrases of measure are indeterminate between direct
object and adverbial:

We paid them the money.

Kathy jumped {{,/lfeet.

The book costs ten dollars.

The typical role of a subject complement and an object complement is

that of ATTRIBUTE. We can distinguish two sUbtypes of role for the
attribute: identification and characterization:

Unlike objects, however, these do not generally permit the passive, and they allow
adverbial questions (How far did Kathy jump?)

IDENTIFICATION:

MI1)I)LE VERBS, a small group of verbs that seem transitive in other respects,

Kevin is my brorher.
Sidney is now Ihe Dean.
His response to the reprimand seemed a major reason for his

normally occur only in the active:

Fred and Anita have four children.
The coal doesn't fit me.
Five times six equals thirty.

dismissal.

They named their daughter dna.

le} Prepositional phrases, adverbs, and also clauses that otherwise function as
adverbials may sometimes function as subject:

CHARACTERIZATION:

Martha was a good studenl.

Daniel remains helpful.
1 consider the operation a success.

Slowly is exactly how Jeremy speaks,

Will afler the show be soon enough?

8ecau.se Sally lI'anls to leOl'e doesn't mean that we have to. (informal)

The typical semantic role ora subject in a clause that has a direct object is
that of the AGENTIVE participant: that is, the animate participant that
instigates or causes the happening denoted by the verb:
Margaret is mowing the grass.

They married young.

We parted goodfriends.

Id]

[I J

The sentence in [11 contains a verb describing the nature of the action, a
subject denoting an agentive participant (the doer of the action), and a
direct object denoting the affected participant. In addition, it contains an
adverbial evaluating the situation (unfortunately) and an adverbial
locating the situation in time (yesterday).

Barbarba appeared out of breath.

That seems of no importance.

The performance is over.

I am behind in my rent.

Every clause describes a situation which involves one or more PARTICI

PANTS, ie entities realized by noun phrases. We find two participants in [I]:

NOTE

[a] Attributes may becurrent, normally with verbs used statively, or resulting from
the event described by the verb, with verbs used dynamically (cf4.2, 4.1 1):

Semantic rol of clau.. elemen.. 211

210 Th Imple ..nlenee

svo

CURRENT ATTRIBUTE:

Hc's my brother.
He seems unhappy.
We fcll cold.

She remained silent.

I want my food hOl.
They consider me their closest friend.

Tom is cooking the dinner.

Brenda is improving her writing.
(ii)

RESULTING ATTRIBUTE:

We became restless.
He turned (railDr.
He felt ill.

They elected him president.

The hcat turned the milk sour.
He drivcs me mad.

(iii)

(iv)

10.11

SVC
The lights became dim.
He (almost) went blind.

SV
The company paraded.
My dog is exercising.

The subject may have a recipient role with verbs such as have, own, possess,
benefit (from) , as is indicated by the following relation:
Mr Smith has given his son a radio. [So now his son has a radio.J

Subject as external causer, instrument, and affected

The subject sometimes has the role of EXTERNAL CAUSER; that is, it
expresses the unwitting (generally inanimate) cause of an event:

The perceptual verbs see and hear require an experiencer subject, in

contrast to look at and listen to, which are agentive. The other perceptual
verbs taste, smell, and feel have both an agentive meaning corresponding
to look or, as in [I], and an experiencer meaning corresponding to see, as in
[2]:

The avalanche destroyed several houses.

The electric shock killed him.

It may also have the role of .MENT; that is, the entity (generally
inanimate) which an agent uses to perform an action or instigate a process:

I want you to taste the soup.

I can taste the pepper in my soup.

A car knocked them down.

The computer has solved the problem.

[I J
[2J

The soup in [3J has the affected role:

The soup tastes good.

With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the AFFECTED
role elsewhere typical of the direct object:
....
.

[3J

Verbs indicating cognition or emotion may also require an experiencer:

Jack fell down (accidentally).

The pencil was lying on the table.

I thought you were mistaken.

I liked the play.

The term 'affected' can also be applied to subjects of copular verbs:

Normally, recipient and experiencer subjects go with verbs used statively.

The pencil was on the table.

Positioner subject

But we can make some further distinctions according to whether the

subject complement as attribute identifies or characterizes (cf 10.9). Thus,
the subject is lDENT-IFIED in [I] and c;,HARACTERIZED in [2]:

NOTE

SV
The flowers have died.
The flag is waving (in the breeze).

Recipient and experienr subjects

Subjects

Kevin is my brother.
Martha was a good student.

svO

The sergeant paraded the company.

I am exercising my dog.

My brother is Kcvin.

Only characterization attributes can also be rcalized by adjective phrases.

10,10

SVO

They havc dimmed the lights.

The sun (almost) blinded him.

[b] If the verb IS BE, identification attributes allow reversal of subject and
complement:
Kevin is my brother.

svo

The frost has killed the flowers.

Fred is waving the flag.

sv

The dinner is cooking.

Her writing is improving.

[I J
[2J

There is sometimes a regular relation, in tenns of clause function. between

transitive vcrbs expressing CAUSATIVE meaning and corresponding intransitive
verbs or adjectives. In the last group, the company and my dog as object are
affected but as subject are agentivc.

10.12

The subject may have the role of POSITIONER with intransitive stance verbs
(cf 4. 1 1) such as sit, stand, lie, live ['dwell'J, stay, remain, and with
transitive verbs related to stance verbs such as carry. hold, keep, wear. The
transitive verbs are causative and the direct objects that follow them have
an affected role. In this positioner role the participant is in control, but the
situation is not resultative in that no change is indicated in the positioner
during the period in which the situation lasts:
I have lived in London most of my life.
The hijacker was holding a revolver.
They are staying at a motel.

212 The .Imple .enlence

Semantic role. 01 clau.. elements 213

He kept himself upright.

My friend is sitting in a chair near the door.
,/

./

Contrast the affected object in I'm digging the ground with the resultant
object in I'm digging a hole.
A OONATE object is similar to a resultant object in that it refers to an

Locahve, temporal, and eventive subjects

10.13

event indicated by the verb:

The subject may have the _QCATlVE role of designating the place of the
state or action, or the TEMPORAL role of designating its time:

Chris will sing a song for us.

Los Angeles is foggy. ['It's foggy in Los Angeles.']

Thisjar contains coffee. ('There's coffee in this jar. ']
Yesterday was a holiday. ('It was a holiday yesterday.']

An important role of the subject iSJ;:,{ENTlvE. The noun at the head of

the noun phrase is commonly deverbal (ie derived from a verb) or a
nominalization (cl 17.23):
The match is tomorrow.
The Norman invasion took place in 1066.
The dispute over the inheritance lasted a decade.

The noun head is semantically and often morphologically related to the

verb, and its function is merely to repeat, wholly or partially, the meaning
of the verb.
NOTE

Eventive object

10,16

There are clauses in which no participant is required. In such cases, the

subject function may be assumed by the 'prop' word it (cI6.9), which has
little or no semantic content.
Prop i/ mainly occurs in clauses signifying (a) time, (b) atmospheric
conditions, and (c) distance:
(a) It's ten o'clock precisely.
It's our wedding anniversary next month.
(b) Is it raining?
It's getting dark.
(c) It's not very far to York.
It's just one more stop to Toronto.

A frequent type of object generally takes the form of a deverbal noun

preceded by a common verb of general meaning, such as do, giw', have,
make, rake. This EVENTIYEJ:bject (cl 10.13) is semantically an extension of
the verb and bears the major part of the meaning. Compare:
They are arguing. (verb only]
They are having an argument. (verb + eventive object]
Other examples:
1 gave them some advice.
Sarah is doing her homework.
The baby's hal'l'lIg a bath.
We made allowance for his inexperience.
1 took a shower earlier.

Locative, resultant, and cognate objects

The construction with the eventive object provides greater weight than
the corresponding S V type, especially if there are no optional adverbials,
and is often preferred to the SV construction in informal English.

The direct object may have a l.OCATIVE role with such verbs as walk, swim,

Affected indirect object

Objects
10.15

In onc type of resuhant object, the activity re-creates the referent:

She acted ,hl! part of Ophelia.
They arc playing the Egmont Overture.

Prop il subject

10.14

She lived a good life.

pass,jump, !Urn, leave, reacll, surround, cross, climb:

loan swam the river. ('Joan swam across t he river.']

I passed a cyclist. ['I passed by a cyclist.']
A RESULTANT (or 'effected') object is an object whose referent exists only
by virtueofthe adivity indicated by the verb:
Baird invented television.

They are designing a new car.

With an agentive subject and an affected object, onc may always capture
part of the meaning of a clause (eg: X destroyed Y) by saying ' X did
something to Y'; but this does not apply to a resultant object: Baird
invented television does not imply 'Baird did something to television'.

10.17

The affected indirect object is the one exception to the normal role of
recipient taken by the indirect object (c/ l 0.9). The affected indirect object
combines with an eventive direct object (cf 1 0.16), and the most common
verb is git'e:
I gave Helen a nudge. ("I nudged Helen.']
We gave the baby a bath. ['We bathed the baby.']
I should give the car a wash. ['I should wash the car.')
ludith paid me a visit. ['Judith visited me.']
Derek owes liS a treat. ('It's Derek's turn to treat us.']
The indirect object has the same role as the affected direct object in the
paraphrases.

214

NOTE

The .Imple ..nlence

The object may occasionally be instrumental

Subject-verb concord 215

Nominal relative clauses, on the other hand, resemble noun phrases in this
respect (cf 1 5 .7f) and may have plural as well as singular concord: What

(cl 10. 10):

We employ a computer for our calculations.

She is playing the pjano.
He nodded his head.

was once a palace is now a pile of rubble; What ideas he has are his wife's.

NOTE

Summary
10.18

Although the semantic functions of the elements (particularly S and Od)

are quite varied, there are certain clear restrictions, such as that the object
cannot be agentive; a subject (except in the passive)cannot be resultant; an
indirect object normally has only two functions - those of recipient and
affected. The following system of priorities generally obtains:
If there is an agentive, external causer, or positioner, it is S; if not,
If there is an instrument, it is S; if not,
If there is an affected item, it is S; if not,
If there is a temporal, locative, or eventive item, it may be S; if not,
The prop word it is S.
Naturally, in passive clauses the role of the direct or indirect object in an
active clause is assigned to the subject.
The semantic functions of clauses are treated in Chapter 1 5 .

[a] It is possible to generalize the rule of concord to 'A subject which is not clearly
semantically plural requires a singular verb'; that is. to treat singular as the
unmarked form, to be used in neutral circumstances. where no positive indication
'
of plurality is present. This would explain, in addition to clausal subjects. the
tendency in informal speech for is/was to follow the pseudo-subject there in
.
existential sentences (cf 18.30) such as ?There's hundreds ofpl!ople on the ....aiting
list and in sentences such as '!Where's the scissors?; '!f{ere's John and Mar}'. As
what precedes the subject here is not marked for plural, the singular verb follows
by attraction.
On the other hand, the principle of proximity (cf 10.20) effects a change from
singular to plural more often than the reverse, and this perhaps suggests that we
should regard the plural as the unmarked form.
[b] Apparent exceptions to the concord rule arise with singular nouns ending with
an apparent plural -s (measles. billiards, mathematics, etc, cf 5 .43) or conversely
plural nouns lacking the inflection (cattle. people. clerg)', etc, cf 5.44):
Measles is sometimes serious.
Our people are complaining.
(c] Plural phrases (including coordinate phrases) count as singular if they are used
as names. titles. quotations, etc:

Crime and Punishment is perhaps the best constructed of Dostoyevsky's

novels, but The Brothers Karamazov is undoubtedly his masterpiece.
'Senior citizens' means, in common parlance. people over sixty.

Subject-verb concord

The titles of some works that arc collections of stories. etc, may be counted as
either singular or plural:

General rule

10.19

Ih
. e Canterbur}' T
I aIes
T

The most important type of concord in English is concord of 3rd person

number between subject and verb. A singular subject requires a singular
verb:
My

daughter watches television after supper.

A plural subject requires a plural verb:

My daughters watch television after supper.
The number of a noun phrase depends on the number of its head:
The change in male attitudes is most obvious in industry.
The changes in male attitude are most obvious in industry.
For coordinated noun phrases, see IO.22jf.
Clauses as subject (cf 15.1ff) count as singular for number concord:

How you got there doesn't concern me; Smoking cigarettes is dangerous to
your health. The same applies to prepositional phrases and adverbs
functioning as subject: In the e)'enings is best for me; Slowly does il!.

}.
{eXistS
.
eXIst

m many manuscnpts.

Notional concord and proximity

10.20

Two factors sometimes conflict with GRAMMATICAL CONCORD as described

in 10.19. NOTIONAL CONCORD is agreement according to the idea of number
rather than the presence of the grammatical marker for that idea. In BrE,
for example, collective nouns such as go)'ernment are often treated as
plural (cf 10.21): The gOl'emmem have broken all their promises.
The principle of PROXIMITY denotes agreement of the verb with a noun
or pronoun that closely precedes it in preference to agreement with the
head of the noun phrase:
?No one except his own supporters agree with him.
One in ten take drugs.

Attraction of number through proximity occurs mainly in unplanned

discourse.

Subject-verb concord

217

216 The .Imple .entence

10.21

(2)

NOTE

[b) Subject noun phrases may be linked by quasi-coordinators, ie prepositions

(such as along lI'ilh. rather Ihan. and as Ifell as) that are semantically similar to
coordinators. Grammatical concord requires a singular verb ir the first noun
phrase is singular:

In both OrE and AmE. plural pronouns are often used to rerer to singular
nouns even when the verb is singular: for example, Ihey is an alternative
to il in The committee has 1101 yet decided holl' Ihey should reacl to Ihe leller.

The captain, as well as the other players, was tired.

le} Ir an adverbial is present in the second noun phrase, the construction is

considered parenthetic. and grammatical concord requires the verb to agree in
number with the first noun phrase:

Coordinated subject

The ambassador - and perhaps his wire too

Coordination with and

When a subject consists of two or more noun phrases (or clauses)

coordinated by and, a distinction has to be made between coordination
and coordinative apposition.
Coordination comprises cases that correspond to fuller coordinate
forms. A plural verb is used even if each conjoin is singular:
Tom and Alice are now ready.
What I say and what I think are my own affair.

The Iwo opening noun phrases here both refer to one entity (a statue). The
following example, however, could have either a singular or plural verb,
depending on the meaning:

is likely to be present.

The Prime Minister, (and) not the monarch. decides government policy.

10.23

A singular noncount noun head with coordinate premodifiers may imply

two (or more) separate sentences. It may be followed legitimately by a
plural verb:
American and Dutch beer are (both) much lighter than British beer.
['American beer is . . . and Dutch beer is . . .']
The same phenomenon occurs with nominal relative clauses:

Your problem and mine are similar. ['Your problem is similar to

mine and mine is similar to yours. ']
What I say and do (Ire two different things. ['What I say is one thing
and what I do is another thing.']

This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad taste was

erected in the main street of the city.

The same grammatical rule applies when the second phrase is negative, whether or
not linked by and. though here the principle or notional concord reinrorces the use
or the singular:

Conjoins expressing a mutual relationship. even though they can only

indirectly be treated as reductions of clauses in this way, also take a plural
verb:

With the less common COORDINATIVE APPOSITION. no reduction is

implied, since each of the units has the same reference. Hence, a singular
verb is required if each noun phrase is singular:

laJ A plural verb is required in asyndetic coordination (without a coordinator):

His camera. his radio. his money II'ere confiscated by the customs officials.

collective

10.22

were

Singular was is used if the brother and the editor are the same person, and
plural were if they are two different people.

[1 )

Singular and plural verbs are more or less interchangeable in the contexts
of[ I ] and [2], but singular has to be used in sentences like The audience was
enormous, where the group is being considered as a single undivided body.
In AmE grammatically singular collective nouns are generally treated
as singular, especially when they refer to governments and sports teams.
NOTE

collected papers

In BrE grammatically singular collective nouns are treated as notionally

plural if the group is considcred as a collection of individuals:
The audience were enjoying every minute of it.
England have won the cup.

{ was } with him at his deathbed.

His brother and the subsequent editor of his

Collective nouns

What I say and do are my own affair. (,What I say is . . . and what I
do is']
The singular would mean 'That which I say and do is my own affair'.
NOTE

A singular verb is required when the phrases are postmodirying:

Beer rrom Amcrica and the Netherlands is much lighter than British beer.
("Beer that comes rrom America and the Netherlands is . . .']

Coordination with or and nor

10.24

For subject phrases or clauses that are coordinated with (either . . . ) or and
with neither . . . nor, grammatical concord is clear when the conjoins have
the same number. In [I] the verb is singular and in [2] it is plural:

218 The simple sentence

SubJectverb concord

Every member of the vast was

crowd of 50,000 people ?were

Either the Mayor or her deputy is bound to come.

[I]
Either the strikers or the bosses have misunderstood the claim. [2]

[3]
[4]

A (large) number of people have applied for the job.

The majority agree with me.

In less formal usage, phrases coordinated with neither . . . nor are treated
more like and for concord. Thus, [5] is more natural in speech than [6]:
Neither he nor his wife have arrived.
Neither he nor his wife has arrived.

[5]
[6]

} pIeased to see hIm.

Although these sentences with plural verbs might well be uttered in casual
speech, or inadvertently written down, most people would probably
regard them as ungrammatical, because they flatly contradict grammati
cal concord. Other, more acceptable, instances arise with ex.pressions
involving quantity (where the singular would seem pedantic):

When conjoins differ in number, recourse is generally made to the

principle of prox.imity: the number of the second conjoin determines the
number of the verb, as in [3] and [4J:
Either your brakes or your eyesight is at fault.
Either your eyesight or your brakes are at fault.

219

NOTE

The following illuslrates an idiomatic anomaly: there is a discrepancy in number

between the noun and the determiner (hose, as well as with the verb:

{
}
::
soct
kind
type

When or is used for coordinative apposition (cf 10.22), grammatical

concord requires the verb to agree in number with the first appositive:
Gobbledygook, or the circumlocutions of bureaucratic language, is
intentionally difficult to understand.
The circumlocutions of bureaucratic language, or gobbledygook,
are intentionally difficult to understand.

ofparties are dangerous. (informal)

Rephrasing can avoid the anomaly:

Those kinds of parties are
That kind of party is
Parties of that kind are

dangerous.

Indefinite expressions 8S subject

10.25

Some indefinite pronouns and determiners have both noncount and count
uses. With noncount nouns (present or implied), the verb is singular:

Concord of person
10.27

Some (of the cement) is arriving later today.

So far no money has been spent on repairs.

I am your friend. [1st PERSON SINGULAR CONCORD]

With plural nouns (present or implied), the verb is plural:

He is your friend.
[3rd PERSON SINGULAR CONCORD]
H e kIIOWS you.

No people of that name live here.

Some (of the books) are being placed on the shelves today.

In the past tense, only the verb BE has distinctions of person:

The pronouns either and neither generally take a singular verb:

}.

You were my friend. [2nd PERSON]

With none, the plural verb is more frequently used than the singular,
becal1se of notional concord, even without the effect of the proximity
principle:

In a coordinate subject noun phrase where the coordinator is or or nor,

the last noun phrase determines the person of the verb, in accordance with
the principle of proximity:

None (of the books) are being placed on the shelves today.

The proximity principle may lead to plural concord even with indefinites
sueh as each, every, everybody, anybody, and nobody (or indefinite phrases
sueh as every one, any one), which are otherwise unambivalently singular:

{ was } listening.

Nobody, not even the teachers, ,

. were

was your friend.

[1st and 3rd PERSON SINGULAR CONCORD]
d.
He was your rnen

.
and either
IS welcome.
The two guests have arnved,
.
I
but nelller

10.26

In addition to number concord, there is concord of person in the present

tense:

Neither you, nor I, nor anyone else knows the answer.

(?)Eithcr my wife or 1 am going.
NOTE

[I]
[2J

la) Because of the awkwardness of the choice in [11 and especially [2], a speaker
may avoid it by using a modal auxiliary which is invariable for person (eg: Either
my wife or I will be going) or by postposing the last noun phrase (eg: Either my wife
is going or I am).

220 The .Imple .entence

Other type. of concOf'd

[b1 1n relative clauses and cleft sentences, a relative pronoun subject is usually
i I who am 10 blame, I1 is
followed by a verb in agreement with its antecedent: I1 s
i they who are complaining. But 3rd person concord
Kay who is in command, I1 s
prevails in informal English where the objective case pronoun me is used: It's me
who's 10 blame. Similarly, 3rd personal singular may be used in informal English in
these constructions when the pronoun you has singular reference: It 's you who's 10

In (I] and [2] the pronoun may ofcourse also refer to somebody other than
the subject.
The relative pronouns who, whom, and which agree with their
antecedent in gender, the first two being personal. and the last
nonpersona):

blame.

Here's the hammer which I borrowed yesterday.

That's the man who (m) I saw talking to your parents.
10.30

Other types 01 concord

SubjecH::omplement and objecH::omplement concord
10.28

There is usually concord of number between subject and subject

complement and between direct object and object complement:
My child is an angel.
My children are angels.

Everyone thinks they have the answer.

Has anybody brought their camera?

[ I]
[2]

A similar use of the plural occurs with coordinate subjects referring to

both sexes, as in [3], and with a singular noun phrase subject having a
personal noun of indeterminate gender as head, as in (4J:

Their principal crop is potatoes.

Good manners are a rarity these days. [also ?;$J
The youngcr children are a problem.
The next few bars arc pure Tchaikovsky. [also ?;$J
Dogs are good company.

Either he or she is going to have to change their altitude.

El'ery student has to hand in their paper today.

(3]
(4]

In formal English, the tendency has been to use he as the unmarked form
when the gender is not determined. The formal equivalent of[I), though
increasingly ignored now, is therefore:

Pronouns and determiner reference

The agreement between a pronoun or determiner and its antecedent is
corefcrence rather than grammatical concord, but it is convenient to treat
the phenomenon here.
A reflexive pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, person,
and gender:

E'eryolle thinks he has the answer.

[ la]

A more cumbersome alternative is the conjoining of both masculine and

feminine pronouns:
EI'ery student has to hand in his or her paper today.

He injured himsel/in both legs.

She's making a sweater for herself.
I wrote to them about myself.

[4a]

The indefinite pronoun one is followed in formal usage by the same

pronoun for subsequent references:
One should choose one's friends carefully.

Personal pronouns and possessive determiners in the I st and 3rd

persons agree with their antecedents in number. Those in the 3rd person
singular also agree with their antecedents in gender:
Tom hurt his foot.
Beatrice knows that she is late.
The books were too heavy, so I left Ihem.

The pronoun they is commonly used as a 3rd person singular pronoun

that is neutral between masculine and feminine. It is a convenient means
of avoiding the dilemma of whether to use the he or she form. At one time
restricted to informal usage, it is now increasingly accepted even in formal
usage, especially in AmE.
Rather than use he in the unmarked sense or the clumsy he or she, many
prefer to seek gender impartiality by using a plural form where possible in
reference to the indefinite pronouns everyone, everybody, .wmeOlle,
somebody, anyone, allybody, 110 one, nobody:

I consider my child an angcl.

I consider my children angels.

This type of concord arises naturally from the semantic role of the two
complements (cl 1 0.9). There are, however, exceptions:

10.29

221

[ I]
[2]
[3]

[5]

But AmE may also use the masculine pronoun:

One should choose his friends carefully.
NOTE

[Sa]

One way of circumventing the gender problem is to make the subjecl plural:

All students have to hand in their paper today.

(4a)

222 The simple .entence

M_gaflon

markedly impolite. An indefinite pronoun (as in Get me 0 pen, somebody)

is abrupt.
(e) Nominal clauses (very occasionally): Whoever said that, (come out

Similar methods can usually be employed for the indefinite pronouns too:

All of rhem think they have the answer.

Have any ofyou brought your camera?

[I b)
(2a)

here).
(I) Items from (a), (d), (e), and (I) may be expanded by the addition of

For [31 the only alternative in formal English is to rephrase the sentence:

Either he is going (0 have to change his altitude or she hers.

For (Sa], indefinite
appropriate:

modifiers or appositive elements of various kinds:

(a) my dear Mrs Johnson; young David
(b) my old/riend; youfilthy liar
(c) old man, youllg man; old chap (BrE)
(d) impolite: you over Ihere; you with Ihe red hair; informal: yOIl boys, YOII
people, you chaps (esp BrE). you guys (esp Am E).

(3a]

one can be replaced with indefinite It'e, you, or they, as

We should choose our friends carefully.

223

(5b(

Vocatlves
10.31

A vocative is usually a noun phrase, denoting the one or more persons to

whom the sentence is addressed. It is either a CALL, drawing the attention
of the person or persons addressed, singling them out from others in
hearing, as in [IJ, or an ADDRESS, expressing the speaker's relationship or
altitude to the person or persons addressed, as in [2] and [31:
DINner's ready. [voc SVCs]
And THAT, my FRIENDS, concludes my SPEECH, [voc SVOdJ
My BACK is aching, DOCTor. [SV voc]

JOHN,

[11
[2]
[3]

Negation
Clause Negation
Clause negation through verb negation

10.33

I have finished.
They are ready.

Sentences ( 1-3] show that a vocative may take initial, medial, or final
position in the sentence; in its optionality and freedom of position, it is
more like an adverbial than any other element of clause structure,
Intonationally, the vocative is set offfrom the rest of the clause either by
constituting a separate tone unit or by forming the tail of a tone unit. The
most characteristic intonations are fall-rise for an initial vocative
functioning as a call, and otherwise rise; and rise for a vocative
functioning as an address.
10.32

Vocatives may be:

(a) Names, perhaps with a title: David, Mrs Johnson, Dr Turtler, Ginger,
(b) Standard appeliatives, usually without modification:
(i) terms for family relationships: mother, father, uncle; or more
familiar forms like mom(my) (AmE), mum(my) (BrE);
(ii) title of respect: madam, sir, my Lord, your Honour;
(iii) markers of status (sometimes with initial capital even for those not
so marked here); Mr President, Prime Minister, Father [for priest),
professor. doe/or.

(c) General nouns, often used in more specialized senses: brother, buddy
(informal AmE), lady, ladies and gentlemen; man, mote (BrE),
(d) The personal pronoun you ( You, why haven 't you finished yet?) is

A positive clause can be negated by inserting not between the operator

(cf3, 1 ! ) and the predication:
I have not finished.
They are not ready,

Ifno operator is present in the positive clause, the dummy operator DO is

introduced (but '13.23 Note [b)):
She works hard.
They know you.

She does not work hard.

They do not know you.

Except in formal English, the negator more usually occurs also as an

enclitic (ie attached to the preceding word) in the contracted form n'l :
I haven't finished
NOTE

They don't know you.

There are commonly two possibilities for contraction in negative clauses in

informal English: negator contraction and auxiliary contraction (cf 3.I 3jJ):
I haven't finished.
They aren't ready.

I've not finished.

They're not ready.

Syntactic features of clause negation

10.34

Negative clauses differ syntactically from positive clauses:

(i) They can typically be followed by positive tag questions:
They aren't ready, are they?
[et They are ready, aren 't they?)

Hq.llon

224 The simple senlence

Lillle did I expect such enthusiasm.

Scarcely ever has Britain suffered so much criticism.

(ii) They can be followed by negative tag clauses, with additive

meamng:

Verbs, adjeclives, and prepositions wilh negative meaning may be

followed by nonassertive items (cl 10.37):

They aren't ready, and neither are you.

(iii) They can be followed by negative agreement responses:
A: He doesn't know Russian.

He dellies I elw told him.

We were unaware of allY hostility.
I'm against going o ul anywhere tonight.

B: No, he does" 't.

(iv) They can be followed by nonassertive items (cl I 0.37):

He won't notice any change in you, either.

NOTE

Other kinds of clause negation

Words negative in form and meaning

10.35

[b] Rarely may be positive when placed initially as an adjunct (/8.1 3), in which
case it does not cause subject-operator inversion: Rarely. crime pays well. ['On
rare occasions, crime pays well.']

No honesl man would lie.

That was 110 accident.

He would say "ot a word.
I will never make that mistake
again.

Nonasscrtive items

10.37

The scope of negation (cl 10.38) is frequently different. For example,

Many people did not come 10 theparty implies the absence of many people,
whereas Not mallY people came to the party implies the presene of few
people.
In formal style, the negative element may often be moved from ils usual
position to initial position, in which case there is inversion of subjecl and
operator:

We've had some lunch.

I was speaking to somebody.
They'll finish it somehow.
He sometimes visits us.
He's still at school.
Her mother's coming, too.
I like her a great deal.

Several words are negative in meaning but not in form. They include:

They can effect clause negation, inducing the characteristic syntactic

features of clause negation (c/ 1 0.34):
They scarcely seem to care, do they?
I hardly have any friends, and neither do you.
B: No, it doesll 't.
A: Crime rarely pays.
I seldom get allY sleep, either.
Few members have ner allended the annual general meeting.
When positioned initially, Ihe adverbs normally cause subject-operator
inversion (cl I 0.35):

NONASSERnVE

We haven't had any lunch.

I wasn't speaking to anybody.
They won't finish it at all.
He doesn't e)'er visit us.
He's not at school allY longer.
Her mother's not coming either.
I don't like her much.

In many instances, the negative particle and the nonassertive form can
combine to produce a negative form (not ever- never) or can be replaced
by a negative form (lIot anywhere - nowhere).

Words negative in meaning but not in form

seldom, rarely
scarcely, hardly, barely
little./ew (in contrasl to the positive a little and a/elll)

Clause negation is frequently followed (not necessarily directly) by one or

more nonassertive items. The following examples illustrate the range of
these items, which may be determiners, pronouns, or adverbs:
ASSERTIVE

Not a ).,,'ord would he say.

Ne)'er will I make that mistake again.

10.36

la] Only is to some extent negative. When it focuses on a subject noun phrase, the
lauer is followed by nonassertive items: Only two of U.f had any experience in
sailing. And when it focuses on a fronted initial element rather than the subject, it
may occasionally (but need not) take subject-operator inversion: Only on Sundays

do they eat with their children.

We sometimes have a choice between verb negation and negation of some

other clement:
An honest man would not lie.
That was IlOt an accident.
He would" 't say a word.
I wont make that mistake
ever agam.

225

NOTE

la] The primary difference between some and uny (and between the some- and any
compounds) is Ihat some is generally specific. though unspecified, while uny is
nonspecific. That is. some implies an amount or number that may be known 10 the
speaker. This difference lends to correlate with thedifferencc between positive and
negative contexts:
I have some money on me. [a specific, though unspecified amount ofmoney]
I don't have any money on me. lan unspecified. and also nonspecific amount
of money]
[b] Nonassertive items appear in other contexts: questions ( I J .4j); conditional
clauses ( 1 5. 1 9 Note [a]); comparatjve clauses ( 1 5.36); putative should-clauses
( 1 4 . 1 4); restrictive relative clauses within generic noun phrases, which have
conditional meaning (Stl/dents who "ol'e any complaints should raise tlreir hands. 'If
students have any complaints . . :).

226 The .Imple .entence

(c] Ira clause is negative, nonassertive items that come within the scope or negation

The scope can somelimes extend into a subordinate clause: J wouldn 't like

(c/10.38) are uscd in place orevery assertive item that would have occurred in the

to disturb anyone.

corresponding positive clause:

J haven't el'er been on any or the big liners, either.

Not many orthe rerugees have anywhere to live yet.

[d] Occasionally two negatives occur in the same clause: Nobody has nothing 10 eat
("Everybody has something to eat'), None o/us hal'e never told /ies ('AII orus have
told lies at some time'), 1 can't nOI obey her ("I have to obey her'). The two negatives
cancel each other out, producing positive values; but the sentence remains
negative syntactically. as indicated (ror e:'!.ample) by the normal tag question: I

Focus of negation
10.39

can't not obey her, can I?

le] The multiple negatives in nonstandard English are intensirying, and do not
cancel each other out. No one never said nothing about it is equivalent to standard
English No one ever said anything ahoUl i1.
[Cl Some nonassertive e:'!.pressions are used to give emotive intensification to
negatives; rore:'!.ample, by any means, a bil (inrormal), in the lea'I, a/all; Wedidn '/
like it in Ihe least. Negative detenninersand pronouns are emphasized by of alland
whatever: You hme no excuse wha/ever. Never is repeated ror emphasis or
combined with intensirying phrases (such as in all my life): I'll "e'er, ne'l'rgo IllerI'
again: 1\'1' never seen anything like it in all my liJe. Other emotively coloured
e:'!.pressions are e:'!.emplified in He didn " gil'e me a thing; I didn 't sleep a wink: We

I didr't take Joan to swim in the pOOL today,. - I forgot to do so.

JOAN to swim in the pool today. - It was Mary.
n't take=
I did"--'-<
.
I didtake Joan to SWIM, in the pool today. - JUSI to see It.
I didr.:!...take Joan to swim in the pOOL, today. - I lOok her to the

seaside.

I didrl.take Joan to swim in the pool tODAY, -It was last week that I

did so.

didn 't see a sou/.

ldid take Joan to swim in the pool today. - It was my brother

Scope of negation
10.38

who took her.

A negative item may be said to govern (or determine the occurrence of) a
nonassertive item only if the latter is within the SCOPE of the negalive, ie
within the stretch oflanguage over which the negative item has a semantic
influence. The scope of the negation normally extends from Ihe negative
item itself to the end of the clause. There is thus a contrast between these
IWO sentences:

Scope must include the focus. One way of signalling the exlent of the
scope is by the position of Ihe focus:
[I}
I didp't leave H6Mt; because I was afraid of my FATHER.
home.]
leave
didn't
I
[ Because 1 was afraid of my father,
[2]
I didleave home because I was afraid of my F THE&.
father.]
my
of
afraId
was
I
because
wasn't
it
( = I left home, but

She definitely didp't speak to himt

['It's definite that she didn't.']
She didp't definitely speak to hi11\
['It's not definite that she did.']

With the intonation given (which is the more common). [I] allots a
separate tone unit to each clause. and so places the because-clause outside
the scope of the negative. (This interpretation can also be singled oul by a
comma in writing.) But [21 extends a single tone unit over both, and places
a contrastive fall + rise on father. The effect of this is to place negative
focus on the because-clause, so thal the main clause is understood
positively.
. .
InlOnation may be crucial also in marking whether or not lhe subject IS
the focus of negation in noun phrases containing one of the universal
items all or el'ery:

When an adjunct is final, it may or may not lie outside the scope:
I wasp'l LISTENING, all the TiME.
lie I lislened none of the time.]
I wasp'l listening all the TIME,.
(ie I lislened some of the time.]
If an assertive form is used, it must lie outside the scope:
I didr't listen, to some of the speakers.
lie I listened to some.]
I didp't listen to any of the speakerst
lie 1 listened to none.]

We need to identify not only the scope, but also the FOCUS of a negation.
The focus is signalled in speech by the placement of nuclear stress, which
indicales that the contrast of meaning implicit in the negation is located at
that spot while Ihe rest of the clause can be understood in a positive sense.
The focus can precede the negative item, and hence we must allow for
discontinuous scope. Differenl placements of the focus distinguish the
following sentences. The parts that are not within the scope are
understood positively:

All the children didp't SLEEP, ('All the children failed to sleep.')
,ALL the children didn't sleeg. ('Not all the children slept. ']
NOTE

In denial sentences the clause negator may have the focus, since the rest or the
clause has already been asserted or implied:

228

I did ,..C)T, offer her some chocolates. ('It is not true that I offered her some
chocolates.']
The same effect is achieved by focus on a negative operator:

I piDN'T, offer her some chocolates.

or some other negative word:

I NEVER offered her some chocolates.

Local negation
10.40

Local negation negates a word or phrase, without making the clause

negative (cf 10.34). One common type involves the combination of 1101
with a morphologically negated gradable adjective or adverb:
She's a not ullil1lelligenl woman. ['She's a fairly intelligent woman. ']
I visit them not infreqllently. ['I visit them rather frequently.']
The negative particle partly cancels out the negative prefix, as indicated by
the paraphrases.
Other types of local negation are exemplified below:
I saw a nOI loo sympathelic report about you. ['rather
unsympathetic']
I saw Dave 1101 lOllg ago. rfairly recently']
We sensed 1101 a little hostilily in his manner. ['quite a lot of hostility']
She was decorated by none olher than the President. ['by the
President himself')
If moved to initial position, these do not cause subject-operalOr inversion
(cl 1 0.35):
Not long ago I saw David mowing his lawn.

Negation of modal auxiliaries

10.41

Negation

The simple sentence

The scope of negation may or may not include the meaning of the modal
auxiliaries. We therefore distinguish between AUXILIARY NEGATION and
MAIN VERB NEGATION. The contrast is shown in the two following sentences
with may nol, where the paraphrases indicate the scope of negation:
AUXILIARY NEGATION

ou ,may not smoke in here, ['ou are not allowed to smoke here.')
MAIN VERB NEGATION

They may 110t like the party, ['It is possible that they do not like the
party.']
We give examples below of the modal auxiliaries in their various scnses
(cf4.2IfJ) according to whether the scope of negation usually includes the
auxiliary or excludes it:

229

AUXILIARY NEGATION

may nOI [= 'pennission')

You ,may not go swimming. ['You are not allowed to . . . ']

canllot, call 'I [in all senses]

You Fan't be serious,. ['It is not possible that . . .')

You pan't go swimming,. ('You are not allowed to . . .']
He Fan't ride a bicycle,. ['He is not able to , . . ']
need nOI, needn't (both esp BrE)

ou reedn't pay that fine, ('ou are not obliged to . . .')

It peedn't always be my fault,. ['It is nOI necessary that . . . )
'

dare not, daren 't

I ,daren't quarrel with them, ['I haven't got the courage to quarrel
with them. ')
MAIN VERB NEGATION

may not [= 'possibility')

They may pot bother to come ifit's wet,. ['It is possible that they will
not bother to come . . .']
shall llot, shan't (all senses; esp BrE; shan't rare)

Don't worry. ou shap't lose your reward, ["I'll make sure that you
don't lose your reward . . .')
I shap't know you when you return,. ['I predict that I will not know
. .

.']

must not, mllsll1'l ("obligation']

You mustp't keepus waiting,. ('It is essential that you don't keep us
waiting.']
ought not, oughln't [both senses]

ou oughtp't to keep us waiting,. ['obligation.']

He oughtp't to be long. ['tentative inference.')
The distinction between auxiliary and main negation is neutralized for will
in all its senses, as the paraphrases below indicate:
Don't worry. 1 won't interfere. ['I don't intend to interfere'; 'I intend
not to interfere. ']
He won't do what he's told. ['He refuses to do what he's told'; 'He
insists on not doing what he's told.']
They won't have arrived yet. ['It's not probable that they've arrived
yet'; ' I predict that they haven't arrived yet.')
In the necessity sense, the auxiliary negation of must is usually. achieved
through can't; hence. the negation of They mllst be telling lies IS usually

230

The simple ..ntence

11

They can', be telling lies. Need,,'t and don't have to are used for auxiliary
negation in both senses of musl:

We

{don't have to } pack till. tomorrow.

needn' t

The past tense negative auxiliaries (mighln'l, couldn 't, would,, 't,
shouldn't) follow the same negative pattern as their present tense
equivalents.
NOTE

Sentence types and discourse functions

Introduction
11.1

[a] Because of the diamelric opposition of meaning betwccn 'pcnnission' and

'obligation', an odd-seeming equivalence exists between may not (,not pennitted
to') and mustn't ['obliged not to']:
You mustn't go swimming today.
[= You may not go swimming today.]

Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic types, whose
use correlates largely with different discourse functions:
(I) DECLARATIVES are sentences in which it is normal for the subject to be
present and to precede the verb:
Pauline gave Tom a digital watch for his birthday.
On declaratives without a subject cf 12. 16, and on declaratives where the
verb precedes the subject cf 1 8 . 1 6[
(I r) INTERROGATIVES are entences which are formally marked in one of
two ways:
(i) yes-no interrogatives: an operator is placed in front of the subject

b] Very rarely, PREDICATION NEGATION occurs in the context of denials and

permission. The scope ofnegation is different from that normal with the particular
modal auxiliary:
They may 'pot go swimming. (They are allowed not to go swimming.']
I can, of course, 'lIot obey her; . ('It's possible, of course, not to obey her.']

(cf I I . 3jJ):

In such instances of main verb negation, theclausc is not negated (cI1O.34), and it
is possible to have double negation - auxiliary negation and predication negation:
I cannot, of course, no! obey her. (cl 10.37 Note Id]).

Did Pauline give Tom a digital watch for his birthday?

(ii)

Bibliographical note

whinterrogatives: an interrogative whelement is positioned

initially (cfl l .9) and tnere is generally subjectoperator inversion (cf
1 1 . 1 0):

On major theoretical discussions, see Lyons ( 1 977): Stockwell et a!. ( 1 973).

On syntactic structures and functions, sec ElIegoird ( 1 978) for frequency data:
Hall;day ( 1967-68); Schopf ( 1988).
On semantic roles, see Fillmore ( 1 968: 1977b); Halliday ( 1 967-68); longacre
(1 976, Ch. 2); Lyons ( 1 977, Ch. 12); Schlesinger ( 1 979; 1989).
On number concord, sce Juul ( 1975).
On vocatives, see Zwicky ( 1974).
On negation, see Bolinger ( 1977, Chs. 2 and 3); Horn ( 1 978a); lackendoff
( 1 969); Jespersen ( 1 9 1 7); Klima ( 1 964); Stock well et al. ( 1973. Ch. 5): Tottie ( 1977,

What did Pauline give Tom for his birthday?

(11 r) IMPERATIVES are sentences which normally have no overt gramma
tical subject, and whose verb has the base fOml (cf I I. I S/):

Give Tom a digital watch for his birthday.

(IV) EXCLAMATIVES are sentences which have an initial phrase intro
duced by what or how, usually with subject-verb order (cf 1 1 .20):

What a fine watch he received for his birthday!

1980).

Associated with these four types are four major classes of discourse
functions:
(a) STATEMENTS are primarily used to convey information. .
.
(b) QUESTIONS are primarily used to seek information on a specific pO,mt.
(c) DIRECTIVES are primarily used to instruct somebody to do somethmg.
(d) EXCLAMATIONS are primarily used ror expressing the extent to which
the speaker is impressed by something.
NOTE

la] DirC(;t association between syntactic type and discourse class is the norm, b t
the two do not always match. For example, a declarative question (cl 1 1 . 7) IS
syntactically a declarative but semantically a question, and a rhetorical question
(cl 1 1. 1 3) is syntactically an inlerrogative but semantically a statement.

232

Sentence type. end discour.e functions

Qutlon.

We can make many more refined distinctions in the use or sentences. For
example, It's going to rain any minute now and I'm sorry about the delay are both
statements, but the first can be used to make a prediction and the second to make
an apology; Could )'ou please make less noise? is a question intended as a request,
whereas Do you ",am unOlher cup? is a question that may be intended as an offer;
Make your bed at once and Mak.e yourselfat home are both dircctives, but the first
has the rorce of a command and the second the force of an invitation.
fbl

Was he a famous actor in TH6sE days?

('I know he was once a famous actor - but was it then or later?')
Was he a FAMOUS actor in those days?
('I know he was an actor in those days - but was he a ramous one?']
Positive yes-no qucstions

1 1.4

Questions

Questions can be divided into three major classes according lO the type of
reply they expect:
I Those that expect affirmation or negation, as in Have ),olljillished the
book?, are YES-NO QUESTIONS.
2 Those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies, as in
What ;s your name? or How old are yOII?, are wH-questions.
3 Those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in
the question, as in Wouldyou like 10 golor a WALK or slay al HOME?, are
ALTERNATIVE questions.

Did .wmeolle call last night? ['Is it true that someone called last
night?']
Has the boat left already?
Negative yes-no questions

11.5

Form of yes-no questions

questions are usually fonned by placing the operator before the

subject and giving the sentence a rising intonation:
Yes-no

The boat has ulfT. - Has the boat Lf:fT?

If there is no item in the verb phrase that can function as operator, DO is
introduced, as with negation (cl 10.33):
They live in Sydney. - Do they live in Sydney?
Again as with negation, main verb BE functions as operator; in BrE main
verb HAVE often acts as operator, but informally HAVE . gOl is more
common:
.

Patrick was late.- Was Patrick late?

She has a cold.
NOTE

QUESTION
Did anyone call last night?
Has the boat left yel?

But qucstions may be CONDUCIVE, ie they may indicate that the speaker
is predisposed to the kind of answer he has wanted or expected. Thus, a
positive question may be presented in a form which is biased towards a
positive answer. It has positive orientation, for example, ifit uses assertive
forms rather than the usual nonassertive forms:

YeB-no questions

11.3

Like negative statements, yes-no questions may contain nonassertive

items such as any and ever (cl 10.37). The question containing such forms
is generally neutral, with no bias in expectation towards a positive or
negative responsc.
STATEMENT
Someone called last night.
The boat has left already.

Major classes
11,2

233

eS she have a cold? (esp Am E)

{ DO
Has she (got) a cold? (esp BrE)

By placing the nuclear stress on a particular part ofa yes-lIo question, we are able
to focus the interrogalion on a particular item of information which unlike the
rest of the sentence, is assumed to be unknown (cl I 0.39). Thus the fus falls in
different places in the following otherwise identical questions:

Negative questions are always conducive. Negative orientation is found in

questions which contain :.I negative fonn of one kind or another:
Don't you believe me?
Have they neverinvitcd you home?
Hasn't he told you what to do? Has nobody called?
Negative orientation is complicated by an element of surprise or disbelief.
The implication is that the speaker had originally hoped for a positive
response, but new evidence now suggests that the response will be
negative. Thus, Hasn', he told YOII what to do? means 'Surely he has told
you what to do, hasn't he? I would have thought that he had told you.'
Here there is a combining ofa positive and a negative attitude, which one
may distinguish as the OLD EXPECTATION (positive) and NEW EXPECTATION
(negative). Because the old expectation tends to be identified with the
speaker's hope or wishes, negatively orientated questions often express
disappointment or annoyance:
Can't you drive straight? ['I'd have thought you'd be able to, but
apparently you can't.'j
Aren't you ashamed of yourself? ['You ought to be, but it appears
you're not.']
Hasn't the boat Jeft)'el? ['I'd hoped it would have left by now, but it
seems it hasn't.']

234

Questions

Sentence types and discourse functions

(expressed by the statement) and an EXPECTATION (expressed by the

question). On this principle, we may distinguish four types, where ' + '
indicates a positive form of the statement or tag and ' - ' a negative fonn:
statement tag
- rising
+
(i) Positive assumption + neutral expectation
+ rising
Negative
assumption
+
neutral
expectation
(ii)
+
- falling
(iii) Positive assumption + positive expectation
+ falling
(iv) Negative assumption + negative expectation

If a negative question has assertive items, it is biased towards positive

orientation:
Didn't someone call last night? ['I expect that someone did.']
Hasn't the boat left already? (,Surely it has.']
Such questions are similar in effect to type (i) tag questions (c! 1 1 .6).
NOTE

The enclitic negative particle precedes the subject, since it is attached to the
operator, whereas not (used in less informal style) generally follows the subject:
Didn'l they warn you?

The tag with a rising tone invites verification, expecting the hearer to
decide the truth of the proposition in the statement. The tag with the
falling tone, on the other hand, invites confirmation of the statement, and
has the force of an exclamation rather than a genuine question. The truth
of the statement may be self-evident however. and therefore no response is
expected:

Did they nol warn you?

Some speakers find it acceptable for not to be placed (in rather formal style) in the
same position as the cnclitic. This construction is especially likely where the
subject is lengthy:
Does not everything we see testify to the power of Divine Providence?
But in printed texts not may merely represent (misleadingly) the printed equivalent
of the attached enclitic.
Tag questions

1 1.6

NOTE

Maximum conduciveness is expressed by a tag question appended to a

statement (in the fonn of a declarative):

la] There is a further, less common, type of tag question in which both statement
and question are positive:

The tag typically has a rising tone, and the statement is characteristically preceded
by oh or so, indicating the speaker's arrival at a conclusion by inference, or by
recalling what has already been said. The tone may sometimes be one of sarcastic
suspicion:

For the most common types of tag question, the tag question is negative if
the statement is positive and vice versa. The tag question has the form of a
yes-no question consisting of merely an operator and a subject pronoun,
the choice of operator and pronoun depending on the statement. The
nuclear tone of the tag occurs on the operator and is either rising or falling.
Below are the four main types oftag questions, which vary according to
whether the statement is positive or negative, and whether the tag
question is rising or falling:

So THAT' S your little, game, is it?

[b] Tag questions can also be appended to imperatives and exclamatives:
Turn on the light, won't you?
Open the door, can't you?
Don't make a noise, will you?
Let's not discuss it now, shall we?
How thin she is, isn't she?
What a beautiful painting it is, isn't it?

POSITIVE STATEMENT + NEGATIVE TAG

(i) RISING TONE on tag
(iii) FALLING TONE on tag

He likes his JOB, oOESn't he?

Ic] Several tag questions are invariant, if! they have the same form whether the
statement or exclamation is positive or negative: isn't that so?, dont you think?,
right? <informal), 1V0u/dn 't you say?

NEGATIVE STATEMENT + POSITIVE TAG

(iv) FALLING TONE on tag
(ii) RISING TONE on tag
He doesn't like his JOB, 06ES he? He doesn't like his JOB, oDES he?

The meanings of these sentences, like their forms, involve a statement

and a question; each of them, that is, asserts something, then invites the
listener's response to it. Sentence (i), for example, can be rendered ' I
assume he likes his job; am I right?', (ii) means the opposite: 'I assume he
doesn't like his job, am I right?'. These sentences have a positive and a
negative orientation respectively. A similar contrast exists between (iii)
and (iv). But it is important, again, to separate two factors: an ASSUMPTION

wasn 't born yesterday, was I?

Your car is outsiDE, is it?

You've had an Accident, HAVE you?

Joan recognized you, didn'1 she? ['Surely loan recognized you. ')
The boat hasn't left, has it? ['Surely the boat hasn't left.']

He likes his lOB, 06ESn't he?

235

Declarative questions

11.7

The declarative question has the form of a declarative, except for the final
rising intonation:
You've got the TicKets?
They've spoken to the amBAssador, of course?
You realize what the RiSKS arc?
Boris will be THERE, I suppose?

236

Qu..tlon.

Senlence types and discourse functions

orientation: Need Ihey /eal'e II0W?, Common substitutes (esp in AmE) are the
main verb IIeed 10 and hOl'e 10: Do they needlhal'e to leave no",? On the other hand.
muSI in the necessity sense has positive orientation: Why must;1 always rain when

Declarative questions are conducive (c! 1 1 .4), and resemble tag

questions with a rising tone in that they invite the hearer's verification.
Positive questions have positive orientation and can therefore accept only
assertive items ( 1 0.37):

we walll 10 hal'e a picnic?

(c) Dare is occasionally used as a nonassertive modal auxiliary, especially in 8rE:
Dare K'ecomplain?Common substitutes are the main verb dare and (esp in AmE)
the blend construction with ooand the bare infinitive: Do we dare 1o complain?; Do
we dare complain?

He wants something to eat?

Somebody is with you?
Negative questions have negative orientation, and nonassertive forms
may be used following the negative:

Wh-questlons
Form of wh-question

You didn't get anything to eat?

Nobody ever stays at your place?

11,9

Yes-no questions with modal auxiliaries

11.8

B:
A:
B:

aa: } I leave now?

{may } ,
Yes, you
can
Must I
} leave now?
Do I have to
{ must } .
Yes, you
have to

Unlike yes-no questions, wll-questions generally have falling intonation.

As a rule,
(i) the IVh-clemen t (ie the clause element containing the wh-word)
comes first in the sentence,
(ii) the wh-word itselr takes first position in the lVII-element.
The main exception to the second principle occurs when the wlI-word is
within a prepositional complement. Here English provides a choice
between two constructions, one being formal. In rormal style, the
preposition precedes the complement, whereas otherwise the complement
comes first and the preposition is deferred to the end of the sentence:

['Will you permit me . . .'J

{'[ will pennit you . , ,'J

('Are you telling me to ' .')

,

what did you base your prediction? (formal>

What did you base your prediction Oil?

011

['I am telling you to . . ,' )

We may perhaps express this difference more neatly by saying that non
rormal style generally requires that the wh-word comes first, but formal
style requires that the wh-element as a whole comes first.

The question form anticipates the form appropriate for the answer.
In the possibility sense, call or (more commonly in AmE) could are used
rather than may:
A:
B:

} they have missed

. the bus?
{ may' have,
Yes, theY

Can
Could

rnlght have,

The past forms might [permission], would[volition], and could[volitionJ

are regularly used for politeness in place of the present forms; forexample,
Might I call yOIl hy yourfirst name?; Would you stOlid ot the hack, please?;
Could I see you for a momen,?

NOTE

faJ Shall [volition) is used (esp in BrE) to involve the hearer's will in questions:
Shall 1 switch off Ihe ,elevision? As common alternatives we have Should I? or Do
you walll me to?
(bJ Need (esp in 8rE) is used as a nonassertive modal auxiliary with negative

Wh-questions are formed with the aid of one of the following simple
interrogative words (or wh-words):
who/whom/whose, what, which, when, where, how, wily

The formation of yes-Ilo questions with modal auxiliaries is subject to

certain limitations and shirts of meaning. The modals of permission (may
(esp BrE), and call) and of obligation (must (esp BrE>, and IWI'e 10)
generally involve the speaker's authority in statements and the hearer's
authority in questions:
A:

237

Function of wh-element
11.10

The following sentences exemplify the various clause functions in which

the IVh-clement operates:
Who is coming to the PARty? [wh-element: S]
What did you buy ror your sister? (wlr-element: Od]
Whose beautiful anTiQUES are these? [wll-element: Cl]
How wide did they make the BOOKcase? [wh-element: Co]
When will you be proMOTed? [lVh-element: A]
Where shall I put the GLAsseS? [wh-element: A]
Wiry didn't you TELL me? [wll-element: A]
How did you MtND it? [whelement: A]
How much does he CARE? [whelement: A]
How long have you been WAiTing? [wh-element: A]
How often do you visit New YORK? [wh-element: A]

[I)

[2)

[3)
[4)
[5)
[6)
[7)
[8)
[9)
[ 1 0)
[ 1 1)

238 Senlenee type. and dlscour.. tuncllon.

Queatlona

alternative and yes-no questions is important, in that ignoring it can lead

to misunderstanding - as the contrast between these replies indicates:

We see above that the normal statement order of elements is altered in

wh-questions not only by the initial placing of the wll-element, but by the
inversion of subject and operator in all cases except when the wll-element
is subject, where the rule that the lVh-element takes initial position is given
precedence.
Subjecl-operator inversion is the same in its application to wh
questions as in its application to yes-noqueslions; if there is no operator in
the equivalent statement, 00 is introduced as operator in the question. The
main verb BE and (occasionally, esp in BrE) HAVE act as operator: Where is
she?, What kind of car have they?

NOTE

alternative:
yes-no:

NOTE

ready or AREn't you ready?

ready or NOT?

Since the alternative variant unncressarily spells out the negative possibility, it
introduces a petulant tone to the question.
[b1 Ellipted forms are generally preferred, ie [4] rather than [3]:
Did iTaly win the World Cup or did BraZil win the World Cup?
Did iTaly win the World Cup or Brazil?

13]
[4]

The second part can be placed within the first part:

Did ITaly or Brazil win the World Cup?
or AREn't you coming?

ARE you

Minor types of questions

Exclamatory questions

to whom?

11.12

Alternative questions
There are two types of alternative Questions, The first resembles a yeS-lIo
question, and the second a wh-queslion:
Would you like cH6colate, vaNiLla, or STRAwberry (icecream)?
Which ice-cream would you LiKE? CHocolate, vaNilla or
STRAwberry?

la) Any yes-no question can be converted into an alternative question:

ARE you
ARE you

[e) There can be more than one wh-element:

11.11

Shall we go by BUS or TRAIN?

By BUS.
Shall we go by bus or TRAIN?
No, let's take the CAR.

Which ice-cream would you LiKE? Would you like CHocolate,

vaNiLla, or sTRAwberry?

- Who did you show your daughler?)

Which present did you give
Who said what to whom?
Who did you sec where?

A:
B:
A:
B:

The second type of alternative question is really a compound of two

separate questions: a wh-question followed by an elliptical alternative
question. Thus (2) might be taken as a reduced version of:

[al Adjuncts of instrument, reason, and purpose are normally questioned by the

prepositional construction: What shall ! mend it with?: What did you do that for?
Although the lallercould be rcplaeed by Why didyou do 'hat? it has no alternativc
with a proposed preposition: -For what did you do Ihat?: In this respect it is like
informal questions with BE followed by a final preposition: What was ;t in?
[b) Abbreviated questions consisting of a \l'h-word and a final preposition (which
in this construction regularly bears nuclear stress). eg: What FOR? Where f-R6M/
ro?, Whal WiTH?, Who WiTH/BY?, arc as common in informal speech as questions
consisting of the \l'h-word only: Where? Why? Who? There is a common
abbreviated negative question Why NOr? and an informal abbreviated reason
question (esp in AmE) How cOME?
[c) Except in formal style, who rather than whom is used as object ( Who did you
want?) or complement of preposition ( Who did you gil'e ;1 to?).
[d) Many speakers do not accept an indirect object as wh-element: ?Who(m) did
you gil'e Ihe present? They use the equivalent prepositional phrase instead:
Who{m) didyou gil'e the present to? or (in formal style) To whom did}'OU gil'e IIie
present? Some speakers, however, find the construction acceptable if there is no
ambiguity as to which object is direct and which indirect. (There is ambiguity in

239

[I]
[2]

The first type differs from a yes-no question only in intonation; instead of
the final rising tone, it contains a separate nucleus ror each alternative: a
rise occurs on each item in the list, except the last, on which there is a fall,
indicating that the list is complete. The difference of intonation between

The exclamatory question is interrogative in structure, but has the force of

an exclamatory assertion (c/. 1 1 .20). Typically it is a negative yes-no
question with a final falling instead of rising tone:
Hasn't she GROWN!
Wasn't it a marvellous CONcert!
These invite the hearer's agreement to something on which the speaker has
strong feelings. The meaning, contrary to the appearance of the literal
wording, is vigorously positive.
A positive yes-no question, also with a railing tone, is another (but less
common) way of expressing a strong positive conviction:
'Am 'I HUNGry! 'Did 'he look anNOYED! 'Has 'she GROWN!
Both operator and subject usually receive emphatic stress. In written
English an exclamation mark is usual at the end of the sentence for both
kinds of exclamatory questions.

240 Sentence types and discourse functions

r
Directives

Rhetorical questions

1 1.13

Explicatory echo questions, which are always wh-questions. ask for

clarification. They have a falling tone on the wh-word:

The rhetorical question is interrogative in structure, but has the force of a

strong assertion. The speaker does not expect an answer.
A positive rhetorical yes-no question is like a strong negative assertion,
while a negative question is like a strong positive one.
POSITIVE:

Is that a reason for desPAIR? ['Surely that is not a reason . . .']

Can anyone doubt the wisdom of this action? ['Surely no one can
doubt . . . )

A: Take a look at this!

A: He's missed the bus again.
NOTE

'

NEGATIVE:

Isn't the answer OBvious? ['Surely the answer is obvious.']

Haven I you got anything better to D6? ('Surely you have something
better to do.']
Unlike exclamatory questions, these rhetorical questions have the
normal rising intonation of a yes-lIo question, and are distinguished
chiefly by the range of pitch movement.
There are also rhetorical wh-questions. The positive question is
equivalent to a statement in which the wh-element is replaced by a negative
element:

Who DOEsn't know? ['Everybody knows.']

How COULDn't you remember? ['You certainly should have
remembered. ']
Rhetorical wh-questions generally have a rise-fall tone, less commonly a
simple falling tone.
Echo questions

1 1.14

Echo questions repeat part or all of what has been said. Replicatory echo
questions do so as a way of having their content confirmed:
B: Emigrating?
A: The Browns are emigrating.
A: He's a dermatologist.
B: WHAT is he?
A: I'll pay for it.
B: You'll WHAT?
A: Have you ever been to Valladolid?
B: Have I ever been WHERE?
A: She always wears a quizzical expression.
B: She always wears a WHAT expression?
A: She sat there and ratiocinated.
B: She sat there and WHAT?
' d?.
WHATe

B: Take a look at WHAT?

B: WHO'S missed the bus?

raj The generalized recapitulatory wh-queslion

WHAT did you say? is sometimes

truncated to the monosyllable WHA T? (impolite except among friends), just as the
alternative formula I beg your pardon? can be reduced simply to Pardon? Other
abbreviated requests for repetition are Pardon me? (AmE>. Excuse me? (AmE).
and Sorry? ( BrE).
Ib) What? on its own can also express general incredulity:

A: I paid 1 ,000 for that picture.

'

Who KNOWS/CARES? ['Nobody knows/cares' or ' l don't know/care.']

What DiFference does it make? ['It makes no difference.']
How should i know? [There is no reason why I should know.']
The less common negative question is equivalent to a statement in which
the wh-element is replaced by a positive element:

241

B:

wHAl1 You must be mad.

Directives
Directives without a subject
11.15

Directives typically take the form of an imperative sentence, which differs

from a declarative sentence in that:
(i) it generally has no subject:
(ii) it generally has a verb in the base form.
Otherwise, the clause patterns of imperative sentences show the same
range and ordering of elements as declaratives (/ 1 0 . 1 ); fo r example;
(S) V:
Jump.
(S) VC: Be reasonable.
(5) VOC: Consider yourself lucky.
The imperative verb lacks tense distinction and does not allow modal
auxiliaries. The progressive form is rare, and the perfect even rarer:
Be listening 10 this station the same time tomorrow night.
Passives with he occur chiefly in negative directives, where they
generally have the meaning 'Don't allow yourself to be . . . ':
Don't be deceived by his looks.
Don't be bullied into signing.
They are less common in positive directives: Be guided by whaJ I say. What
might be analysed as passives occur with get: Get washed; Don't get
dressed yet.

Imperatives are restricted to verbs used dynamically, hence the

incongruity of Be old. Many predications that are stative with respect to
disallowing the progressive (cl 4. 1 1 ) are available with a dynamic
interpretation: Forgive us; Love your enemies; Don'J be a stranger.

r
242

DlrKtlv..

Sentence types end dllCourH functions

Let us work hard. ['We must work hard.']

Let me see now, Do I have any money on me? ['I must consider this

Directives with . subJect

11.16

The meaning of a directive implies that the omitted subject is the 2nd
person pronoun you. The implication can be demonstrated by the
occurrence of you as subject of a following tag question (Be quiet, will
you?), by the occurrence of only yourself or yourseh'es as the reflexive
(Behave yourself or Help yourselves), and by the occurrence of only the
emphatic possessive YOllr own (Use your own comb).
There is, however, a type of directive in which the stressed subject you is
added. You may be noncontrastive and admonitory:
'You be Qlnctl
'You 'mind your own Business, and 'leave this to ME!
'You 'lake the sOOK.
It frequently expresses strong irritation or (as in the last example) merely
insistence, On the other hand, noncontrastive you may be persuasive:

now.']

The same applies to 3rd person subjects:

Let no one think that a teacher's life is easy. ['No one mustthink . . .']
Let each man decide for himself. ('Each man must decide . , .']

Except for the let me type, these are generally rather archaic and elevated
in tone, A colloquial alternative to let us, however, is the common
abbreviated form let 's: Let's have a party,
Negative Imperatives
11.18

You may also be contrastive in the sense of singling out one person or one

NOTE

Don't tell ME to be QuiFf.

y6u

be Quiet!

Somebody open this door.

Parents with children go to the front.
Nobody move,

There is blurring of subject and vocative (cf 10,3 If) in these commands, But
whereas the subject always precedes the verb, the vocative is an element that can
occur in final and medial, as well as initial, positions in the sentence , Another
difference is that the vocative, when initially placed, has a separate tone unit
(typically fall-rise); the subject merely receives ordinary word stress:
VOCATIVE:

SUBJECT:

The distinctness of vocative and imperative subject is confinned by the possibility

of their cooccurrence: J6HN, 'you listen to ME!
Vocativeyou, as opposed to imperative subjcctyou, is very impolite: YOU, 'come
HERE,

Directives with let

11.17

First person imperatives can be formed by preposing the verb let followed
by a notional subject in the objective case:

Imperatives with lel are informally negated with don't:

Variants occur, especially with let's, where not is inserted after the pronoun: Let's
not say anything about i,.
Do with

1 1.19

positive Imperatives

A positive imperative can be made more persuasive or insistent (esp in

BrE) by adding do (usually with a nuclear tone) before the verb:
Do

MARY, play on MY side.

Play on MY side, MARY,

'Mary play on wry side,

Don't open the door.

Don '[ get any wine,
Don '[ you open the door.
Don'[ anyone open the door.

Don't let's say anything about it. (esp BrE)

Let's don't say anything about it. (esp AmE)
Don't let me disturb you. (esp BrE)
Don 't let anyone fool himself he can get away with it.

Third person subjects are also possible:

NOTE

To negate imperatives, one simply adds an initial Don't or Do not,

replacing assertive by nonassertive items where necessary:
Open the door.
Get some wine,
You open the door
Someone open the door.

I know you can do it if you try hard enough, 'You 'show me what
you can 06,
set of persons,

243

have some more tea.

06

let's go for a walk,

This use of do applies only when a subject is absent or when let's is present.
NOTE

Do, like don

and let's, actsas an introductory imperative marker, When used with

imperatives, do and don't are not acting as dummy operators (cf3, 1 1), and so they
can be used with be: Do be quie,; Don be silly, (Contrast the unacceptability of
-They do be quie,,) The same applies in the quasi-imperative construction Why
"

"

don', you be more careful?

244 Sentence type. and dlscCHJr.e function.

Exclamatlves
1 1.20

A less archaic formula (with subject-verb inversion) for expressing

wishes has may in fronl:

Exclamatives as a formal category of sentence are restricted to the type of

exclamatory utterance introduced by what or how (cf l l . 1 2 ). The \I'll-word
indicates an extreme position on some scale of value, and therefore can
only appear at points where an expression of degree is possible: What as
predeterminer in a noun phrase [I]; and how as intensifier of an adjective
[2] or adverb [31, or as a degree adverbial [4]. The \l'h-element is fronted,
but in contrast to wll-questions there is no subject--operator inversion:
What a lime we've had today!
How delightful her manners are!
How quickly you eat!
How I used to hate geography!

May the best man win!

May you always be happy!
There
are
several
kinds
of
irregular wll-questions. which occur
(ii)
mainly in conversation, for example:

[1 J
[2J
[3J
[4J

( ii i) Several kinds of subordinate clauses are used as sentences, generally

with exclamatory force:

That 1 should live to see such ingratitude!

To think that you might have been killed!
Well. if it isn't Susan! [ It is indeed Susan!'1
If only I'd listened to my parents!

[a] When the wh-element is the complement of a preposition, the preposition is

normally left in final position: What a mess we're in!
(b] Echo exclamations do not have an exclamative structure, but it is convenient 10
mention them here. Like Iheechoquestion (cfl l . 14), the echo exclamation repeats
parI or all of a preceding utterance. It is characterized by a rise-fall or high-fall
tone:

(iv) Adverbials may have the force of commands, sometimes In

combination with another element:
Left, right!
Hands up!

IRREGULAR

sentences do not conform to the regular patLerns of clause

structures (cf 1 0. 1 ) or to the variations of those structures in the major

syntactic classes (cf 1 1 . 1). Some types are listed below.

(i) The formulaic (or 'optative') subjunctive, one use of the base form
of the verb, survives in a few fossilized expressions. It is combined
with subject-verb inversion (induced by the initial adverb) in, for
example:
Long live the Republic!

So help me God,

It is found without inversion in, for example:

First come, first served.

Out of sight. out of mind.

The more, the merrier.

Waste not, want not.
Block language
1 1 .22

11.21

Everybody inside!
On with the show!

(v) Many proverbs have an aphoristic sentence structure, in which two

short constructions are balanced against each other:

A: I'm going to London for a holiday.

B: To L6NdOIl! That's not my idea of a rest.
A: Have you been to Paris?
B: Been to p.i.ris! I certainly have.
A: I hear you're a linguist.
B: I a linguist! (formal)
B: Me a linguist!

Irregular sentences

What about coming to my place?

Why listen to him?
What if it rains?

HoII' abouI another kiss?

HOII' come you're so late?
Why all the noise?

Sometimes, one must infer from the context whether the reference is to
one end of the scale or the other. For example, What a lime in [I] could
refer to a very good time or a very bad time.
NOTE

God forbid!

God save the Queen!

Block language appears (especially in writing) in such functions as labels,

titles, newspaper headlines, headings, notices, and advertisements, Simple
block-language messages often consist of a noun phrase in isolation:
Entrance
English Department
For Sale

50 mph limit
The New York Times

No dogs without leash

Newspaper headlines commonly contain block language because of

pressure on space, and they are imitated on radio and television news
broadcasts. They can often be analysed in terms of clause structure, but
with the omission of words that may be understood from the context, such
as the finite forms of the verb BE and the articles:
OIL SPILL THREAT DECREASING [SV]

{SVA1
[SAC]

PRESIDENT CALLS FOR CALM

SHARE PRICES NOW HIGHER

r
245

Sentence types sne! dlacour

..

functions

12

Omissions of words that can be inferred from the context occur in other
types of writing:
Wish you were here. [postcard]
MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED CHANGES ACCEPTED

Refrigerate after opening [label]

NOTE

Proforms and ellipsis

(cable]
Motivation lor abbreviation

lal Notices of prohibition often lake the form of a noun phrase introduced by No:

No entry; No smoking.

[bJ In informal conversation many types of phrases occur as complete utterances:

12.1

The things they gel up to!; You and your ideas!: Of all the stupid things to say!;
Taxi.! ; More coffee?; Your name?; No news. In addition there arc many formulae
used for stereotyped communication situations; for example: Good morning;
Goodbye; How do YOu do? ; Thanks; Happy Birthday.

Pro-forms and ellipsis are syntactic devices for abbreviating constructions

to avoid redundancy. For example, we can avoid the repetition of sing
tonight in [I) by the substitution of the pro-form do so, as in [I al, or by
ellipsis (which is indicated by the symbolt.), as in [I b):
She might sing tonight, but I don't think she will sing
tonight.
She might sing tonight, but I don't think she will do so.
She might sing tonight, but I don't think she will 6 .

[cJ Interjections arc purely emotive words which do nOI enter into syntactic
relations. Among the common interjections are Ah. Boo, Oh, Ouch. Sh, Wow.

Bibliographical note

[I)
[la]
[Ib]

Other things being equal, language users will follow the maxim 'Reduce as
much as possible'.
The preference for abbreviation is not merely a preference for economy.
Abbreviation can contribute to clarity, since attention is focused on new
inrormation, as in [2]:

On the pragmatic (unctions orscntences in utterances sec Austin ( 1 962); Cole and
Morgan ( 1 975); Leech ( 1 983); Lyons ( 1977); Scarle ( 1979).
On questions sec Bolinger ( 1 957); Hudson ( 1975); Pope ( 1 976); Stcnstrom
( 1 984); Stock well et al. (1973, Ch. 9); on tag questions, Algco (1990); Bald ( 1 979);
Nasslin ( 1 984); on negative questions. Kontra ( 1980).
On directives sec Bolinger (1967c) and (1977, Chs. 8 and 9); Downes ( 1 977);
Stein ( 1 976); Stockwell et al. (1973. Ch. 10).

A: Have you spoken to Bob?

B: (:,. Not yet6.

[21

Recoverability
12.2

In order that constructions with pro-forms and ellipsis should be

interpreted correctly, the full form must be recoverable. We list below
three types of recoverabilily, and mention first the most important type
from the grammatical point of view:
(i) TEXTUAL RECQVERABILlTY: The full form is recoverable from a
neighbouring part of the text.
(ii) SITUATIONAL RECQVERABILlTY: The full form is recoverable from the
extralinguistic situation.
(iii) STRUCTURAL RECOVERA.BILlTY: The full form is recoverable from
knowledge of grammatical structure.
The use of the pronoun she, for example, presupposes that the speaker
and hearer know the identity of the person to whom the pronoun refers. In
[I] and (2) we can identify the referent from the linguistic context. We
understand she to refer to the same person as does the poor girl:
The poor girl did not complain, although she was badly hurt. [I]
Although she was badly hurt, the poor girl did not complain. [2]

248

Pro-forms and ellipsis

There are two types or textual recoverability: [I] is an example or the

ANAPHORIC use or the pronoun, where the AN'+EOOENT (the poor girl)
comes berore the pronoun, and [2] is an example or the less common
CATAPHORIC use, where the antecedent rollows the pronoun.

r
I

Pro-forms

Ifyou don ', sludy for the examination, you'll regret it.
Ir you don't study ror the examination, you'll regret not
studying for the examination.

[4]

Here, contextual inrormation is irrelevant: the optionality or that is purely

a matter or grammatical structure.

Pro-rorms and their antecedents may be linked by COREFERENCE, a linkage

or'cross-rererence' between two expressions that rerer to the same thing
or set or things. For example, in (I] George and he will generally be
understood to rerer to the same person:
George was the best runner in our school, and so everyone
expected that he would win the prize.

[I]

We can also replace the pronoun he by George without changing the

meaning or the sentence.
But the relation between a pro-rorm and its antecedent is not
necessarily a relation or corererence. For example, in [2] the pronoun one
substitutes ror aftrsl prize, as the grammatical and semantic equivalence
of [2] with [2a] shows:
Fiona got a./irsl prize this year, and I got one last year.
Fiona got a./irst prize this year, and I got ajirst prize last
year.

Pro-forms
Pro-forms for noun phrases and their constituents
12.4

The most obvious pro-rorms ror noun phrases are the 3rd person
pronouns and determiners:
Cindy was by rar the best speaker, and so everyone expected
that she would win the prize.
Ten per cent of insomniacs sleep soundly when Ihey come to

[2]
[2a]

It is clear, however, that the pronoun one in [2] does not rerer to the samc
prize as does its antecedent ajirsl prize. Similarly, the two uses or afirs,
prize are not corcrerential in [2a].
The antecedent is not necessarily identical with the expression that is
replaced or ellipted. For example, in [3] the pronoun ;1 rerers to an
antecedent clause, but - as [3a] demonstrates- the clause that i1 replaces is
not identical with the antecedent clause:

[I]

a sleep clinic.

[2]

expensive runerals.

[3]

The islanders pay all lheir lives on insurance policies ror

Antecedents and the replaced expressions

12.3

[3a]

[3]

One can imagine someone saying [3] on arriving at {he scene or an accident
in whieh a girl has been struck down by a car. The identity orthe person
meant by she is then obvious rrom the situation.
The third type or recoverability, structural recoverability, is illustrated
by the optional ellipsis or the conjunction that in (4):
He admits (that ) he prefers his mother's cooking.

[3]

When we rerer to a pro-rorm as replacing a particular syntactic rorm, we

mean the rorm ror which it substitutes and not necessarily the antecedent.

Situational recoverability is exemplified in:

Is she badly hurt?

249

Despite the name, almost all pronouns are pro-forms ror noun phrases
rather than simply ror nouns.
Other items that can be pro-rorms ror noun phrases include in
particular indefinite pronouns such as any, aU, both. each, either, some,
and none. These, however, can also be regarded as elliptical, since they can
be expanded, usually with an of-phrase:
When the children entered, each (0/the children)! (child) was given a
small present.
Some equipmelll has been damaged, but none (ofthe equipment) has
been lost.
Both or the engines had been hit, and neither (0/ the engines)!
(engine) could be relied upon to bring us sarely home.
Her cousins go to the same school as she did, and aU (o/her cousins)!
(her cousins) want to become doctors.
This year we produced more coal, but we sold less (coal).
The demonstratives (c/6.19j) can be pro-rorms ror noun phrases and
they can also be regarded as elliptical:
I read his first novel, and Ihal (novel) was boring too.
The paintings or Gauguin's Tahiti period are more ramous than
those (paintings) he painted in France.
The same can be a pro-rorm ror a noun phrase ([4]), but it can also
substitute ror a prepositional phrase ([5]) or an adjective phrase ([61 and

Pro-forms

250 Pro-Iorm nd ellipsis

In BrE many allow the possibility of adding after the auxiliary or

auxiliaries an optional intransitive main verb do as a pro-form for the
predication (Martin can dri\'e a car. and his sister can do. too). This
happens rarely after the operator do, but is more common after a modal or
after the perfect auxiliary have:

[7)) functioning as a subject or object complement:

A: Can I have a cup DJ black coffee with sugar, please?
B: Give me the same, please.
Yesterday I felt under the weather and today I feel the same.
The Denison house is small but very comJortable, and ours is
just the same.
I want my steak rare and David wants his the same.

[4]
[5]

Bob says he is going to join the Labour Party.

It will be interesting to see whether he DOES (do). (rare)
The Americans are reducing their defence expenditure this year. I
wonder if the ROssians will (do) TOO.
I didn't touch the television set; but PERCY might have (dOl/e).

(6]
(7]

In all its substitute uses (cJ12.8 Note [bD, the same does not imply identity
but similarity with the antecedent.
One as a

12.5

pro-form

There are two pro-forms one: one has the plural some, and the other has
the plural ones. Both are always unstressed (and are thereby distinguished
from the numeral one), and both substitute for phrases with count nouns
as heads.
(i) One/some is a substitute for an indefinite noun phrase:
A: Can you give me aJew nails? I need one.
B: I'll get you some soon.
Compare:

{
I need

nail.
I need
one.
a

Do !iO

12.7 The main verb do combines with so to form a unit do so that functions as a
pro-form for the predicate or predication. The verb in this combination
occurs in both finite and nonfinite forms, and the combination appears in
infinitive and -ing participle clauses as well as in finite clauses. Since the do
so construction is somewhat formal, in infonnal use the general preference
is for the alternative ellipsis of the predication where possible (cJ 12.20),
which is indicated by the parentheses in the examples below:

{some nails.

They planned to reach the top of the mountain, but nobody knows if
they did (so).
You can take the train back to Madrid, but I shouldn't (do so) until
tomorrow morning.
As no one else has succeeded in solving the mystery, I'll attempt to
(do so) myself.
As no one else has succeeded in doing so, I'll attempt to solve the
mystery myself.

some.

(ii) One and ones are substitutes for a NOMINAL EXPRESSION, a noun
phrase head with or without one or more modifiers (not the whole
noun phrase):
Have you any kni\'es? I need a sharp one.
(I]
I wish I'd bought a few jars oJ honey. Did you notice the ones
(2]
they were selling?
In (1 ], one substitutes for the noun knife, and in [2] ones substitutes forjars
oJhoney. One as a pro-form for a nominal expression must have an overt
determiner. The equivalent pro-form for noncount nouns is some:
Shall I pass the butler? Or have you got some already?

12.6

251

NOTE

Unlike the intransitive do or 12.6. the do in do so is usually stressed (but the so is

always unslressed).

Do it, do tlrat, do so

12.8

The transitive main verb do also combines with the pronouns it and Ihat to
form a unit that functions as a pro-form for the predicate or predication:

Pro-forms for clauses and clause constituents

Is Connie still trying to light the stove? She should have vON it by

Pro-(onn do
The dummy operator do is a pro-fonn for the predicate in [I], despite the
structural parallelism with other operators, as in [2], that are followed by
ellipsis of the predication (cI 1 2. 1 4, 1 2.20 Note [a:

Are you trying to light the slave with a match? I wouldn't do THAT.

Martin drives a car, and his sister does, TOO.

Martin can drive a car, and his sister can6, TOo.

[I)
(2)

N6w.

In general, do in these two combinations has dynamic and agentive

reference; ie it refers to an action that is perfonned or intentionally
initiated by the referent ofthc subject. It is hence abnormal for do it and do
that to substitute for predicates or predications that are slative or denote
involuntary processes:

252

Pro-forms and ellipsis

Pro-Iorms

A: They think he's mad.

B: We do il TOO.
A: He owns a Cadi\lac.
,

It is convenient to refer here to the use of so and that as pro-fonns for

intensifiers of adjectives and adverbs:

B: Yes, his BRother does

{ that. } TOO.

Though Bairstow designed the car to exceed 400 miles per hour, few
people believed that it would go so/that fast.
1 had a headache and a high temperature, but I'm not feeling so/that
bad today.

THAT

With regard to do so, there is divided usage. Some speakers, particularly

in AmE, treat the do in do so as dynamic and agentive, while others accept
do so, at least to some extent, even when the combination is associated
with stative or involuntary process predications:

So as pro-form for complement

12.10

(?) They think he is mad, and i do so TOO.

(?) Peter likes work, and sOB does so TOo.
A: Bob might have heard the strange noises.
B: (?) He might wELL have done so.
NOTE

After be, ellipsis is preferred, or (informally) the substitutes like that or

that way are used:

la] Do that gives more prominence to the object that, which often receives nuclear
stress and is treated 10 some extent as new or contrastive infonnation. The it of do
it on the other hand, is always unstressed.
[b] Do the same, do likewise, and do similarly are alternatives 10 do rhor when a

The plants are healthy enough now be (?so).

""",be like that.
but I wonder how long they willL

comparison is involved:

remain so.

I'll contribute ten dollars, if you'll do the same.

After appear and seem, with initial anticipatory it, both so and its
negative equivalent not can be pro-forms for the that-clause:

They refer to a similar event and not to the idenlical event referred to by their
antecedent.

Ruth is waiting to hear whether she has been promoted, but it

appears so/not.

Proforms for adverbials

Here and there can be pro-forms for place adverbials, and then for time
adverbials:

NOTE

closeness to the speaker.

So and thus can be pro-forms for process adverbials (cf8.27f). Both
appear in fonnal contexts, and otherwise (in) that way or like that are
used:
To the Greeks, Pan was a herdsman, half-mall, half-goat; and he is
so/thus represented in their sculpture. (fonnal)
' represented
. . . ; and he IS

{ (in) that way } In, thelr' scuIpture.

('k
r e tI/at

la] So as pro-fonn for the subject complement ean also

be initial:

We hoped that the event would be a success, and so il lurned out.

Between London and Oxford there is afamous inn called the George
and Dragon. Here we stopped for lunch.
If you look ill the top drawer, you'll probably find it there.
One morning the captain invited us to the bridge. He told us then
about his secret orders.
There is the unmarked place pro-form, whereas here specifically denotes

So can substitute for an adjective phrase or a noun phrase functioning as

complement:

Brett's work is not yet consiste1l1 in style and quality, but will no
doubt become so.
If he's a criminal, it's his parents who have made him so.

12.9

253

So it appears and so it seems, with initial S(), are common expressions of reaction to
previous utterances.
[b] So isa synonym for rrue, and not a pro-form, after be in examples like That is so;

It may be so; Ifear rhar rhis ;s nor so.

So and not as pro-forms for object that-clause

12.11

So and its negative equivalent not can be pro-forms for a that-clause

functioning as direct object:

A: Will Oxford win the next boat race?

B .. I hope SO [= that Oxford will win . . .]
not [= that Oxford will not win . . .]

This use of not is restricted mainly to verbs of belief or assumption,

whereas the corresponding use ofso is frequently found also in some verbs
of saying such as say and teif. Verbs that commonly allow both so and no!
include:

254

believe
expect
NOTE

r
,

Pro-forms.nd ellipsis

guess
hope

imagine
presume

reckon
suppose

Ellipsis

255

In this construction so is not a pro-fonn at all, but an additive adverb

equivalent in meaning to 100 or also, and the construction is elliptical. So
here is parallel to the negative adverbs neither and 1I0r, which similarly
take subject-operator inversion:

suspect
think

[al With certain verbs (such as say and believe), the pro-clause so occasionally
appears in initial position (cfl2.IO Note [a. Subject-verb inversion is possible if
the subject is not a pronoun:

The corn isn't ripening, and neither/nor are the apples (ripening).

A: Oxford will win the boat race.

{SO most of the sports writers say.

So say most of the sports writers.
A: Most people are backing the Oxford crew.
So I believe.
B.'

Ellipsis

8:

The nature of ellipsis

[bJ With verbs taking transferred negation, the use of nor (eg [ Ihink. nor) as a pro

form is rather formal, and is onen replaced by so preceded by negation in the main
clause:
I don't think so. I don't suppose so. I don't believe so.

[cl Unlike so, the pro-form nor usually receives nuclear stress:
A: Has the news reached home yet?

B.'

{I'm

I'm afraid NOT.

Initial so can be pro-predication in a construction conslstmg of so

followed by the subject and the operator (So + S + op):
You asked me to leave, and 'so I DiD. [= indeed I DiD]
[IJ
A: h's starting to snow.
B:'So it is!
A: You've spilled coffee on your dress.
B: Oh dear, 'so I HAVE.
So here is equivalent to the so in do so (cl 12.7):

You asked me to leave, and I

DID

so.

[I aJ

The difference in meaning between [I] and [la] is that [I] introduces an
emphasis that might otherwise be conveyed by illdeed or inlact. In replies,
the construction So + S + op expresses surprised confirmation of what the
previous speaker has asserted:
A: h's past midnight.

B: [looks at watchJ 'So it is!

Inilial so wilh subject-operator im'ersion

12.13

Ellipsis is grammatical omission. In the strict application of the term,

ellipsis requires VERBATIM RECOVERABILlTY; that is, the actual word or
words that are implied must be precisely recoverable. We postulate ellipsis
to explain why some normally obligatory element of a grammatical
sentence is missing. For example, the infinitive marker to occurs in [I]
without the infinitive which it normally introduces:
[IJ
I f he works hard, I won't have to
fj, .

aFRAID so.

So as pro-form for predication

12.12

12.14

A construction superficially similar to that in 1 2. 1 2 has initial so followed

by subject-operator inversion (So + op + S):
yOU asked him to leave, and 'so did I. [ = I asked him to leave, too]
The corn is ripening, and 'so are the APples.
You've spilled coffee on the table, and 'so have

i.

We therefore say that the predication work hard has been ellipted.
Strict ellipsis requires that when we insert the missing words we do not
change the meaning of the original sentence. The subject in [2] is therefore
not elliptical at all:
The poor need more help.

[2J

Though the poor refers to people, if we add a word such as people we

change the meaning. The poor people has specific reference to a particular
group of poor people, whereas the poor has generic reference (cI5.22).
A further requirement for strict ellipsis is that when we insert the
missing words the sentence should remain grammatical. The comparative
construction in [3] is therefore strictly elliptical, as we see from [3a]:
He always wakes up earlier than I. <formal)
He always wakes up earlier than I wake up.

[3J
[3aJ

On the other hand, the construction in [4] is not strictly elliptical, because
when we try to insert wake up the resulting sentence [4a] is ungrammatical.
He always wakes up earlier than me. <informal)
He always wakes up earlier than me wake up.

[4]
[4a]

An analogous example involves the dummy operator do. The construc

tion with the unstressed dummy operator does in [5] is structurally parallel
to constructions with other operators, such as can in [6]:
understands the problem better than Ht does.
SH can understand the problem better than HE can.
sHt

[5J
[6J

256

Ellipsis

Pro-forms end emps's

(Do you) Want some?

(Have you) Got any money?
(Is) Anything the matter?
(Does) Anybody need a lift?
(Has) Joan finished?
(Is the) Television not working?

But whereas we can regard understand the problem as ellipted in [6J, it

would not be possible to do so in [5]:
understands the problem better than HE does understand the
problem.

SH

Posltional categories 01 ellipsis

12.15

We distinguish three categories of ellipsis according to where the ellipsis

occurs within a construction. In INITIAL ellipsis, the initial elements are
ellipted:

NOTE

'

In MEDIAL ellipsis medial elements are ellipted:

Structural ellipsis

Jill owns a Volvo and Fred (owns) a BMW.

12,17

I know that we haven't yet set the record straight, but wewill (seL the
record straight).

[I]
[2]

Many examples are confined to written language. They involve the

common omission of determiners, pronouns, operators, and other closed
class words in block language (cf 1 1 .22) eg in headlines, book titles,
notices - and in such written varieties as lecture notes, diaries, and
telegrams:

Situational ellipsis

In SITUATIONAL ellipsis, the interpretation may depend on a knowledge of

the extra linguistic context. For example, Get it? in one situation might be
understood to mean the same as Did you get it? (eg: 'Did you get the
letter?') and in another situation as Do )'0/1 get it? (ie: 'Do you
understand?'). In other cases, the structure will make it clear what has
been omitted, eg it in Looks like rain.
Typically situational ellipsis is initial, especially taking the form of
omission of subject and/or operator; eg: (Do you) Want something? In
such cases, which are restricted to familiar (generally spoken) English, the
ellipted words are those that normally have weak stress and low pitch.
Here are some examples of situalicmai ellipsis, with an indication of
what has been ellipted:
(a) Ellipsis in declarative sentences
(I) Told you so.
(You) Want a drink, do you?
(It) Serves you right.
(I'm) Sorry I couldn't be there.
(It's) Good to see you.
(I'll) See you later.
(It's a) Pity he won't help.
(b) Ellipsis in interrogative sentences
(Are you) In trouble?
(Is there) Anybody in?

In STRUCTURAL ellipsis, the interpretation depends on knowledge of

grammatical structure, as in the ellipsis of the conjunction that in [I J and
the preposition for in [2]:
I believe (that) you are mistaken.
We're staying there (for) another three weeks. (informal)

Recoverablllty types of ellipsis

12,16

[a) Someothercascsare less productive and tend to occur with certain expressions.
For example, the ellipsis of the article alone in (The) Fact si I don t know whol to
do; the ellipsis of the preposition of in (Of) Course he's there; and ellipsis that
includes the initial syllable of a word in (I am a) 'Fraid I won t be there,
[b) In many instances of initial ellipsis, the omission may be at least partly due to
subaudibility or some other process of phonological reduction.
'

(I) hope he's there.

And in FINAL ellipsis the final elements are ellipled:

257

US heading for new slump. [ie. The US is heading for a new slump,J
NOTE

There is no clear dividing line between structural ellipsis and some instances of
situational ellipsis given in 12.16, where the structure alone would yield the
interpretation,

Textual ellipsis
Categories of textual ellipsis
IZ.IS

In TEXTUAL ellipsis, the interpretation depends on what is said or written

in the linguistic context. We distinguish two kinds of ellipsis according to
the relative positions of the ellipsis and its antecedent: ANAPHORIC ellipsis
and CATAPHORIC ellipsis. In anaphoric ellipsis, the interpretation depends
on what comes before:
I'm happy if you are (happy).
In cataphoric ellipsis, on the other hand, the ellipsis depends on what
comes after:
Those who prefer (to stay indoors), can Slay indoors.

258

Pro-forms and ellipsis

Ellipsis

It is often necessary to take account of the larger construction in which

the antecedent construction and elliptical construction participate, since
some categories of ellipsis are possible only in certain constructions. We
therefore distinguish between GENERAL ELLIPSIS, where the functional
relation between the elliptical and antecedent constructions is irrelevant,
and SPECIA.L ELLIPSIS, where the possibilities ofomission are determined by
that relation (eg in coordination). In this chapter we confine ourselves
chiefly to general ellipsis, since special ellipsis is more appropriately
handled in the chapters dealing with coordination ( 1 3, I 7ff), nonfinite and
verbless clauses (14.4ff), and comparative clauses ( 1 5.36ff).
General tex.tual ellipsis is typically final and anaphoric. We distinguish
two major categories: elliptical noun phrases and antecedent clauses.

Joan prefers Ihe trios of Mozart.

Joan prefers the trios of Mo=art. while I prefer those of Hardn

fI '

Alternatively. we can replace the final prepositional phrase by a genitive:

Joan prefers the trios of Mozart. while I prefer /Jaydn's ".
{b1 The elliptical phrases in (I] and {2] are ambiguous, according to whether the
modifiers are assumed to be ellipted. In (Il it may be the best performance or the
best performance of 'Macbeth', The ambiguity is multiple in [2), where any thr
you can get may simply be elliptical for any other rope you can gel, or the ellipSIS
.
may include also plastic or thick plastic or new thick plastic. To aVOId
such
ambiguity, onc has to repeat the words of the antecedent.

Elliptical clauses

Ex.cept in coordination, elliptical noun phrases result from final ellipsis.

This means that heads and any postmodifiers tend to be ellipted:

Ellipsis of the predication in finite clauses

12.20

My own camera, like Peter's "'. is Japanese.

He had to admit that Sarah's drawings were as good as Iris own ",.
Theftrst expedition to the Antarctic was quickly followed by another
two 6 .
Tomorrow's meeting will have to be ourfirst and our last 6 .
Although Helen is the oldest girl in tire class, Julie is the, tallest tJ. .

For general ellipsis in the finite clause, as in the noun phrase, the dominant
type is final. Typically, the subject and operator (and perhaps other
auxiliaries) remain, and the predication is ellipted:
I'm happy if you are
If I could have bought a ticket, I would have tJ. .
His father was at Oxford when the Prime M inister was tJ. .
Tom will be playing, but I don't think Martin will (be)
1'11 do wha. I can
When Marilyn resigns from the committee, I'm sure that a
number of other people will tJ..
6.

tJ. .

Noun-phrase ellipsis, like clause ellipsis (c/12.20ff), involves some degree

of parallelism between the elliptical construction and the elliptical
construction.
The dominance of final ellipsis in noun phrases means that it is possible
to omit postmodifiers alone:

o.

NOTE

Stan spent PART 0/ his winnings, and tire rest 6 he saved.

If you need any 0/ thatfirewood, I can give yo u plenty tJ. .

[I]

[2]
(3]
[4]
[5]

[6]

fa) If the clause in its unreduced form has no operator, the dummy operator 00 is
introduced:
I left school when Dennis dill.

Noun phrases can occur with medial ellipsis if a postmodifier is retained

while the head of the phrase is ellipted:

[71

however. in 17) is a pro-form and there is strictly no ellipsis. since the insertion
of the predication after did would result in an unacceptable sentence:
[7a[
1 left school when Dcnnis did I(,al'e school.

Did.

They claim that Danish butter is thefinesl tJ.in the world,

Thal /eller was tire last 6 I ever received/ram her.

But there are other constructions with the operator 00 that are elliptical:

In other cases one or more modifiers, as well as the head, may be ellipted:

NOTE

of Haydn.

Haydn:

Elliptical noun phrases

His recent performance 0/ 'Macbeth' is the best 6 he has e'er

dOlle.
That new thick plastic rope ThaI they sell is stronger than any
other tJ. you can get.

I>

We can make the sentence grammatical by inserting the pro-form those before of

General ellipsis
12.19

while I prefer

259

don't like living in the country. Do you (like) living in the country)? 181

A: Does she like writing for the press?

B: Yes. she 06Es(like writing for the press).

[1]

(9]

In (9) does is used as an emphatic operator in both the elliptical and the unreduced
constructions.
[bl Unlike adjuncts (8.13) and subjuncts (8.32), disjuncts (8.40) and conjuncts
(8.43) are not carried over to the elliptical clause. We can contrast the adjunct
sometimes with the disjunct wisely:

[2]

(al In general ellipsis an elliptical noun phrase must retain more than just the

postmodifiers:

Ellipsis 261

250 Pro-forms and ellipsis

You can borrow my pen, if you WA.NT tJ..

Somebody ought to help. Shall I ask PEter f>?

A: Has Bob sometimes walked to work?

B: No, but his sIster has. [= has sometimes walked to work)

A: Bob has wisely walked to work.
B: Well, at least he CLAIMS he has. I ""' has walked to work]

NOTE

Similarly, a final auxiliary in the elliptical clause excludes other, contrasting

auxiliaries in the antecedent clause:

12.21

There is genuinely medial ellipsis when a contrasting adverbial occurs in

final position:
There are more hungry people in the world today than there were I:.
in 1900.
In the next ex:ample, only the lexical verb is omitted:
I'll gladly pay for the hotel, if you will

I:.

for the food.

A more thoroughgoing reduction involves ellipsis of the whole clause or

the whole clause ex:cept for an introductory word.
A wh-interrogativeclause, whether independent or subordinate, may be
reduced to the wh-word:
A: We're bound to win the prize some day.
S: Yes, but WHEN tJ.?
Somebody has hidden my notebook, but I don't know WHO/WHY/
WHERE tJ..
There is also a reduced negative wll-question, but this occurs only with
wily and with wll-infinitive clauses:
Why NOT? I don't KNOW why not.
I don't want to accept, but I don't know how not (to).
A lo-infinitive clause may be omitted if it functions as the complemen
talion of a verb or adjective (cf Chapter 16). An elliptical lo-infinitive
clause may consist of just the introductory unstressed particle 10:
You can borrow my pen, if you WANT to tJ..
You will speak to who(m)ever I TELL you to tJ..
Somebody ought to help. Shall I ask PETER to f>?

[ I]
[2]
[3]

In the negative, 1101 is placed before 10:

She borrowed my pen, although I told her NOT to.
To may also

The marginal modal auxiliaries oughl LO and used to, the modal idiom ha'e got to,
and semi-auxiliaries such asbe able to, be going to, have to, be supposed to(cf3. I 7f)
must retain the to:

Appended clauses
12.23

One type of special ellipsis is found in appened clauses. An appended

clause is an elliptical clause (usually parenthetical or an afterthough.t) for
which the whole or part of the preceding or interrupted clause constitutes
the antecedent:
[I]
I caught the train just.
[2]
The train arrived 0" lime for a change.
Thesc presuppose that two scparatc assertions are being made. For
cx:ample, (1) may be viewed as elliptical for [ l a]:
'
[ la]
I caught thc train I just caught the train.

Ellipsis of a clause
12.22

[3a]

We don't save as much money these days as we used to l!. '

I won't disturb you again unless I have to 6 '

Not many people could have enjoyed that trip as much as your mother has.
(:E has enjoyed that trip]
Medial ellipsis

[la]

be ellipted, and the result is then ellipsis of the whole clause:

In the ex:amples that follow, only part of the initial clause (the italicized
part) acts as the antecedent:
They are

mea,,1 to wound, perhaps l!. to kill.

He is playful, !J. even mischievous.

On the related construction of appended coordination, cf 1 3.30.

Bibliographical note
On reduction generally. see HaJliday and Hasan (1976).
On pro-forms and substitutes. see Crymes (1968).
On ellipsis, sce Greenbaum and Meyer (1982); Gunter ( 1 963).
For further references sec the Bibliographical notes for Chaplers 1 3 and

19.

...

13

coordination with but in [3a1 and subordination with although in [3b] and
[3c]:

Coordination

He tried hard, but he failed.

Although he tried hard, he failed.
He tried hard, although he failed.

A third means ofexpressing this relationship by coordination is through a

conjunct (c/8.43), such as yet:
[3d]
He tried hard, yet he failed.

Syndetlc, asyndetic, and polysynde11c coordination

13.1

We distinguish between syndetic (or linked) coordination and asyndetic

(or unlinked) coordination. In syndelic coordination, the more usual
form, the units are linked by a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION (or, more
simply. COORDINATOR) and, or, but:

NOTE

Slowly and stealthily, he crept towards his victim.

[3.]
[3b]
[3c]

[la]

Despite its appearance, (3d) illustrates asyndetic coordination. We can make the
coordination syndetic by inserting and:
He tried hard, and )'et he failed.

In asyndetic coordination. coordinators are not present, but could be

inserted:
Slowly, stealthily, he crept towards his victim.

[I b]
Coordinators

When more than two units are linked by and or or, it is usual to insert the
coordinator once only - between the last two units:
The wind roared, the lightning flashed, and the clouds raced
across the sky.
[2a]

13.3

In polysyndetic coordination, however, the coordinator is repeated

between each pair of units:
The wind roared, and the lightning flashed, and the clouds
raced across the sky.

[2b1

Coordinators Identified
Three conjunctions are clearly coordinators: and, or. but. And and or are
central coordinators, and but differs from them in certain respects. On the
gradient between 'pure' coordinators and 'pure' subordinators are/or and
so that (in the meaning 'with the result that').
Coordinators, subordinators, and conjuncts arc all LlNKERS. In what
follows we examine six features that apply to the central coordinators arid
and or nd note whether they apply also to other linkers. At this stage we
restrict ourselves mainly to connections between clauses.
Syntactic leatures of coordinators

Coordination and subordination

13.2

<a) Clause coordinators are restricted to clause-initial position

Both coordination and subordination involve the linking of units; but in

coordination the units are on the same syntactic level, whereas in
subordination one ofthe units is a constituent ofa superordinate unit. For
example in [I] the two clauses linked by the coordinator but are main
clauses. each of which could be an independent sentence:
They are my neighbours, but I don't know them well.

[2]

Similar semantic relationships may be expressed through coordination

and subordination, as in the concessive relationship expressed by

And, or, and but are restricted to initial position in the second clause:

John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano.
John plays the guitar; his sister and plays the piano.
This is generally true of both coordinators and subordinators, but it is not
true of most conjuncts:

[ I]

In [2] the subordinate where-clause is the direct object of the sentence:

I don't know where they are staying.

13.4

John plays the guitar; his sister, moreover, plays the piano.
NOTE

There are three subordinators (as. that. and though) which are exceptional in that
they can occur noninitially (cf 1 5.21 Note raj. 15.26 Note [b)):

Though he is poor, he is happy.

Poor though he is, he is happy.

r
I

264

Coordination

Coordinators

The exceptions are the conjunct yet and (in informal spoken English) the
conjuncl so and the time adverb Ihen (,after that'):

(b) Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixed

13.5

Clauses beginning with and, or, and but are sequentially fixed in relation to
the previous clause, and therefore cannot be transposed without
producing unacceptable sentences, or at least changing the relationship
between the clauses:
They are living in England, or they are spending a vacation there.
Or they are spending a vacation there, they are living in England.

They didn't like it, yet said nothing.

They were tired, so left early.
They went home, then went straight to bed.
NOTE

This is true for coordinators and conjuncts, but not for most subordina
tors. Contrast the unacceptability of [la). containing the conjunct
nevertheless, with the acceptability of [1 b), containing the subordinator
although:
*Nevertheless John gave it away. Mary wanted it.
Allhoug" Mary wanted it, John gave it away.

(I al
(I bl

In this respect the subordinatorsfor and so Ihal resemble coordinators.

Contrast:

13.8

I wonder whether you should go and see her or whether it is better to

write to her.
Such linking is not possible for conjuncts or for the other conjunctions
except but. But, however, is restricted to linking a maximum of two clauses
and even so it can link only certain types of subordinate clauses.

[ l a]

On the other hand, a pronoun can (but need not) have cataphoric
reference when it occurs in an initial subordinate clause:
Although she felt ill, my mOlher said nothing.

She said thal John would take them by car bill (that) they might be
late.

[I b]

(c) Coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction

13.6

The coordinators and, or, and but and the subordinatorsfor and so that
('with the result that') do not allow another conjunction to precede them.
Other subordinators as well as conjuncts can usually be preceded by
conjunctions (cj 13.8):
He was unhappy about it, and yet he did as he was told.
(d) Coordinators can link clause constituents

13.7

And, or, and bUI may link constituents smaller than a clause, for example

predicates (c! 1 3 . 1 9Jf):

I may see you tomorrow or may phone late in the day.

This feature does not apply to most other Iinkers:
*He did not want it,jor was obstinate.

As well as linking two main clauses, and and or can link subordinate
clauses:

He asked to be transferred,
cause he saw no prospect
because he was unhappy and { bealthOUg
h } of promotion.

Related to the fixed position of the coordinate clause is the fact that when clauses
are linked by the coordinators and, or, and bUl (a15o byfor and so that), a pronoun
in the first clause cannot normally have cataphoric (ie forward) reference loa noun
phrase in the second clause. Forexample,shein (la1does notcorefertamymother:
She felt ill, but my mOlher said nothing.

A subordinator does not allow this feature even when its clause is linked by a
coordinator:
.She didn't say anything about it because he was new and because looked
unwell.
[I)
If the second because of (11 is omitted, there is a regular permissible case of
coordination of predications:
She didn't say anything about it be("(luse he was new llnd looked unwell.
(e) Coordinators can link subordinate clauses

*For he was unhappy, he asked to be transferred.

Because he was unhappy, he asked to be transferred.

NOTE

265

(f) Coordinators can link more than two clauses

13.9

Andand or can link more than two clauses, and the construction may then
be called one of MULTIPLE COORDINATION. All but the final instance of
these two conjunctions can be omitted. Thus:
The battery may be disconnected, the connections may be loose, or
the bulb may be faulty.
is interpreted as:
The battery may be disconnected, or the connection may be loose, or
the bulb may be faulty.
In this respect, and and or differ from subordinators and conjuncls. They
differ even from but, since bill semantically speaking can only link two
units at the same level.

266 Coordination

Coordination of clauses and lesser constituents

13.10

In 13.4-9 we have focused on the linkage of clauses. But an important

distinguishing characteristic of coordinators is that they can also be used
to link elements that are parts of clauses, eg in [I) linked adjectives that are
functioning as subject complement and in [2] linked adjectives that are
functioning as premodifier:
The weather will be cold and cloudy.
The warm but windy weather will continue for several more
days.

r
,

Coordinators 267

(d) The first clause has CONCESSIVE force:

She tried hard alld (yet) she failed.
(e) The first clause is a CONDITION of the first:
Give me some money and (then) I'll do the shopping.
(f) The second clause makes a point SIMILAR to the first:

[I]

A trade agreement should be no problem, alld (similarly) a cultural

exchange could be easily arranged.

[2J

(g) The second clause is a 'pure' ADDITION to the first:

In this respect, however, some linking words that are not coordinators
resemble coordinators. Certain concessive subordinators and conjuncts,
in particular, are capable of replacing but in [2) and in similar linkings of
adjectives and other constituents:
Tim's squat yet ferocious bulldog could be heard growling on the
patio.
I immediately recognized Sarah's bold ifbarely legible handwriting.
Martin was inclined to boast about his rich though disreputable
ancestors.
The admiral walked clumsily, yet with dignity.

He has long hair and (also) he often wears jeans.

(h) The second clause adds an appended COMMENT on, or EXPLANATION
of, the first:
They disliked John and that's not surprising in view of his
behaviour.
There's only one thing to do now and that's to apologize.
-

NOTE

Similarly, nor (in its capacity as a correlative after neither, cf 13.14) can
link constituents that are less than clauses:
They were neither able nor willing to provide the necessary capital.
In discussing the uses of the central coordinators in 13.1 1-13 we
generally take our examples from clause coordination, but the same
semantic relations apply to lesser constituents.
The uses of coordinators
The uses of and
13.11

Andindicates that there is some relation between the contents of the linked
clauses. The relation can generally be made explicit by the addition of an
adverbial, as indicated in parentheses in the examples:
(a) The event in the second clause is chronologically SEQUENT to that in
the first:
I washed the dishes and ( then) I dried them.
(b) The event in the second clause is a CONSEQUENCE or
event in the first:

RESULT

He heard an explosion and he (therefore) phoned the police.

(c) The second clause introduces a CONTRAST:
Peter is secretive and (in contrast) David is open.

of the

13.12

The addition meaning is inclusive in Don', argue andquarrel(cquivalent 10 'Oon't

argue or quarrel'), whcrcas the conditional mcaning is exclusive in Don ', drink and
drive ('If you drink, don'l drivc'). C/ 13.12.

The uses of or
(a) Typically, or is EXCLUSIVE: it excludes the possibility that the contents
of both clauses are true or are to be fulfilled:
You can sleep on the couch in the lounge or you can go to a hotel.
Even when both alternatives are clearly possible, or is normally
interpreted as exclusive:
You can boil yourself an egg or (else) you can make some
sandwiches.
The exclusive meaning can be strengthened by the conjuncts else or
alternatively.

(b) Sometimes or is INCLUSIVE. We can add a third clause that makes thiS
inclusive meaning explicitly:
.

You can boil an egg, (or) you can make some sandwiches, or you can
do both.
And can replace or in its inclusive meaning.
(c) The alternative expressed by or may also be a restatement or a
CORRECTIVE to what is said in the first conjoin:
They are enjoying themselves, or (at least)/ (rather) they apptAR to
be enjoying themselves.

tRA

Correlative.

269

In this use, but can be emphasized by the conjuncts 011 the contrary or
.
rather, It normally does not link two clauses. but two lesser constUuents,

(d) In addition to introducing alternatives as indicated above, or may

imply a NEGATIVE CONDITION. Thus in:
Switch on the radio or we'll miss the news.
the implication can be paraphrased by the negative conditional clause:
Switch on the radio. Ifyou don " switch on the radio, we'll miss the
news.
The conditional use of or is thus the negative analogue of the conditional
use of and (cl 13.1 1). Unlike and, however, or typically follows a negative
imperative clause:

Correlatives
Either . . . or, both . . . and. neither . . , nor
13.14

Don'l be too long, or you'll miss the bus.

In this case, the most appropriate paraphrase with an if-clause is positive
instead of negative:

Either the room is too small or the piano is too large,

You may either stand up or sit down.
Either Sylvia or her sister will be staying with us.

If you are too long, you'll miss the bus.

NOTE

Both , , . ami emphasizes the additive meaning of and (cl 1 3. 1 1 ):

(al ln written varieties of the language where precision is required (eg in official
instructions), the third possibility can be explicitly included by the use of both
coordinators (usually writtcn and/or):

David both loves Joan and wants to marry her.

This new machine will both accelerate the copying process and
improve the quality of reproduction.
Both Mary and Peter washed the dishes,
The regulations are both very precise and very detailed,

If the appliance is defective, write directly to the manufacturer and/or

complain to your local consumer protection service.

Ibj

Because and and or contrast with onc another in meaning, or following a

negative is in some respects equivalent to and. Thus:
He doesn't have long hair or wear jeans.

It also singles out the segregatory meaning of and (cl 13.23f) rather than
the combinatory meaning:

[1 )

Both David and Joan got divorced, [not rrom each other)

is logically equivalent to 'He doesn', halle long hair AND He doesn'( lI'ear jeans',
Conversely:
He doesn't (both) have long hair and wear jeans.

Neither . . . nor is the negative counterpart of bOlh . , , and, It emphasizes

that the negation applies to both units:

(2)

is logically equivalent to 'EITHER He doesn'/ hal'e long hair OR He doesn 't l\'earjeans
(or bo,h)'. The reversal of meaning arises because in [I) and (2), the coordinator is
within the scope of negation (t.f 10.38).

David neither loves Joan, nor wants to marry her,

Mary was neither happy nor sad,
Neither Peter 1I0r his wife wanted the responsibility.
Unlike either . . , or. both . . . and and neither . . . nor cannot link com
plete clauses:

The uses of but

13.13

But expresses a contrast.

(a) The content of the second clause is unexpected in view of the content of
the first:

* Both Mary washed the dishes and Peter dried them,

*Neither Peter wanted the responsibility, nor his wife did.

John is poor, bUl he is happy.

In this use, bUl can be replaced by and yel,
(b) The second clause expresses in positive terms what the negation in the
first clause conveys:
Jane did nOl waste her time before the exam, but (on the cOlltrary)
studied hard every evening.
I am not objecting to his morals, bill (rather) to his manners,

The three pairs either or, both , . . and, and neither . . . nor are correlatives.
The first word is an ENDORSING ITEM and the second is a coordinator.
Either . . . or emphasizes the exclusive meaning of or (cl 1 3 . 1 2). The
linked units may be complete clauses or lesser constituents:

NOTE

III When either . . , or is within the scope of negation (cf 1 3: I N le IbD, it is

,
equivalent lO neither . . . nor, so that these two sentences are SImIlar In meanmg:
He hasn't met either her mother or her father.
He has met neither her mother nor her father.

Ib] According to a prescriptive tradition, the use of correlative coordinators is

unacceplable when there are three or more conjoins:

270

Coordination
?We are both willing, able, and ready to carry out the survey.
?Either the Minister, or the Under-Secretary. or the Permanent
Secretary will attend the meeting.
rTompkins has neither the personality, nor the energy, 1I0r the
experience lO win this election.

Nor and neither a.

13.15

Sam neither has long ha ir. nor does he wear jeans.

Mary was neither happy, nor was she sad.

[I]
[2J
[3)

[cl Another prescriptive tradition holds that correlatives should introduce parallel
uni ts, ie units of equivalent function. Hence in written English ( I b) is preferred to
(la], and 12b] or 12c) lo [2a):
?Evelyn is either stupid or pretends that she is.
Either Evelyn is stupid or she pretends that she is.
? . admire both the drawings of Rcmbrandt and of Rubcns.
I admire both the drawings of Rembrandt alld those of Rubcns.
I admire the drawings of both Rembrandt alld Rubens.

Slmpte coordln.tton 271

[I a)
[I b)
[2al
[2b)
[2e)

Here neither appears medially, and nor appears in initial position followed by
subject-operator inversion, but the units that rollow n ither and n?r are not
.
parallel, as one would expect them to be in a construction of coordinatIOn (cl
13. 14) Note le]). Some writers would therefore recast a sentence such as [ I ] to
confonn with the normal correlative structure:
Sam neither has long hair. nor wears jeans.

13.16

He came not to help, but to hinder us.

Not only did they break into his office and steal his books,
but they also tore up his manuscripts.
Not Henry, but his wife is the owner.

He did not receive any assistance from the authorities, neither

did he believe their assurance that action would soon be
[I]
taken. (rather formal)
Many people are only dimly aware of the ways in which
the environment can be protected. Nor have governments
[21
made sufficient efforts to educate them. (formal)
All the students were obviously very miserable. Nor were
the teachers satisfied with the conditions at the school.
(3)
(formal)

NOTE

They never rorgave

"
h"Im ,or the InSU
II,

{(and) } {(neilher) }
(but )

(nor)

COUldherid himselfofthereelingsof

guilt for ha ing spoken Ihal

way.

This possibility excludes them from the class of central coordinators (c/ 1 3.6).
[b} There is a mixed construction in which neither and 1I0r behave like additive
adverbs in certain respects, but at the same time they are a correlative pair and
have the segregatory meaning associated with both . . . and (cl 13. 14):

[I a1
{2a1
[31

S[mple coordination
13.17

lal For many speakers. the adverbs neither and nor can be linked 10 a preceding
clause by and or but:

(21

Where the two units are complete clauses, a more dramatic effect is
achieved by positioning not only initially, with subject-opcrator inver
sion, as in [2a1.

The morphology of nor suggests that it is the equivalent of or plus 1101, but
in fact both nor and neither are nearer to being the equivalent of and plus

[3a)

[I)

Their status as correlatives is even clearer when the negative particle is

moved out of its normal position to make the two units parallel:

without being a correlative pair. They generally presuppose that a .

previous clause is negative either explicitly, as in [I], or implicitly, as in [2]
and (3):

very miserable. And (also)

the teachers were nOl satisfied with the conditions at the
school.

The negalOr nOI/n't or the combination not/n't only may be correlative

with a following but:
He didn't come to help, but to hinder us. ['but rather']
They nol only broke into his office and stole his books,
but (they) (also) tore up his manuscripts.

Nor and neither, followed by subject-operator inversion. can be used

All the students were obviously

[la)

Not (only) . . . but

negative adverb.

not:

[I)
[2)

The usual kind ofcoordination is SIMPLE COORDINATION, in which a single

clause or clause constituent is linked to others that are parallel in meaning.
in function, and (generally) in form. The coordinated units are CONJOINS,
and the resulting combination is a CONJOINT.
There are two ways of analysing simple coordination of clause
constituents: ( I ) We may examine a construction as an elliptical version of
clause coordination, noting what elements are ellipted, or (2) we may
examine the construction in terms of the units themselves, noting what
elements are present. For example, the sentence Sam Iras trimmed tire
Iredge and mowed the lawn can be viewed as the coordination of two clauses
in which a subject (Sam) and an operator (has) have been ellipted from the
second clause:
Sam has trimmed the hedge and lJ. mowed the lawn.

272 Coordination

Or it can be viewed as a single clause contalnmg two coordinated

predications, which together constitute the predication of the clause:

I
I

Simple coordination 273

Peter ate the fruit and drank the beer.

and look forward to our next

I send you my I'ery best wishes,

meeting.
Margaret is ill, but will soon recover.
Most people will have read the book or seen the film.
They should have washed the dislres, dried Ihem, and pllt them
ill the cupboard.
They were married in 1960, but divorced ill 1970.
Are you working or on holiday?
Why couldn't she have finished work late and still be travelling
home?

Sam has [[trimmed the hedge] and [mowed the lawn]].

For simple coordination (though less so for other kinds of coordination),
there are advantages in adopting the coordination analysis rather than the
ellipsis analysis.
Types of simple coordination
Coordination of clauses

13.18

Complete independent clauses may be coordinated:

Subordinate finite clauses may be coordinated, so long as they belong to
the same function class:
bound to get the job.

13.20

likely to be a successful representative.

I've asked him to come this el'ening or (/0) pholle us lomorrow.

[COORDINATED TO-INFINITIVE CLAUSES]

Samantha is fond of working al night and getting up 10le in the

/n those day.5 they oftell used to [shoot the birds], [bring them
home1, [cook them], and [eat them] 0" a single day.

morning.
[COORDINATED ING PARTICIPLE CLAUSES]

All the villagers helped to rebuild the houses damaged by the storm
or washed away by thefloods.

Coordination of predicates (as in [1-3]) and coordination of predications

(as in [4-8]) are very common:

[4]

Coordination of noun phrases and their constituents

[COORDINATED ED PARTICIPLE CLAUSES]

With George ill and (with) the children at home, Jenny is finding life

13.19

Adverbials, as more peripheral elements of the clause, often stan utside

the structure of coordination. We may then say that the conJolOs are
within the scope of the adverbials:
(l)
Yesterday [the sun was very warm] and [the ice meled .
SIX
wait
to
[had
and
train}
the
UnfortwUltely, we {missed
[2J
hoursJ.
The guests were [walking], [talking], and {drinking wine]
[3}
in the garden.
In [I] and [21 and in the usual reading of [3], the scope of the adverbial
extends across the remainder of the sentence. The more complex example
of predication coordination in (4] takes place (accorin t a likey
.
interpretation) within the scope of three advcrbials; one 10 Initial, one In
medial, and one in final position:

Nonfinite clauses of the same type and also verbless clauses may be
coordinated:

Coordination of predicates and predications

{8]

Coordination and the scope of adverbials

[COORDINATED RELATIVE CLAUSES]

[COORDINATED VERBLESS CLAUSES]

[5J
[6]
[7J

Most people will have read the book or will IIOI'e seen thefilm. [4a]

If you pass the examination and (if) no one else applies, you arc

very difficult.

[2J
[3]
[4J

In both types of coordination the subject is shared. The most rdued

form of the sentence will be preferred, and therefore the predication
coordination of [4] will be preferred over the predicate coordination of
[4a], where the auxiliaries will hm'e are repeated:

The winter had come at last, and snow lay thick on the ground.

[COORDINATED ADVERBIAL CLAUSES]

The Minister believes that the economy is improl'ing and (that)
unemployment will soon decrease.
[COORDINATED NOMINAL THA TCLAUSES]
I didn't know who she was or what she II/amed.
[COORDINATED NOMINAL WHCLAUSES]
Someone who knows the area, but whose home is outside it, is more

[1J

Nounphrasc coordination

13.21

Two or more noun phrases may be conjoined to form a conjoint no n

.
phrase: for example. the conjoint noun phrases functioning as subject Ifl
[IJ and as object in [2J:
Some of the staff alld all of the students have voted for these
[I J
changes
.
s.
]2J
chlcke"
On this farm, they keep cows, sheep. pigs, and afew

274

Simple eoordln.tlon 275

Coordln.Uon

A conjoint noun phrase may contain general ellipsis of the kinds discussed
in 12.19ff:

Indicators of segregatory meaning

13.23

Which do you prefer; the red dress, the green or the whitell.?
That must be either John's responsibility or Bridget's 6 .

both ( . . . and)
each

[).,

NOTE

neither . . . nor
respecti'e (formal)

respectively (formal)
apiece (rather rare)

While John and Mary have won a prize is ambiguous, we are left in no
doubt that two prizes were won in:

lal It is considered polite to follow the order within a conjoint noun phrase of
placing 2nd person pronouns first, and (more importantly) I st person pronouns
last: Jilt and I ; you and 1ill; you JiI/ and me.
IbJ like other conjoin types, noun phrases may have asyndetic coordination (cf
13.1):

John and Mary have each won a prize.

John and Mary have won a prize each.
Both John and Mary have won a prize.
John and Mary have both won a prize.

We had no friends. nofamily, no material resources.

Similarly, whereas John and Mary didn 't win a prize is ambiguous, Neither
John nor Mary won a prize is unambiguously segregatory.
The adjective respective premodifies a plural noun phrase to indicate
segregatory interpretation. For example, JiII and Ben visited their
respective uncles can only mean that Jill visited her uncle or uncles and that
Ben visited his uncle or uncles, whereas Ji/J and Ben visited their uncles is
ambiguous between the respective reading and the reading that they

Combinatory and segregatory coordination of noun phrases

13.22

Certain markers explicitly indicate that the coordination is segregatory:

Phrases linked by and may express COMBINATORY or SEGREGATORY

meaning. The distinction is clearesl with noun phrases. When the
coordination is segregatory, we can paraphrase it by clause coordination:
John and Mary know the answer. [=John knows the answer, and

Mary knows the answer)

visited persons who were uncles to both. The related nouns can be in
different clauses or even in different sentences:

When i t is combinatory we cannot do so, because the conjoins function in

combination with respect to the rest of the clause:
John and Mary make a pleasant couple. [ + . John makes a pleasant

Bob and his best friend have had some serious trouble at school
lately. Their respective parents are going to sec the principal about

Many conjoint noun phrases are in fact ambiguous between the two
interpretations:

The adverb respectil'ely indicates which constituents go with which in

the two parallel sets of conjoint phrases:

the complaints.

couple, and Mary makes a pleasant couple]

John, Peter, alld Robert play football. baskctball, alld baseball

John and Mary won a prize.

respeclil1ely.
[ = John plays football, Peter plays basketball. and Robert plays

This may mean that they each won a prize or that the prize was awarded to
them jointly.
Further examples of combinatory meaning:
John and Mary played as partners in tennis against Susan and Bill.
Peler alld Bob separated (from each other).
Paula and her brother look alike.
Mary and Paul are just good friends.
John and Peter have different tastes (from each other).
Mary and Susan are colleagues (of each other).
Law and order is a primary concern of the new administration.

baseball].
Thomas Arnold and his son Matthew were respectively the greatest
educator and the greatest critic of the Victorian age.
[= Thomas Arnold was the greatest educator of the Victorian age.
and his son Matthew was the greatest critic of the Victorian age.)
NOTE

Both. each, respectil'e, and apiece also mark scgregatory meaning with plural noun
phrases that are not coordinated: My children hal'e both II'on a prize: The boys
visited their respecril'e uncles.

Coordination within noun phrases

NOTE

The distinction between the two meanings applies to plural noun phrases in
general. The combinatory meaning in The three girls look alike contrasts with the
segregatory meaning in The three girls hal'e a cold, and They are married is
ambiguous.

Coordinated noun heads

13.24

When heads are coordinated, the usual interpretation is that the

determiner, premodifier, and postmodifier apply to each of the conjoins:

276 Coordination

child). They may also be the intermediate units called NOMINAL EXPRESSIONS (cf
12.5), eg: eldest child in his wife and eldest child.
[d) The tags and so on, and soforlh, and et cetera (Latin 'and others', abbreviated
in writing as etc) arc abbreviatory devices which are added to a coordinated list, \0
indicate that the list has not been exhaustively given:

It is also possible to interpret some of these phrases as coordinated noun

phrases:

And so on and andsoforth (and their combination andso on andsoforth) are used
in the same way, but are restricted to informal use, and tcnd to occur after
coordinated clauses rather than coordinated phrases. A less common phrase ofthe
same kind is and the like.

Coordinated modifiers

Only the segregatory meaning is ordinarily possible when the coordinated

modifiers denote mutually exclusive properties:
old and new furniture [= old furniture and new furniture]
workers from France and from Italy [ = workers from France and
workers from Italy]
Exceptions to this are colour adjectives (as in red, white, and blue flags),
which allow the combinatory sense 'partly one colour, partly another'. On
the other hand, only the combinatory meaning is possible if the head is a
singular count noun:
a dishonest and lazy student ( = a student who is both dishonest and
lazy]
a book on reptiles and amphibians
The same meaning applies when the coordination is asyndetic: a dishonest,
lazy student.

In other instances there may be ambiguity:

old and valuable books [= books that are old and valuable or old
books and valuable books]
buses for the Houses of Parliament and for Victoria Station [either
the same bus or buses go to both places or a different bus or buses
go to each place]

NOTE

277

his wife and child { = his wife and his child ]

old men and women [ = old men and old women]
some cows and pigsfrom ourfarm [ = some cows from ourfarm and
some pigs from ourfarm]
the boys and girls staying at the hostel { = the boys staying a! the
hostel and the girls staying at the hostel]

old men and women ( = women and old men]

some cows and pigs from our farm [ = pigs from our farm and some
cows]
13.25

Slmpla coordination

fa] The coordination of determiners (eg: these and those chairs; your and my
problems) is comparatively rare, and the synonymous construction with conjoint
noun phrases (eg: these chairs and those: your problems and mine) is preferred.
fb] Cardinal numbers arc frequently coordinated with or in an idiomatic
approximative function: one or two guests ('a small number'),fi'e or six lelters
(,approximately in the range of five and six'), ten or tll'enly students Ca number
from ten to twenty').
[c) The conjoins in a conjoint noun phrase may be words (eg: his wife and child,
where the two nouns share the determiner Ihe) or phrases (eg: his wife and his

He packed his clothes, his books, his papers, etc.

Coordination of other constituents

13.26

All the main variations of constructions that we have noted for clauses
and noun phrases are found in the coordination of other constituents.
Examples of the coordination of various constituents arc given below:
(a) Verb phrases:
Good cooking can disguise, but cannot improve the quality of the
ingredients.
(b) Main verbs:
Many people might have been killed or injured by the explosion.
(c) Auxiliaries:
The country call alld must recover from its present crisis.
(d) Adjective phrases:
The journey was IOllg alld extremely arduous.
(e) Adjective heads:
I'm feeling younger and healthier than I felt for years.
(f) Adverbs:
She made the announcement quietly but very confidently.
(g) Prepositional phrases and prepositions:
He spoke for thejirs! motion but against the second motion.
She climbed up and over the wall.
Part of the prepositional complement may be ellipled in the first conjoin
or a subsequent conjoin:
He spoke /or !hejirst /:; but against the second motion. (formal)
He spoke /or the first motion but against the second
fj. .

(h) Coordination ofsubordinators and other clauseintroducing words:

am prepared to meet them when and where they like.
I am determined to find out who or what caused this uproar.
I

278 CoordlnaHon

Hc wears smart clothes and sometimes a yachting cap at weekends.

The general principle governing coordination is that the conjoins must

belong to the same category in fonn, function, and meaning. There may,
however, be differences in fonn:
The enemy attacked quickly and wi/h grea/force.
You can wash them manually or by using a machine.
They can call /his week or whenever you wish.
Dennis was carefree and in good heal/h.
NOTE

Such examples are more likely to occur in informal speech.

13.28

In the second type of complex coordination, the conjoins are not in final
position:
Gregory Peck always WAS I and always
favourite Hollywood STAR I

WILL be

I her

[1]

Richard admires, but Margaret despi.es, the ballyhoo of

The order of conjoincd words can be influenced by a tendency for the shorter item
to come first. This is particularly noticeable in BINOMIA.LS, ie relatively fixed
conjoint phrases having two members; eg: big and ugly, cup and saucer. One
principle at work here appears to be a principle of rhythmic regularity: eg the
dactylic rhythm of 'ladies and 'gentlemen, and the trochaic rhythm of 'men and
'women, are preferable to the less balanced rhythm of 'gentlemen and 'ladies and
'women and 'men. It has also been argued that semantic factors play a role; eg that
other things being equal. the first position is given to the semantically salient or
culturally dominant member. as in/other and san, gold and sib'er, great and small.
this and ,hal, Phonological constraints have also been suggested.: that low vowels
come after high ones; that back vowels come after front ones, etc. Whatever the
constraints may be, they lead to stereotyped coordinations where the conjoins are
in an irreversible order or virtually so; eg: odds ami ends, breadand bUller, law and
order, by hook or by crook. through thick and thin; knife,fork, and spoon.

modern advertising.

[2]

The second conjoin is separated by intonation in speech (as in [I]) and by

punctuation in writing (as in (2]).
. .
As in the first type of complex coordination, the parallelism IS weaker
when one conjoin contains one or more advcrbials that the other conjoin
lacks:
He is, or at least he was. a major composer of modern classical

musIc.
In these days, few people learn, or indeed see any point in
learning, the languages of Homer and Virgil.
She thought abou" but Ile'ef revisited, the haunts of her
childhood.

[3)

Similar structures are also found with subordination:

Richard admires, though Margaret despises, the ballyhoo
[2a]
of modern advertising.
He is even ifpeople don " think he is a major composer of
modern classical music.
She reads. though n01 speaks, several Oriental languages.

Complex coordination

13.27

is coordination in which the conjoins are

combinations of units rather than single units. Such coordination usually
requires - and then reinforces - a strong parallelism between the conjoins
and for this reason it tends to be associated with a premeditated, written
style of English, rather than with informal conversation.
In the first type, each conjoin consists of contiguous elements and the
conjoins are combined in final position in the clause. For example:
(a) Indirect object + direct object
COMPLEX COORDINATION

We gave Wil/iam a book on stamps and Mary a book on paiming.

(b) Object + object complement
Jack painted the kitchen while and Ihe balhroom blue.
(c) Object + adverbial
You should serve the coffee in a mug and the lemonade in a glass.
The parallelism is weaker when onc conjoin contains onc or more
adverbials that the other conjoin lacks:

NOTE

Because of its medial position and its separation by intonalion or punctuation. the
second conjoin seems parenthetic.

Gapplng
13.29

is a type of complex coordination in which a second or

subsequent conjoin contains a medial ellipsis, so that the elements in these
conjoins are not contiguous. For example:
(a) Subject + object

GAPPING

One girl has written a poem, and the olher

I'.

a short story.

(b) Subject + adverbial

Smith completed the course in thirty-five minutes, and 10hnson in
I'.

thirty-seven.

(c) Subject + complement

Qu..l-coordlnatlon

280 Coordination

Jane has looked more healthy, and Maurice

their vacation.
NOTE

l!:.

I'll try and come tomorrow. (= try to come)

They've gone and upset her again.
They sat and talked about the old times. [ = sat talking)

more relaxed. since

Coordination with gapping is more difficult to understand than coordination

without gapping, and therefore nongapped interpretations are more likely to be
intended where both are possible. For example, the reading orrl) as [la) is more
likely than as [ I b):
Barbara gave Sue a magnolia and Ada a camellia.
[ = Barbara gave Sue a magnolia and Barbara gave Ada a
camellia]
[= 8arbara gave Sue a magnolia and Ada gave Sue a camellia)

281

(b) The coordination of two adjectives of which the first functions as an

intensifier of the second:
This room is nice and warm. (= comfortably warm]
His speech was nice and short.
It was lovely and cool in there.

(I)
[la}
fib)

Some speakers (esp in AmE) use good in the same way:

The road is good and long.
even where the adjectival form following and is used as an adverb:
I hit him good and hard.
She drove good and/ast.

Appended coordination
13.30

(c) The coordination of identical comparative forms of adjectives,

adverbs, and determiners (usually just two conjoins) that expresses a
continuing increase in degree:

which is characteristic of informal speech.

occurs when an elliptical clause (involving onc element or contiguous
elements) is appended to a previous clause (c/appended clauses, 12.23):
APPENDED COORDINATION,

She fell more and more angry. [= increasingly angry]

The car went slower and slower.

John writes extremely well - and SALly TOO.

My mother plays badminton, and sometimes even tennis.
He got a bike for his birthday, and a book and a pen.
His left hook could fell the champion, and indeed any other boxer in
his class.
.

NOTE

(d) The coordination of two or more identical forms of verbs and

adverbs that expresses continuation or repetition:
He talked and talked and talked. [= talked for a very long time]
They knocked alld knocked. [ = knocked repeatedly)
She talked on and on and on. [= continuously]

fal With or and but. appended coordination is also likely to occur in carerul speech
and writing:

(e) The coordination of two identical nouns to indicate different kinds:

I am not sure whether JANE wrote the leller, or sALly.

..ITer plays football, but not JOHN.

There are teachers and teachers. [roughly: 'good and bad teachers')
You can find doctors and doctors. (roughly: 'good and bad doctors']

fbl The second conjoin may be interpolated as a parenthesis. in which case the
structure is a type or complex coordination (cf 13.28):

(f) The coordination of three or more identical nouns to indicate a large

number or quantity:

John - and Sally, lOO - writes extremely well.

She can. and probably will. beal the world record.

We saw dogs alld dogs and dogs all over the place.
There was nothing but rain. rain. rain from one week to the next.

Pseudo-coordination
13.31

There are several types of PSEUDO-COORDINATION, mostly found in

informal speech:
(a) Thecoordination of two verbs that has an idiomatic function similar
to that of a catenative construction (c/ 3 . 1 8 Note):

Quasi-coordination
13.32

Most of the QUASICOORDINATORS are related to comparative forms: as

well as, as much as, rather than, more rhan. They sometimes resemble
coordinators in that they link a variety of constituents:

282 Coordination

14

She publishes as well as prints her own books.

The speech was addressed fO the employers as much os to the strikers.
He is to be pitied rather than disliked.
They may also have a prepositional or subordinating role in that the unit
that they introduce is an adverbial and can be placed in initial or final
position:
As well as printing the books, he publishes them.
I'm going to forget the whole affair, rather thall cause trouble.

Subordinate and superordinate clauses

14.1

clauses functioning as an element of the sentence. For example. [1] is a

simple sentence in that the sentence consists of one main clause without
any subordinate clauses:

John, as much as his brothers, was responsible for the loss.

this they resemble prepositions such as with, ill addilion
more than coordinators like and; compare:

10

A COMPLEX sentence is like a simple sentence in that it consists of only one

MAIN clause. but unlike a simple sentence it has one or more SUBORDINATE

These quasi-coordinators are not fully coordinative, since in subject

position they normally do not cause plural concord ifthe first noun phrase
is singular:
In

The complex sentence

I reject her conclusions.

and after

( I]

On the other hand, [2] is a complex sentence because the main clause
contains a subordinate clause functioning as an adverbial:

John, with his brothers, was responsible for the loss.

Although I admire her reasoning, I reject her conclusions.

Bibliographical note

(2]

The subject (I), verb (reject), and direct object (her concluSions) are
identical in the main clauses (or sentences) in [I] and [2]. The subordinate
clause has its own subject (I), verb (admire), and direct object (her
reasoning). The main clause is SUPERORDlNATE to the subordinate clause
that it contains.
In [3] we have a more complicated example:

General studies of coordination include: Dik ( 1968): Dougherty ( 1970-71);

Schachter ( 1977); Stockwcll ct al. ( 1 973, Ch. 6).
On coordination in relation to subordination and other kinds of connectivity,
see Greenbaum ( 1969, 1 988); Halliday and Hasan ( 1 976): Talmy ( 1978).
On coordination in relation to ellipsis/reduction, see Greenbaum and Meycr
( 1 982): Harries-Delislc (1978); Hudson ( 1976); Meyer ( 1 979): Sanders ( 1 977).
On coordination of noun phrases, sec Hudson ( 1970).

He predicted that he would discover the tiny particle

when he conducted his next experiment.

(3]

The sentence is a complex sentence consisting of one main clause. The

main clause is supcrordinate to the subordinate that-clause (which is a
direct object) that continues to the end of the sentence. The Ihat-clause is
in turn supcrordinate to the subordinate when-clause (which is an
adverbial) that extends from when to the end of the sentence. The
hierarchy of superordination and subordination is displayed in Fig. 14. 1 .
For certain purposes it is useful to distinguish between a subordinate
clause and the MATRIX clause. The matrix clause is the superordinate
clause minus its subordinateclausc. Forexample. in [4] the matrix clause is
I ll lend yOIl some money:
'

I'll lend you some money if you don't have any money on you. [4]
NOTE

Some grammarians use main clause in {he sense {hat we give to malrix clause.

284

The complex sentence

Finite, nonllnlt., and verble clauses 285

sentence

Fig 14.1

Each main clause has a subordinate that-clause as direct object. The rhat
clause in the second main clause is superordinate to an as-clause, which
functions as adverbial in the that-clause.
On the other hand, the complex sentence in [2) contains two
subordinate clauses that are coordinated and as a unit function as direct
object of the sentence:

mainJsuperordinate clause

He

predicted

have heard Iha! yOIl are a car mechanic and that yOllr brother
is a plumber.

NOTE

subordinate/superordinate clause

(2)

A subordinate clause may funclion as a constituent of a phrase, for example as a

relative clause acting as a postmodifier in a noun phrase:

The school which my children altend is within walking distance.

s

that

The noun phrase is complex, but we do not consider that the sentence is therefore a
complex sentence, since the subordinate clause does nOl function as a constituent
of the sentence.

he would discover the tiny particle

Finite, nonlinlte, and verbless clauses

subordinate clause
14.3

when

he

conducted

We recognize three main structural classes of clauses:

FINITE CLAUSE: a clause whose verb element is finite (such as takes, rook,
can work, has worked, is uriting, was written; c/3.3, 3. 19); eg:

' can't go out with you because I am studying this e\'ellillg.

his next experimenl

Fig 14.1 Superordinate and subordinate clauses

NONFINTTE CLAUSE:

work, hOl'ing worked, raken; c/3.3, 3.20).; eg:

Knowing my temper, I didn't reply.
VERBLESS CLAUSE:

The device of subordination enables us to construct a multiple hierarchy

of clauses, one within the other, sometimes resulting in extremely involved
sentences. Further complexity and structural variability are provided by
the interrelation of subordination and coordination. Each main clause in
a compound sentence may include one or more subordinate clauses, each
of which may in turn include subordinate clauses. For example, [ I )
displays a compound sentence in which two main clauses are coordinated:
I think rhar your new position demands sensitivejlldgmenls
and I would hope that YOIl will matllre as Ihe years go by.

a clause that does not have a verb clemenl, eg:

Although always help/ul, he was not much liked.

Subordination and coordination

14.2

a clause whose verb element is nonfinite (such as (O

[11

We recognize nonfinite and verbless structures as clauses because we

can analyse their internal Slructure into the same functional elements that
we distinguish in finite clauses. Consider, ror example, the analysis or the
nonfinite clause in:
KllOwillg [V] my temper [Od) I didn't reply.
.

The analysis depends on the analogy with the corresponding finite clause:
I [SI know [V} my temper [Od].

Similarly. the verbless clause although always helpflll in:

Alrhollgh [conj) always [A} help/ill (Cs), he was not much liked.

286 11Ht comple. ..ntence

FlnHe, nonHnHe, and "erbtua ctau..a 287

leisure to revise for compactness. We recover meanings associated with

tense, aspect, and mood from the sentential context. We can also normally
see a correspondence with a finite clause that has a form ofthe verb be and
a pronoun subject with the same reference as a noun or pronoun in the
same sentence. For the sentences in {I--4], one might make the insertions
shown in parentheses:

is analysed as in the corresponding finite clause:

Although [coni) he [S) was M always [A) itelpfu/ [C,) . he was nOl much

liked.

NOTE

One structural type or clause may be embedded within another:

Too nervous /0 reply after other speakers had praised her devotion to duty,
Margaret indicated that she would speak later.

When (she was) questioned, she denied being a member of the

group.
(Since/Because/As they were) considered works of art, they
were admitted into the country without customs duties.
(If it is) kept in the refrigerator, the drug should remain
effective for at least three months.
(Since/After he was) allowed unusual privileges, the prisoner
seemed to enjoy his captivity.

The italicized subordinate clause is a verbless clause that contains a subordinate

nonfinite clause (beginning to reply) that in turn contains a subordinate finite
clause (beginning after other speakers).

Nontlnlte clauses
14.4

NOTE

The classes of nonfinite verb phrase serve to distinguish four structural

subclasses of nonfinite verb clauses:
(i) TO-INFINITIVE
Without subject: The best thing would be 10 tell el'erybody.
With subject:
The best thing would be/or you 10 tell everybody.
(ii) BARE INFINITIVE
Without subject: All I did was hit /rim on the head.
With subject:
Rather t/ran you do the job, I'd prefer to finish it
myself.
(iii) -ING PARTICIPLE
Without subject: Leaving the room, he tripped over the mat.
With subject: Her au'" having left the room, 1 asked Ann for some
personal help.
(iv) -ED PARTICIPLE
Without subject: CO'ered with confusion, they apologized abjectly.
The discussion completed, the chairman adjourned
With subject:
the meeting for half an hour.
Subclasses (i) and (iii) are used most rrequently, especially (iii) without
subject; subclass (ii) is relatively rare.

On the split infinitive, e/8. l l Note.

14.5

Because nonfinite clauses lack tense markers and modal auxiliaries and
frequently lack a subject and a subordinating conjunction, they are
valuable as a means of syntactic compression. Certain kinds of nonfinite
clause are particularly favoured in written prose, where the writer has the

[2]
[3]
[4]

On the other hand, [5] shows how the advantage of compactness must be
balanced against the danger of ambiguity; for the absence of a subject
leaves doubt as to which nearby nominal element is notionally the subject:
We met you (when you?/we? were) leaving the room.

[5)

With infinitive clauses, a corresponding finite clause also enables one to

identify an understood subject:
1 expected 10 go. - I expected that I would go.
I expected him IQ go. - I expected that he would go.

When no referential link with a nominal can be discovered in the linguistic

context, an indefinite subject may be inferred, or else the ' J ' of the speaker:
To be an admillislrator is to have the worst job in the world. ['For a
person to be . . .]
It's hard work to be a student. [indefinite subject, eg: anyone]
Ifs hard work, to be honest. (J as subject)
NOTE

In negative nonfinite clauses, the negative particle is generally positioned berore

the verb or the to or the infinitive:
It's his rault ror not doing anything about it.
The wisest policy is (ror us) not to interrere.

[I)

Auxiliary "al'e is sometimes used in to-infinitive clauses (10 "al'e happened) and
-ing participle clauses (haling happened) to indicate anteriority in time.

Verbless clauses
14.6

With verbless clauses it is usually possible to postulate a missing form of

the verb be and to recover the subject, when omitted, from the context:
Whether right or wrong, he always comes off worst in argument.
['whether he is right or wrong']
One should avoid taking a trip abroad in August where possible.
[,where it is possible']

When a clause has a subject, only the verb has to be recovered:

Formal lndk:lltors 01 subordination 289

288 The complell Hnlence

Seventythrec people have been drowned in the area, many 0/ them

children. ['many of them being children']
There he stood, a tray in each hand. ['having a tray in each hand']
The subject is often introduced by with or without (c/ 14.8 Note [b]):
With the children at school, we can't take our vacations when we

want to.

Without you at my side, I am not willing to answer questions.

Since it is usually possible to interpret the clause as having an omitted

form of the verb be, the verbless clause is limited to the two clausetypes
SVC and SVA, with or without a subordinator (sub):
I do not wish to describe his assertions, some o/them highly offensive.
[5 (V) CJ
Though somewhat edgy, she said she would stay a little longer. sub
[5 (V) CJ
Mavis sat in the front seat, her hands in her lap. (S (V) A]
While at college, he was a prominent member of the dramatic
socie!y. sub [(5 V) AJ
- ----

. I" Formal indicators 01 subordination

14.7

NOTE

14.8

Subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinate clause.

The signal may be of various kinds: a subordinating conjunction. a wh
element, the item Ihal, subject--operator inversion in declarative clauses,
or (negatively) the absence of a finite verb.

(informal. esp AmE), once, since, Ihat, though, till, unless, until,

when, whene\'er. where, whereas, whereupon, where\'er, while,

whilsl (esp Br E)

Multi-word subordinators

ending with Ihat :

but ,hal, in thaI, in order that, insofar that (informal, rare), in IlIe
event that, sa\'e that (literary), such that

ending with optional lhat :

(a) participle form:

(b) o!hers:

except , for all,

(that )
now, so

ending with as:

according as, as/or as, as long as, as soon as,forasmuch as (formal),
inasmuch as (formal), insofar as, insomuch as (formal)

Others:
as if, as though. in case
Correlative subordinators
as

. . . so

More than onc subordination signal may cooccur in the same subordinate clausc.
Forcumple, a nonhnite or verbless clause may be introduced by a subordinating
conjunction.

as
so
such

Subordlnators

so
. . . thal
sueh

(or, more fully, SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) are the

most important formal device of subordination, particularly for finite
clauses. Like prepositions, which they resemble in having a relating
function, subordinators forming the core of the class consist of a single
word, but there is a large range of multi-word subordinators which
function, to varying degrees. like a single conjunction. In addition, there is
a small class of correlative subordinators, which combine two markers of
subordination, one being a subordinator.

SUBORDlNATORS

Single-word subordinators
after, although, as. because. be/ore, directly (informal, esp BrE),for,
if, immediately (informal, esp BrE), lesl (esp AmE), like

assuming, considering, excepting, given, grated,

(that )
.
granting, provided, providing, seemg, supposmg

. . . as

less
(/ )
more -er

,han

no sooner than

. . . than, when (informal)

barely
hardly
. . . when, than, (informal)
scarcely
the

. . . the

Whether
. . . or
if

290

NOTE

The complex ..ntence

Formal lndlutor. 01 subordination

raj There are also optional conjuncts that endorse the meaning or a subordinator

}
}

Other Indicators ot subordination

that introduces the preceding clause:

although
even if
(even) though
while

ce
since [reason1
unless
because
seeing (that)

14.10

. . . yet, neverthe/en, etc

. . . then

} . . . therefore

[b] Nonfinite clauses (except bare infinitive clauses) and verbless clauses may have
thc subordinators with and without, which are required to introduce the subject:

Were she here. she would support the motion.

Inversion ofa different kind - the fronting of the whole or part ofthe
predication - may occur with the subordinators as, though and that
in concessive and reason clauses (cl 15.21 Note [a], 1 5.26 Note [b)):

is used with ing clauses whcn there is no subject:

Eloquent though she was, she could not persuade them.

Without mentioning any names, someone has been gossiping 10 the boss
about you.
Compare also What with (paying) my mortgage find my taxes, I hfll'e no money to
spare for luxuries.
[c) Bare infinitive clauses are limited 10 the two synonymous subordinators rather
than and sooner than:
He paid the fine rather than appeal to a higher court.
As a subordinator with infinitive c1auses,for is restricted loclauscs with their own
subject and indeed is often obligatory (cf 1 5.9) :
h

14.9

would be an absurd ideafor them 10 mOI'e to another house al lhis stage of

their careers.

Marginal subordinators
There are also three types of borderline cases of multiword subordina.
tors: ( I ) habitual combinations of a subordinator with a preceding or
following adverb (eg: el'en if, if only); (2) temporal noun phrases (eg: the
moment (that), e'ery lime (that) , but the following clause is better
analysed as a restrictive relative clause; (3) prepositional phrases ending in
thefact that (eg: because of the lact that, in spite 01 [he lact that), but the
subordinate clause is better analysed as in apposition to the preceding
noun phrase.

We now turn to other indicators of subordination apart from

subordinators.
(i) Wh-elements are initial markers of subordination in subordinate
interrogative clauses (cl 1 5.4/) and subordinate exclamative cla uses
(cf 15.6), in wlHe1ative clauses (cl 15.7/. 15.33, 1 ? 5f!), and in
conditional--concessive clauses ( 1 5.22/).
(ii) The relative pronoun that. which can often replace whpronouns, is
a subordination marker in restrictive relative clauses (cf l7.S/).
(iii) Subject-operator inversion is a marker of subordination in certain
clauses, particularly in conditional clauses (cl 1 5. 1 9 Note [c]). It is
typical of a literary and elevated style. The operators that permit the
inversion are had, were, should, and (less commonly) could and
might :

Without you to cOllsult, I would be completely lost.

With the mOr/gage paid, they could afford to go abroad ror their vacation.
Don'l walk around with your shirt hanging out.
With you as myfriend, I don't need enemies.
Occasionally without

291

(iv) The absence of a finite verb is itself an indicator of subordination,

since nonfinite and verbless clauses are generally subordinate (but (./
1 1 .21 ).
NOTE

There are three Iypes of subordinate clauses Ihat have no clear indicator or
subordination within them:
(a) Nominal that-clauses allow the omission or thal in certain contexts (cfI5.3).
but they may be said 10 be recognizable as subordinate through the potentiality ror
the insertion or fhm:

J suppose (that) I can use your phone.

(b) Zero relative clauses (cl 17.8f) have no overt marker of subordina
tion, but they are generally structurally deficient:
I can't find the note you sent me.
You sent me in this example lacks a direct objcct, since me is intended as the
indirect object ( = 'to me').
(c) Some comment clauses (cl 15.32) have no overt marker of

subordination, but they - like zero relative clauses - generally lack an

obligatory compiementation of the verb:
I have no alternative, I suppose.

292 The complell ..nlenee

If the game won " befinished until ten, I'll spend the night at your
place. ('If the game is not going to be finished until tcn'l

The verb phrase in subordinate clauses

The matrix clause conveys theconsequencc ofthe present predictability. In (I] and
(2) the consequence is a present decision on a future action.

The present tense In adverbial and nominal clauses

14.11

The s mple pesenl is commonly used in preference to the auxiliary will or

shall m certam types of adverbial clauses to express future meaning:
When she arril'es, the band will play the National Anthem
Even if tomorrow's match is cancelled, Lancashire will still be at the
top of the league.
While I am away, the children will look after the house.
Whether or not they win this banle, they won't win the war.
Whatever they say, I won't pay.
Next time I'll do as he says.
The harder you exercise, the better you'll feel.

The subo inators chiefly involved belong to the temporal, conditional,

and condltlonal---concessive categories.
Nomi al lhal- and whclauses tend to contain the simple present when
the matnx clause (as weIJ as the subordinate clause) refers to the future'
but when te matrix clause refers to the present, will is likely to be used i
the subordmate clause. Contrast:

In a few minutes I'll ask him what he wants tomorrow.

The question is what he will want tomorrow.

I hope that the parcel comes in time. [also will come]

Suppose he loses his way. [also will lose]
Take care that she doesn't fall.
occur in adverbial clauses, particularly in if--clauscs, in cerlain uses:
Where the modals have a volitional meaning:
If you'll help us, we can finish earty. ('are willing to']
If you won', help us, all our plans will be ruined. ('refuse to']
(ii) Where thc modals express timeless and habitual prediction:
If drugs will cure him, this drug should do the job,
If sugar 111;11 disso/l'e in a hot liquid, this chemical will do so too.
(iii) Where thc modals express the present predictability of the occurrence or
nonoccurrence of a future event:
If yo 'on" arril'e before six, I can't meet you. rlf you won't be
amvmg before six']

The verbs in hypothetical conditional clauses are backshifted (cf 1 4 . 1 8),

the past tense form being used for present and future time reference and
the past perfect form for past time reference. When these forms have such
hypothetical implications we term them HYPOTHETICAL PAST and HYPOTH
ETICAL PAST PERFECT. The general rule for verbs in both clauses of
hypothetical conditions may be expressed as in Table 14.12.
Table

14.12: Verbs in hypothetical conditions

Prcsenl and

1 11

CONDITlON...L CI....USE

M...TR,IX CI....USE

HYPOTHETIC...I. PAST

'''''
MOD"'L

fulure
reference
HYPOTHET1CAL P...ST
PRFECT

P...ST PERJ'IlCf
MOO...L

The modal most commonly used in the matrix clause is would. It is used
to express the hypothetical implication, without necessarily any other
modal implications:
If she

illand won "

(I)

14.12

reference

regularly used:

NOTE

The hypothetical past and hypothetical past perfect

Past

owever, there are exceptional verb constructions like hope, bet, see (to
/I). take are, be areful, and (both in the imperative) suppose and assume,
after whIch the sImple present is often or (for take care and be careful)

[2]

{ tried

were 10 try

} harder next tIme,

.
she wouldpass
the examination.

[future reference: 'but I expect she won't try harder']

I f they "'ere alive, they n:ould be moving around.
[present reference: 'but J assume they are not alive']
If they had invited him to the conference, he would hal'e attended.
[past reference: 'but they didn't invite him']
As the bracketed implications indicate, the hypothetical meaning is more
absolute in the past, and amounts to an implied rejection of the condition;
whereas with present and future reference the meaning may be merely one
of negative expectation or assumption, the positive not being ruled out
completely.
Hypothetical past or past perfect are obligatory in certain other
constructions that have hypothetical meaning:

294

Th. compte.: sentence

The verb phra.e In subordln.'e cl.u... 295

It's time you were in bed.

I wish this bus went to the university.
If only 1 had listened to my parents!

hypothetical conditional clauses and in other constructions with hypothe

tical meaning exemplified in 14.12:
I wish she were married.
If only I were not so nervous.
If she were here, she would speak on my behalf.
The stuffed dog barked as if it were a real one.
Suppose he were lost.
I'd rather I were in bed.

They are optional with other constructions that also have hypothetical
meaning, where the simple present is an alternative:
He acts as if he knew you.
It's not as though we were poor.
Suppose we told her the truth.
Imagine your child played truant.
I'd rather we had dinner now.

I n nonfonnal styles, the hypothetical past (cf 1 4 . 1 2) replaces subjunctive

were. In all the above examples, the hypothetical past would be was.

Geneally a negative inference can be drawn, which is more strongly

.
negattve with the hypothetical past perfect. Thus If only I had listened to
my parents implies 'I did not listen to my parents', and He acts as ifhe knew
YOII implies the expectation 'He doesn't know you'. In I"d rather we had
dinner now, the hypothetical past may express tentative politeness rather
than hypothetical meaning.
NOTE

NOTE

Whether she be right or wrong. she will have my unswerving support.

More usually, the simple present indicative is used.
Clauses of concession and purpose may also very occasionally in formal style
contain a present subjunctive (especially in AmE) to express putative meaning (cl
14.14),

When modal auxiliaries are used in hypothetical conditional clauses they combine
with past and past perfect:

Though he be the President himself, he shall hear us. ('Though he is . . .')

If you could type. you would save a lot of money.

If she would have agreed, I would J1ave married her.

Contrast the use of the past subjunctive for hypothetical meaning in Though he
were the President himself. he should hearus, where the implication is that he is not
the President.
The more usual verb forms for the putative meaning in though clauses are the
simple present indicative or putative should followed by the infinitive. Clauses of
purpose require modal auxiliaries, and therefore only the should-construction is a
possible alternative.
[b] In nonformal styles, the hypothetical past was replaces subjunctive were (eg: I
wish she wos not married). The present indicative is a possible alternative after as if
and as though when the reference is to present time (eg: The stuffeddog barks as ifit
is a real one) and after imperatives suppose and imagine.

In the matrix clause they replace would. since two modal auxiliaries cannot
cooccur:

If we had enough money, we could buy a computer.

If he had apologized, you should have done so too.

The present and past subjunctive

14.13

The present subjunctive (cf 3.23f) is used in that-clauses (especially in

AmE), even irthe matrix verb is past, aner verbs, adjectives, or nouns that
express a necessity, plan, or intention for the future:
Congress has voted that the present law be maintained.

[I )

We insisted that

[2)

{Cy } leave at once. ,

he
They expressed the wish that { } accept the award.
It is essential that a meeting be convened this week.

[3)
[4)

In SrE, putative should (cf I 4. 14) with infinitive is more common. In both
AmE and (especially) SrE, indicative forms are also onen used in this
construction; for example, left in (2) and ;s in [4].
The past (or were-) subjunctive (cf 3.23f) is used in formal style in

raJ The present subjunctive is used very occasionally, and generally in formal style,
in open conditional clauses (cl 15. 19) and in concessive clauses (cl 15.21):

14.14

Putative should
The modal auxiliary should is used extensively (esp in SrE) in that-clauses
to convey the notion of a 'putative' situation, which is recognized as
possibly existing or coming into existence. Contrast:
I'm surprised that he shouldfeel lonely.
I'm surprised that hefeels lonely.

(I)
[2)

While (I ] questions the loneliness, [2) accepts it as true. Here, as often, the
difference is mainly one of nuance, since the factual bias of the matrix
clause overrides the doubt otherwise implicit in the should-construction.
On the other hand, the nonfactuality is clearer in these examples:
It worries me thal their only child should travel alone.
It's unthinkable that they should ever deny my requests.

[3]
[4)

296 The compl. .. ..nfence

Direct and Indirect speech 297

J prefer that she should drive.

I'm anxious that I shouldn't be in the way.
They've arranged that I should absem myself for par( of

the committee meeting.

I can understand their eagerness that you should be the
main speaker.

(5)
(6)

The perfect with other temporal clauses

14.16

[7J
[8]

We ate our meal

The expressions in the matrix clause may convey an emotional reaction

(for example, surprise or worry), as in [1 -4], or the notions of necessity,
plan, or intention for the future, as in [5-8]. For [5-8], the present
subjunctive is preferred in AmE (c/ 14.13).

When they've scored their next goal, we'll go home.

As soon as I've retired, I'll buy a cottage in the country.
After they have left, we can smoke.
If I ' ,'e written the paper before Monday, I'll call you.
In each case, the simple present is an alternative.
NOTE

These four sentences seem to be equivalent in meaning:

I saw him before he saw me.
I had seen him before he saw me.
I saw him before he had seen me.
I had seen him before he had seen me.

The present perfect is used in both clauses when the since-clause refers to a
period of time lasting to the present:
Max has been tense since he's been taking drugs.
Since I have been here, I haven't left my seat.
Since I'w knoll''' Caroline. she has been interested in athletics.
I've had a dog ever since J'1'e owned a house.
I've gone to concerts ever since I' I e lived in Edinburgh.

[I]
]2]
]3]
]4]

Sentence (3] appears to be paradoxical in that the second in the succession of

events is marked with the past perfect. Onc explanation is that the beforeclause in
(3). and perhaps also in 14), is nonfactual: ie He did not get a chance to sec me. But
it is also possible that the meaning of the subordinator before has influenced the
use of the past perfcct as one of the choices of verb forms, or possibly there is an
analogy with the use of the past perfect in an after-clausc.

'

When the whole period is set in past time, the past perfect or the simple
past is used in both clauses:
Since the country (had) achieved independence, it (had) revised its
constitution twice.

Direct and indirect speech

was

} from the game.

The variant with the simple past would normally mean 'as soon as I
started giving the lecture' or 'during the time I was giving the lecture',
whereas that with thc past perfect means 'after the lecture was over'.
The present perfect is common in temporal and conditional clauses
when the clauses refer to a sequence of future events:

In informal AmE. and increasingly in informal BrE, nonperfect forms are

commonly used in the matrix clauses; for example, lost instead ofhave lost
in [I], and wrote instead of have wril1en in [2].
When the wholc construction refers to a stretch of time up to (and
potentially including) the present, the verb in the since-clause may be the
simple past or the present perfect. The simple past is used when the since.
clause refers to a point of time marking the beginning of the situation:

k new

had relurned

the lecture.
They walked out when I , , .
IQC gll'ef!

I hQ)'e lost ten pounds since J started swimming.

[1)
Since leaving home, Larry has II'rillen to his parents just oncc. [2]

.
Smce he { had knOwn } her, she { had been } a Journalist.

when

{gaVe

A temporal sinceclause generally requires the present pcrfect in the

matrix clause when the whole construction refers to a stretch of time up to
(and potentially including) the present:

She has been talking since she was one year old.
Since J saw her last, she has dyed her hair.
Derek hasn't stopped talking since he arri)'ed.

{ after } we { returned

All four forms of these sentences are acceptable, and mean roughly the
same. The only difference is that when and the simple past (probably the
most popular choice) suggests that the one event follows immediately on
the other in sequence. There may, however, be a contrast when the
subordinator is whe" if the predication in the when-clause is durative:

The perfect with temporal slnce-clauses

14,15

When an a/ter-clause or a whenc1ause refers to a sequence of two past

events, the verb in the temporal clause may be in the past perfect, though it
is more commonly in the simple past:

14.17

DIRECT SPEECH purports to give the exact words that someone utters or has

uttered in speech or writing. INDIRECT SPEECH, on the other hand, conveys

Direct end Indirect .paec::h

298 The complex .entence

a report of what has been said or written, but does so in the words of a
subsequent reporter. Contrast the direct speech in [I] with two possible
versions in indirect speech as given in [ I a) and [I b]:
David said to me after the meeting, '[n my opinion, the
arguments in favour of radical changes in the curriculum
are not convincing.'
David said to me after the meeting that in his opinion the
arguments in favour of radical changes in the curriculum
were not convincing.
David told me after the meeting that he remained opposed
to any major changes in the curriculum.

ullerance, there is generally a change of verb forms. The change is termed

BACKSHIFT, and the resulting relationship of verb forms in the reporting
and reported clauses is known as the SEQUENCE OF TENSES. Below we
assume an exact correspondence for the reporting of direct and indirect
speech in illustrating the changes.

(I]

DIRECT SPEECH

[la]
[I b]

'I am being paid by the hour,' she said.

- She said she was being paid by the hour.
'The exhibition finished last week,' explained Ann.
- Ann eIined that the jinishe
the preceding week.
exhIbItIon
hadfimshed
"I'\'e been waiting over an hour for you; she told him.
-She told him that she had been waiting over an hour for him.
"I hadstudied French for four years at school before I abandoned the
subject,' I said.
_ I said that 1 hadstudied French for four years at school before I
abandoned the subject.

[2]

[2a]

Direct speech is usually signalled by being enclosed in quotation marks,

as in [I] and [2]. The reporting clause may occur before, within, or after the
direct speech.
When the reporting clause is positioned medially or finally subject
verb inversion may occur if the verb is in the simple present or simple past:

'I wonder,' JOhn Said

he sald
saldJoh n

'whether 1 can borrow your

'
bIcycIe'.

complained Elizabeth.

Backshift is optional when the time-reference ofthe original utterance is

valid at the time of the reporting:

(4)

Their teacher had told them that the earth moves around the sun.
Sam told me last night that he is now an American citizen.
They thought that prison conditions lim't! improved.
1 didn't know that our meeting is next Tuesday.
She said that they are being discriminated against.
The waiter told me that lunch is now being served.

Inversion is most common when the verb is said, the subject is not a
pronoun, and the reporting clause is medial. It is unusual and archaic or
dialectal, however, when the subject of the reporting clause is a pronoun,
even when the verb is said (eg: said he).
NOTE

The structural relationship between the reporting clause and direct speech is
problematic. In (IJ the direct speech seems to be a direct object. but in the other
examples above of direct speech - (2), [3). and (4) - the reporting clause seems
subordinate. The direct speech may comprise what would be represented in
writing as a number of sentences.

Backshlft In Indirect speech

14.18

(3)

Elizabeth complailled.

'The radio is too loud,' she complained.

BACKSHIFTED IN INDIRECT SPEECH

(i) present
past
Oi) past
past or past perfect
(iii) present perfect
past perect
(iv) past perfect
Thus, if the present references in the direct speech become past references
in the indirect speech, there is a corresponding shift of verb forms into the
past, or if necessary into the past perfect. The verbs in the indirect speech
are thereby related to the time of the reporting. Examples of each part of
the rule are:

The report may be a representation of mental activity, which by its

nature is unspoken. Thus (2) and [2a] contain direct speech and indirect
speech respectively:
'Should 1 tell them now,' I thought to myself, 'or should I
wait until they're in a better mood?'
He asked himself whether he should tell them then or wait
until they were in a better mood.

299

Several changes are usually made in converting direct speech to indirect

speech. If the time of reporting is expressed as later than the time of the

NOTE

The reporting verb may be in the present tense ror communications in recent past
time:
Joan tells me that she's going to the airport in an hour's time.
She says she was too busy to join us last night.
The present tense is also used for reports attributed to famous works or authors
which have preseO( validity:

The Bible says that adultery is a sin.

Chaucer somewhere writes that love is blind.
Verbs or cognition may also be used in the reporting clause in the present tense:

300

Direct and Indirect speech 301

The compleJ: ..nlence

The modal auxiliaries In Indirect speech

I knoll' Ihey don't care,

Sylvia thinks Paul ....ent 10 Lancaster last night.

14.21

Other changes In Indirect speech

14.19

'You may be able to answer this question: he told her.

- He told her that she might be able to answer that question.
" 11'011 '1 pay another penny; I said,
- I said that I wOllldn', pay another penny,

The reference to persons in indirect speech must be appropriate to the

situation at the time of reporting, There may therefore be changes in
pronouns or nouns, as illustrated below:
'I'll behave myself,' he promised.
- He promised that he'd behave himself
' You know my family,' she said.
- She told him [or Tom, for example] that he knew her family.

Ifa modal auxiliary in the direct speech is already in the past tense form,
then the same form remains in the indirect speech:
'You shouldn 'l smoke in the bedroom,' he told them.
- He told them that they shouldn 't smoke in the bedroom ,

Other changes may be necessary to adjust the references to time or

place, For example, yesterday to last Monday, now to fhell. here to there or

Several modal auxiliaries or marginal modals have only one form: must,
la, need, and had better. That form remains in indirect specch:

at college.

ought

' You must be hungry,' he said.

- He said that they must be hungry,
'You had better not say anything about this: he warned me,
- He warned me that I had better not say anything about that.

Indirect statements, questions, exclamations, directives

14.20

If there is a change in time-reference, a modal auxiliary is backshifted

from present tense forms to past tense forms even if these do not normally
indicate past time in direct speech:

All the main discourse types may be converted into indirect speech.
subordinate that-clause
subordinate wh-clause or if-clause
subordinate wh-clause
subordinate thai-clause or lo:infinitive
clause (without subject)

tNDIRECT STATEMENT:
INDIRECT QUF.sTION:
INDIRECT EXCLAMATION:
INDIRECT DIRECTIVE:

In its obligational sense, however, the past of must may be replaced by had
10 in indirect speech:
'You must be in by ten tonight.' his parents told him.
' that he
- HIS parents toId hIm

Our examples have so far been of indirect statements, Here are examples
of the last three categories:
'Are you ready yet?' asked John. [ YES-NO QUESTION]
-Joan asked (me) whether / was ready yet.
'When will the plane leave?' I wondered. (WH-QUESTION]
- I wondered whell the plane would leave.
'Are you satisfied or notT I asked her. [ALTERNATIVE QUESTION]
- I asked her whether or not she was satisfied,
'What a brave boy you are!' Margaret told him, [EXCLAMATION]
- Margaret told him what a bral'e boy he was,
'Tidy up the room at once,' I said to Tom, [DIRECTIVE]
_

up the room
I insisted that Tom tidy (esp AmE)
should tidy (esp BrE)
at once.

..... J told Tom to tidy up the room.

All the types of changes outlined in 14, 1 8! apply to questions and

exclamations as well as statements. With directives. there is no tense
backshift in the verb forms exemplified above: mandative subjunctive,
.
putative should, 'oinfinitive.

{mUS/ } be .
had to

by ten that night.

Free Indirect speech and free direct speech

14.22

is used extensively to report speech or (particularly

in fiction) the stream of thought. It is basically a form of indirect spcech.
but (a) the reporting clause is omitted (except when retained as a
parenthetical clause, as in direct speech). and (b) the potentialities of
direct-speech sentence structure are retained (for example, direct
questions and exclamations, vocatives, tag questions, and interjections),
It is therefore only the backshift of the verb, together with equivalent
shifts in personal pronouns. demonstratives, and time and place
references, that signals the fact that the words are being reported, rather
than being in direct speech. The italicized verbs below are badshifted to
the past tense:
FREE INDIRECT SPEECH

So that was their plan, was it? He well knew their tricks, and would
show them a thing or two before he It'asjinished, Thank goodness
he hadbecn alerted, and that there were still a few honest people in
the world!

Transferred nag.flon

302 The complex ..nfence

is also used in fiction writing to represent a person's

stream of thought. 1t is basically a form of direct speech, but it is merged
with the narration without any overt indication by a reporting clause of a
switch to speech. It is distinguished from the past time-reference of the
narration by its use of unshifted forms. In the following example the free
direct speech is italicized:
FREE DIRECT SPEECH

I sat on the grass staring at the passers-by. Everybody smed in a

hurry. Why didn 't [ stay at home?

Transferred negation
14.23

particularly common in informal style. is the

transfer of the negative from a subordinate clause, where semantically it
belongs, to the matrix clause, [don', think it 's a good idea is an example of
transferred negation, since it can be understood as virtually synonymous
with [ think it isn't a good idea.
The matrix verbs that allow transferred negation convey notions of
opinion (eg: helie'e. expect, imagine, suppose, think) or perception (eg:
appear, seem, Jeel as if, look as if, sound as if). Here are some examples:
TRANSFERRED NEGATION,

I don't believe I've met you before. ['I believe J haven't met you
before')
She didn't imagine that we would say anything. [,She imagined that
we wouldn't say anything']
He didn't expect to win. ['He expected not to win']
It doesn't seem that we can get our money back. ['It seems that we
can't get our money back']
The baby doesn't appear to be awake, ['The baby appears not to be
awake']
It doesn't look as if it's going to rain. ['It looks as if it isn't going to
rain']
NOTE

When the subject of the main clause is I, the tag qucstion corresponds with the
subordinate clause:
1 don't imagine he CARES, DOEs he? [I imagine he doesn't CARE, OOES he?)

Bibliographical note
On the terminology for sentence and clause, see Greenbaum (I988).
On the complex sentcnce and subordination in general see Nakajima ( 1 982):
Srn.by ( 1 974).
On nonfinitc and verbless clauses beginning with a subordinator, see Oacklund
(1984).

303

On the overlap ofconjunction and preposition, see Jacobsson ( 1 977); Matthews

(1981. esp pp. 1 74-81).
On the choice of verb in subordinate clauses, including backshift in indirect
speech, sce Palmer ( 1 979. 1 988). both passim.
On transferred negation. sec Cattcll ( 1 973); Horn ( 1 978b).

Nominal claun.

15

305

disjuncts (8.40). In those functions they are like adverb phrases, but in
their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often like
prepositional phrases:

Syntactic and semantic functions of

subordinate clauses

We left after the speeches ended.

We left after the end of the speeches.
RELATIVE CLAUSES generally function as restrictive or nonrestrictive
modifiers of noun phrases and are therefore functionally parallel to
attributive adjectives. Compare:

Syntactic functions of subordinate clauses

15.1

Subordinate clauses may function as subject, object, complement, or

adverbial in a superordinate clause:

a man who is lonely -a lonely man

But they are positioned like postmodifying prepositional phrases:

Subject: That we need a larger computer has become obvious.

Direct object: He doesn't know whether to send a gift.
Indirect object You can tell whoever is waiting that I'll be back in ten
minutes.
Subject complement: One likely result of the postponement is that

tourists who come from Italy ....., tourists from Italy

These relative clauses are discussed in Chapter 1 7 . Two types of relative
clauses, however, are treated in this chapter: nominal relative clauses
( 1 5.7f) and sentential relative clauses ( 1 5.33)
.
COMPARATIVE CLAUSES (cf l5.36ff) resemble adjectives and adverbs In
their modifying functions:

the COSl 0/ constructing the college will be very much higher.

Object complement: I know her (0 be reliable.
Adverbial: When you see them, give them my best wishes.

She has more patience thall YOII have.

He's not as clever a man as I thought.
I love you more deeply than I call say.

In addition, subordinate clauses may function within these elements, eg:

Postmodifier in noun phrase: (Few of the immigrants retained) the
customs that 'hey had brought with them.
Prepositional complement: (It depends) on what we decide.
Adjectival complementation: (We are) happy to see you.
NOTE

There are constraints on the functioning ofclauses as indirect objects or as object

complements. Among the finite clauses, only nominal relative clauses (cl 1 5.7/)
function as indirect object or as object complement.

Semantically, the comparative clauses together with their correlative

clement (eg: more, as, er) arc equivalent to degree adverbs.
NOTE

Unlike noun phrases, nominal clauses may also function as adjective complemen
tation without a preposition {(f 16.39):
I'm not sure Ihal I CUll remember Ihe ('xact details.

Functional classes of subordinate clauses

15.2

On the basis of their potential functions, we distinguish four major

categories of subordinate clauses: NOMINAL. ADVERBIAL, RELATIVE, and

Nominat clauses

COMPARATIVE.

Like noun phrases NOMINAL CLAUSES (c/1 5.3ff) may function as subject,
object, complement. appositive, and prepositional complement. But the
occurrence of nominal clauses is more limited than that of noun phrases,
because semantically the clauses are normally abstract; ie they refer to
such abstractions as events, facts. and ideas. The one exception is the
nominal relative clause, which may refer to persons and things and may in
fact be alternatively analysed as a noun phrase (c/ 1 5.7). Since indirect
objects normally refer to persons, we can see why only the nominal
relative clause can function as indirect object. Nominal clauses involved in
the complementation of verbs and adjectives are discussed in detail in
Chapter 16.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES (c/ l 5 . 1 3ff) function mainly as adjuncts (8.13) or

Thaklauses
15.3

Nominal thatc1auses may function as:

Subject: That the ifll'ading troops have been withdrawn has not
affected our government's trade sanctions.
Direct object: I noticed tha[ he spoke English wilh an Australian
accent.

Subject complement: My assumption is that if/terest rates wiJJ soon

fail.

Appositive: Your criticism, thal 110 account has been taken 0/

psychological/actors, is fully justified.
Adjectival complementation: We are glad Ihat YOII are able /0join liS
on our wedding anniversary.

306

Nominal claus.s

Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate claus.s

Subject complement: The problem is who will warer my plants when I

They may not, however, function as object complement or as prepositio

nal complement.
The subject rhal-clause is usually extraposed (c/ 1 8.23):

am away.

Appositive: Your original question, why he did not report ir to tile

police earlier, has not yet been answered.
Adjectival complementation: I'm not sure which she prefers.
Prepositional complement: They did not consult us on IVhose names

It has not affected our government's trade sanctions r"ar Ihe

invading lroops have been wilhdrawn.

should be put forward.

When the OWl-clause is direct object, complement, or extraposed, the

conjunction IhOl is frequently omitted except in formal use, leaving a zero
Ihal-clause:

These subordinate clauses resemble wll-questions semantically in that

they leave a gap of unknown information, represented by the wll-element.
Contrast the known information expressed in the that-clause with the
unknown information in the IVh-clause:

It's a pity you don 't know Russian.

But tllal cannot be omitted in a subject clause or In a nonrestrictive
appositive clause (c/ 1 7. 1 3 Note), since without the subordinate marker
the clause would be initially misinterpreted as a main clause:

, know (that) Caroline will be there.

..... Do you know wllo will be there?
I'm sure (thar) Ted has paid .
..... I'm not sure who has paid.

You don't know Russian is a pity.

Yourcriticism, no account IIas been taken o/psychological/aclors, is

There are also grammatical similarities to independent IVh-questions in

that the lVII-element is placed first. Ifi1 is a prepositional phrase, we have
the same choices as for the wh-element in wh-questions (c/ 1 1 .9):

fully justified.

NOTE

The zero that-clausc is particularly common when the clause is brief and
uncomplicated. Retention of that is necessary under certain conditions other than
when the clause is an unextraposed subject or a nonrestrictive appositive clause:
(i)

J asked them on what they based their predictions. (formal)

J asked them what they based their predictions on.

To clariry whether an adverbial belong' to the m"rix or the that-clau,,,

An infinitive wll-c1ause (with an obligational sense) can be formed with

all wh-words, though instances with why are rare:

They told us once again that the situation was serious.

They told us thal once again the situation was serious.

I don't know wllar 10 say. [' . . . what I should say.'J

You must explain to them how to sWrt the mOlOr. [' . . . how one/they
should start the motor.'J
I never know wllo to speak to. [' . . . who one/I should speak to.'J
I'm wondering where to put my coat. [' . . where I should put my
coat.'J

(ii) To prevent a coordinated Ihat-clause from being misinterpreted as a

coordinated main clause:
I realize that I'm in charge and that el'erybody accepts my leadership.
I realize that I'm in charge, and everybody accepts my leadership.

(iii) When the object that-clause is fronled (as witb an initial subject clause):
Thai she ever said such a Ihing I simply don't believe.

(iv) When a clause or long phrase intervenes between the verb and the
that-clause:
We decided, in view of his special circumstances, Ihal we wouldadmil himfor
a probationary period.

Wh-inlerrogatlve clauses
15.4

Subordinate wll-interrogative clauses occur in the whole range of

functions available to the nominal rhar-c1ause and in addition may
function as prepositional complement:
Subject: How the book will sell depends on the reviewers.
Direct object: I can't imagine what they want with your address.

307

NOTE

la] Although the subordinate clause usually does not have subject-operator
inversion, such inversion may occur, particularly when the clause functions as
complement and the superordinate verb is a form of the verb be, or when it
functions as appositive:
The problem is II"ho can we get to replace her.
Your original question, why did he lIot report il to Ihe police earlier, has not
yet been answered.
In literary style, subject-verb inversion occasionally occurs when the wh-element
is the subject complement or an obligatory adverbial. particularly if the subject is
lengthy:
She told us how strong was her motivation to engage in research.
It took me some time to discover in which village stood the memorial to our
fallen comrades.

Nominal clau...

In addition, subject-operator inversion is common in Irish English and in somc

nonstandard dialects:

309

He didn't say whether or not he'll be .utlying here,

He didn't say if or not he '/I be slaying here.

Whenever I see her, she wants to know when will 1 be visiling her malher.

But or not can be postposed:

[bJ Prepositions are optionally omitted before wh-dauses:

We have solved the problem (of) who was at J ufl.

He didn't say ifhe 'lI be staying here or not,

Exclamatlve clauses
ye...."o and

15.5

alternative Interrogative clauses

15"6

Subordinate yes-no interrogative clauses (cl 1 1 .3ff) and subordinate

alternative interrogative clauses (cl 1 1 . 1 1) occur in the whole range of
functions available to subordinate wh-interrogative clauses, and may
include infinitive clauses. The yes-no clause is introduced by the
subordinators whe/her or if:

Extraposed subject: It's incredible how fast she can rim. ["It's
incredible that she can run so fas1.']
Direct object: 1 remember what a good time I had at your pany. [' I
remember that r had such a good time at your party.')
Prepositional complement: I read an account of what all impression
you had made, ('I read an account that you had made an excellent
(or a terrible) impression."]

Do you know whe/her/if the banks are open?

The alternative clauses are formed with the correlatives whe/her . . . oror
'f . , . or.... The subordinator is repeated only if the second unit is a full

clause:

{
.
.
I can't find out whether } thef
hght has been deLA YEDor
if
.
{ whether } 11. has been cA.Ncelled,

As in independent exclamative clauses (cl 1 1.20), the exclamative element

is formed with what as predeterminer in a noun phrase and how as

intensifier of an adjective, adverb, or clause; the exclamative clement is
positioned initially regardless of its normal position in a declarative
clause,

if

They didn't say whether it will RAIN or be SUNny.

I asked them if (hey wanted MEA. T or FisH,
I don't care if they J61N us or NOT.

NOTE

Repetition is possible for some speakers with to-infinitive clauses:

him.

But the subordinator is not repeated if the second clause is abbreviated by

the omission of the infinitival to:

I told her holl' late she lI'as.

Exclamatory interpretation: I told her she was very latc.
Interrogative interpretation: I told her the extent to which she was late.

He didn't tell us whether to wait for him or go on without him,

I[ is more restricted syntactically than whe/her. Forexample, il cannol introduce a
subject dause:

Whether she likes the present .

.
IS not cIcar to mc,
Ifshe likes the present

It cannot introduce a to-infinitive clause:

I don't know whether to see my doctor LOdtly.
1 don't know if LO see my doctor today.
And it cannot be followed directly by or not:

A subordinate clause may be ambiguous between exclamatory and interrogative

interpretations:
You can"t imagine what difficultie!. I hOl'e lI'ith my children.
Exclamatory interpretation: You can't imagine the great difficulties I have
with my children.
Interrogative interpretation: You can"t imagine the kindsofdifficulty I have
with my children.

He didn't tell us whether to waitlor him or (whether) to go 01/ without

NOTE

Subordinate exclamative clauses generally function as extraposed subject,

direct object, or prepositional complement:

Nominal relative clauses

15.7

Nominal relative clauses resemble wh-interrogative clauses in that they

are also introduced by a wll-element. In some respects they are more like
noun phrases, since they can refer to concrete entities as well as abstract
entities. They can be analysed as noun phrases modified by relative
clauses, except that the wh-e1ement is merged with its antecedent:
Whoever did tllol should admit it frankly.

[I J

[2J

["The person who did that . . ,"]

took what Ihey offered me,

Nomln.1 cl.,... 311

[' . . . the thing(s) that they offered me.')

I look what hooks she gave me.
e . . . the books that she gave me.']
Macy's is where I buy my clothes.
[' . . . the place where I buy my clothes. ']

May is when she takes her lasl examination. [' . . . the time
when she takes her last examination.']

[J)

NONSPECIFIC

(4)

Whoever breaks Ihis law deserves a finc. ['Anyone who breaks

this law . . .')

I'll send whatever is necessary. ['. . . anything that is
necessary.')

Like noun phrases, they may display number concord with the verb of the
sentence. Contrast, for example:
Whatever book you see is yours to take.
Whale,'er books I hm'e in the house are borrowed from the public

NOTE

library.

The wh-element may be a pronoun, such as whoever in [I] and what in

[2]; a determiner, such as what in (3]; or an adverb, such as where in [4].
Nominal relative clauses have the same range of functions as noun
phrases.
Subject: What I wam is a cup of hot cocoa.
Direct object: You should see whoever deals with complaints.
Indirect object: He gave whoever askedfor ;t a copy of his latest
paper.
Subject complement: April is when the lilacs bloom.
Object complement: You can call me what(ever) you like.
Appositive: I'll pay you the whole debt: What I originally borrowed
and what I owe you in interesl.

Prepositional complement: You should vote ror which (e)'er)

candidate you think best.

Like noun phrases, nominal relative clauses require prepositions in

adjective complementation:
He's aware or what I write.
To-infinitive clauses may be nominal rclative clauses. but they scem to
be restricted to the runctions or subject complement and prepositional
complement:
Subject complement: That's where to go for your next vacation.
[' . . . the place to go . . .']
Prepositional complement: The book is on how to use a computer.
[' . . . the way to use . . . )
'

IS.8

The wh-element may express either a SPECIFIC meaning (where the -e)'er
suffix is disallowed) or a NONSPECIFIC meaning (generally indicated by the
presence or the -ever suffix):
SPECIFIC

J took what was on the kitchen table. [' . . . that which was on

the kitchen table.']

[I]

[2]

[J)
[4]

A subordinate clause may be ambiguous between a nominal relative interpretation and an interrogative interpretation:
They asked me what knew.

Relative interpretation: They asked me things that I knew.

Interrogative interpretation: They asked mc, 'What do you knowT
What she wrote was a mystery.

Relative interpretation: Shc wrote a mystery story.

Interrogative interpretation: I dont know what shc wrote.

To-Infinitive clauses
15.9

Nominal to-infinitive clauses may runction as:

Subject: To be neurral in this conflict is out or the question.
Direct object: He likes 10 relax.
Subject complement: The best excuse is to say Ihat you ho)'e an
examination tomorrow morning.

Appositive: Your ambition, to become afarmer, requires the energy

and perseverance that you so obviously have.
Adjectival complementation: I'm very eager 10 meet her.
Extraposition is usual with subject clauses (cf 18.23):
It is out or the question to be neutral in this conflicl.
The presence or a subject in a to-infinitive clause normally requires the
presence or a preceding for. When the subject is a pronoun that
distinguishes subjective and objective cases, it is in the objective case:
For your country to be neutral in this conjlicl is out or the question.
- It is out or the question for your country to be neutral in ,his
conjlict.
For us 10 take part ill the discussion would be a conflict or interest.
'"'" It would be a conflict of interest for us to take pari in the
discussioll.
I'm very eager for Ihem to meet her.

When the clause is a direct object, however,for is generally absent berore

the subject:

Nominal clau...

312 Syntactic and semantic lunctlons 01 subordinate claus.s

Do you remember the sfuden[s and teachers protesting against the

He likes everyone to relax.

new rule?

The nominal to-infinitive often indicates that its propOSition is a

possibility or a proposal rather than something fulfilled, and it is then
closest semantically to a that-clause with putative should (cf 14.14):

A nominal -ing clause may refer to a fact or an action:

Fact: Your driving a car to New York in your condition disturbs me
greatly.
Action: Your driving a car [0 New York took longer than ] expected.

It's natural Jor them fO be together.

It's natural that they should be together.
Other types of nominal to-infinitive clauses are treated elsewhere: wh
interrogative clauses ( 1 5.4), yes-no and alternative interrogative clauses
( 1 5.5), and nominal relative clauses ( 1 5.71).

313

NOTE

[a] The -ing participle in a nominal -ing clause is commonly called a 'gerund'.
[b] Extraposition is less common with the -ing participle and often seems like an
infonnal afterthought (c! \8.23):

It was tough answering all the questions.

NOTE

Certain verbs of wanting and their antonyms allow an optional for in the object
clause in AmE:
He didn't like me to be alone af nighl.
He didn', like for me to be alone al night. ( AmE).

Bare Infinitive clauses

15.11

What the plan does is (to) ensure aJair pension for all.
Turn off the tap was all I did.

-Ing clauses

15.10

Nominal -ing clauses may function as:

Subject: Watching television keeps them out of mischief.
Direct object: He enjoys playing practicaljokes.
Subject complement: Her first job had been selling computers.
Appositive: His current research. investigating atIitude; to racial
stereotypes, takes up most of his time.
Adjectival complementation: They are busy preparing a barbecue.

The 10 of the infinitive is optional when the clause is subject complement.

NOTE

GENITIVE:

I object to his/Jeremy 's receiving an invitation.

I objected to himfJeremy receiving an invitation.

There is a traditional prescription in favour of the genitive: it is preferred if

the subject is a pronoun. the noun phrase has personal reference, and the
style is formal. The genitive is also preferred if the subject is initial in the
sentence.
My forgetting her name was embarrassing.

On the other hand, the common case is preferred where the subject is a
nonpersonal noun phrase and not a pronoun and the style is not formal:
I don't know about Ihe weather being so awful in this area.
The genitive is avoided when the noun phrase is lengthy and requires a
group genitive (cJ 1 7.26):

A bare infinitive clause may runction as object complement with a relatively few
superordinate verbs (cf 16.28) :
They made her pay for Ihe damage.
It may follow prepositions or c:\ception (cf9.1 5) :
She did everything but make her bed.

If the -ing clause has a subject, the subject may be in the genitive case or
it may be in the objective case (for those pronouns having an objective
case) or common case (for all other heads of noun phrases):
OBJECTIVE:

The most common functions of the nominal bare infinitive clause are as
subject or subject complement in a pseudo-cleft sentence (or a variant of
it, cfI 8.20), where the other subordinate clause has the substitute verb DO:

Verbless clauses
15.12

The nominal verbless clause is a more debatable category than the other
nominal clauses.
A friend in need is a friend indeed. (proverbJ
Wall-to-wall carpets in every room is their dream.
Are bicycles wise in heavy traffic?

[I )
(2)
(3)

These may be paraphrased:

To be a Jriend in need is 10 be a Jriend indeed.
Having wall-to-wall carpets in every room is their dream.
Is it wise to have bicycles in heavy traffic?

( I a)
(2a)
[3a)

The paraphrases suggest a clausal analysis. Note also the apparent

semantic anomaly of bicycles are wise (implying wise bicycles), and the
singular verb in (2).

314 Syntactic and ..mantlc fundlons 01 subordinate claus.s

Adverbial clauses

NOTE

[a] The matrix clause with an until-clause must be durative, the duration lasting to
the time indicated by the until clause A negative clause is always durative, even
though the corresponding positive clause is not durative, since the absencc of the
event extends throughout the indicated period:
-

15.13

In Chapter 8 we distinguish four broad categories of syntactic functions

for adverbials: adjuncts, subjuncts, disjuncts, and conjuncts. Adverbial
clauses, however, function mainly as adjuncts and disjuncts.
In this chapter we focus on the semantic functions of adverbial clauses.
Semantic analysis of adverbial clauses is complicated by the fact that
many subordinators introduce clauses with different meanings: for
example a since-clause may be temporal or clausal. Furthermore. some
clauses combine meanings; in such cases, we treat the clauses under
sections that deal with what appears to be their primary meaning.

I didn't start my meal until Adam arrived.

-I started my meal until Adam arrived.
[b] When the matrix clause is imperative, the sentence with a be/ore clause may
imply a conditional relationship as well as time:
-

Go M/ore I call the police. ('Go! If you don't go, I'll call the police.']
[cl Nonassertive items (cf 10.37) can appear in before clauses, perhaps because
before clauses, like eondilional clauses (cf 1 5 . 1 8,U), inherently relate to mallers
unfulfilled in respect of the matrix clause:
-

Clauses of time
15.14

Finite adverbial clauses of time are introduced by such subordinators as

1 spoke to them before I ever heard any gossip about them.

after, as, once, since, until, when, while:

['AI the lime I spoke to them I had not heard any gossip about them']

Buy your ticket as soon as YOII reach the statioll.

My family, once they saw the mood fwas in, left me completely alone.
Drop by whenever you get the chance.
We came in jllst as it started to rain.
Wait until you 're called.

[d] The sequential meaning of after, when and whene"er may induce an implication
of cause:
He felt beller after he had a short nap.
1 hit him back when he hit me.
My hearl leaps II'henever I see you.

The -ing clauses are introduced by once, till, until, when. whenel'er, while.
and (esp OrE) whilsI. The -ed and verbless clauses are introduced by as
soon as, once, till, until. when, whenever, while, and (esp BrE) whilst :

[e] When may imply concession as well as time:

They were gossiping, when they should have been working.
[' . . . whereas they should have been working.']
She cleans the house by herself. when she couldeasily hare asked her children
to help her.

Once having mode a promise, you should keep it.

The dog stayed at the entrance until told to come in.
Complete your work as soon as possible.

[I) The meaning of several subordinators that primarily express time, place. or
condition may be neutralized in certain contexts to convey a more abstract notion
of recurrent or habitual contingency: when, whenever, once: where, wherelw: if.
The subordinators may then be paraphrased by such prepositional phrases as 'in
cases when' or 'in circumstances where':

To-infinitive clauses without a subordinator or a subject may have

temporal function, expressing the outcome of the situation:
I

rushed to the door, only to discm-er that it was locked and barred.
awoke one morning lojind the house in an uproar.

Wile/I (ever)
Where(I'er)
If
Once

With durative verbs in the matrix clause, the construction expresses

duration of time together with outcome:
She lived 10 be 100. ['She reached 100 years of age.']
You'J1 1ive to regret iI. ['You'l! eventually regret it.'1
15.15

An adverbial clause of time relates the time of the situation in its clause to
the time of the situation in the matrix clause. Depending in large part on
the subordinalOr, the time of the matrix clause may be previous to that of
the adverbial clause (eg until), simultaneous with it (eg while), or
subsequent to it (eg after). The time relationship may also convey
duration (eg as long os), recurrence (eg whenever), and relative proximity
(eg just after).

}{

there's smoke. there's fire.

children are i""o/I'ed, divorces arc
particularly unpleasant.
known, such facts have been reported.

Clauses of place
15.16

Adverbial clauses of place are introduced mainly by where or wherever.

Where is specific and IVherel'er nonspecific. The clause may indicate
position [11 or direction [21:
Where thefire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins.
They went wherel'er they couldjind work.
(" 0 any place where'J

[I]
(2J

316 Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clause.

You may leave the apartment at any time, provided that yOIl give a

Several temporal subordinators may have primarily a place meaning in

descriptions orscenes, when the scenes are described dynamically in terms
or movement rrom one place to another:

monlh's notice or pay all additional mOlllh's rent.

In case you want me, I'll be in my office till lunchtime.
Given that x= y, then n(x+a)= n(y+a) must also be true.

Take the right rork when the road splits illto two.
The river continues winding until it reaches a large lake.
The building becomes narrower as it rises higher.
The road stops just after it goes under a bridge.
Once the mountains rise above the snow line, vegetation is sparse.
NOTE

la] Where clauses may combine the meanings of place and conlrast:
-

Where { saw only wilderness, they saw abundant signs of life.

Ib] The archaic forms whence [,from where') and whither ['10 where'] are
occasionally found, particularly in religious language.

(in ronnal argumentation)

Assuming that the movie starts at eight, shouldn't we be leaving now?

Unless otherwise instructed, you should leave by the back exit.
Marion wants me to type the letter ifpossible.
Ifnol, I can discuss the matter with you now.
NOTE

is nOI related to Ihe situation in the matrix clause. Here arc some cxamples:
His stylc is florid IJ that s the right word.
IfyOIl remember ),ollr history lessons, the war was started by the
other side.
{fyoII're going my way. I need a lift.
Shc's far too considerate. if I may say so.
,

Clauses of condition, concession, and contrast

15.17

There is considerable overlap in adverbial clauses that express condition,

concession, and contrast (cf 1 5 . 1 5 Note [f]).
The overlap between the three roles is highlighted by the overlapping
use or subordinators: ror example, ifintroduces all three types or clauses
and whereas both contrast and concessive clauses. Furthennore, even if
expresses both the contingent dependence or one situation upon another
and the unexpected nature or this dependence:
All three types or clauses tend to assume initial position in the
superordinate clause.

12]
13]
(4)

Open and hypothetical condition

In general, conditional clauses convey a I)I.RECT CONDITION in that the

situation in the matrix clause is directly contingent on the situation in the
conditional clause. For example, in uttering [I] the speaker intends the
hearer to understand that the truth or the prediction 'she'lI scream'
depends on the rulfilment or the condition or 'your putting the baby
down':
[ 1I

The most common subordinators ror conditional clauses are if and

unless, which are also used with nonfinite and verbless clauses. Other

conditional subordinators are restricted to finite clauses (but cfNote (b]

below); ror example: gil'en (that) (rormal), On condition (that), provided
(that), providing (that), supposing (that). Here are other examples or
conditional clauses:
Unless the strike has been called off, there will be no trains tomorrow.
He doesn't mind inconveniencing others jusl so he's comfortable.

(inrormal)

[1]

Without me to supplement your income. you wouldn't be able to manage.

With them on 0I1f side. we are secure.

Conditional clauses

Ifyou put the baby down, she'll scream.

'

In uttcring 14], the speaker does not in lend Ihe truth of the assertion 'She's far 100
considerate' to be dependent on obtaining permission from thc hearer. Rathcr. the
condition is dependent on the implicit speech acl of the utterance: 'I'm Iclling you,
if I may, that shc's far too considerate: In conventional politeness, the speaker is
making Ihe utterance of the assertion dependent on obtaining permission from Ihe
hearer. though the fulfilment oflhatcondition isconventionally taken for granted.
IbJ Nonfinile and verbless clauses with with or without assubordinalormayexprcss
a conditional relalionship:

Even ifthey offered to pay, I wouldn't accept any money rrom them.

15.18

la] Some conditional clauses express an INDIRECT CONDITION, in that the condition

15.19

A direct condition may be either an OPEN CONDITION or a HYPOTHETICAL

Open conditions are neutral: they leave unresolved the
question or the rulfilment or nonrulfilment or the condition, and hence
also the truth or the proposition expressed by the matrix clause:

CONDITION.

/f eolin is ill London, he is undoubtedly staying at the Hilton.

The sentence leaves unresolved whether Colin is in London. and hence it

leaves unresolved whether he is staying at the Hilton.
A hypothetical condition, on the other hand, conveys the speaker's
belier that the condition will not be rulfilled (ror ruture conditions). is not
rulfilled (ror present conditions), or was not rulfilled (ror past conditions)
and hence the probable or certain ralsity or the proposition expressed by
the matrix clause:
Iflle changed his options, he'd be a more likeable person.
They would be here with us if they had lire time.
IfyolI had listened /0 me, you wouldn't have made so many

mistakes.

(I]
[2]
[31

316

Synt.ctk: .nd ..m.ntlc functions 01 subordlns'e cl.uns

The conditional clauses in these sentences convey the following

implications:
He very probably won't change his opinions.
They presumably don't have the time.
You certainly didn't listen to me.

hal'e seen her. Given (that) and granted (that) tend to be used in formal written
style, particularly in argumentation.
[g1 As long as and so long asare less formal than the semantically similar but formal
provided (that) and providing (that). Just so (that) tends to appear in infonnal
conversation. They all mean 'if and only if',
(hI Unless introduces a negative condition; the unless4c1ause is usually roughly
similar to a negative if-<Iause. With unless there is a greater focus on the condition
as an exception ('only if, , . not'). There are therefore contexts in which the unless
clause cannot occur:

[la]
[2a]
(3a]

For the verb forms in hypothetical conditions, see 14. 1 2[

NOTE

[a) Conditional clauses are like questions in that they are generally either neutral in
their expectations of an answer or biased towards a negative response, and they
therefore tend to admit nonassertive items (cf l O.37):

.
" " "
lee much happler

IfYOII hadn 't studied arll,

If you ever touch me again, I'll scream.

She's taking a stick with her in case she has any trouble on the way.
[b] Two ways of expressing future hypothetical conditions are occasionally used in
fonnal contexts. They have overtones of tentativeness:
(i) was to or were 10 followed by the infinitive (cfsubjunctive were, 14.13):

If it

(ii) should followed by the infinitive (cfputative should, 14.14):

they're certainly not Irish.']

believe that.']

(b) If the proposition in the conditional clause (which contains measurc

expressions) is patently true, the proposition in the matrix clause is shown
to be true, The (Fclause is positioned finally:

Had I known, I would have written before. I'lf I had known, . . :)

Were she in charge, she would do things differently.
Shouldyou change your mind, no one would blame you,
Should she be interested, I'll phone her. [with present subjunctive be: cf l 4, I 3
Note lall

Hc's ninety ifhe 's a day, ['If you'll agree that he's at least a day old,
perhaps you'll take my word that he's ninety.']
The package weighed ten pounds if it weighed al/ ounce, ['The
package certainly weighed ten pounds.']

Id1

Infinitive clauses sometimes combine condition with other contingency

relations such as purpose or reason:

{f} Gil'en (that) and assuming (that) are used for open conditions which the
speaker assumes were, are, or will be fulfilled, and from which a proposition is
deduced. A clause introduced by granted (that) is also used as a premise for a
deduction, but usually implies a previous statement on which the premise is based.
Ifmay be used in the same way: !fYOII were there (andyou say you were} ,you must

Rhetorical conditional clauses give the appearance of expressing an opcn

condition, but (like rhetorical questions, cf 1 1 . 1 3) they actually make a
strong assertion. There arc two types:
(a) If the proposition in the matrix clause is patently absurd, the
proposition in the conditional clause is shown to be false:

If you believe Ihal, you'll believe anything. ['You certainly can't

[cl Conditional clauses may have subject-operator inversion without a subordina4

tor if the operator is were, should, and (especially) had:

Ifonly JOu would help me next week, I would not be so nervous,

} you'd have failed the exam,

If they're Irish, I'm the Pope. [,Since I'm obviously not the Pope,

Ifa seriouserisisshouldarise, the public would have to be informed ofits full

implications.

le] Ifonly is an intensified equivalent of if, typically used in hypothetical clauses to

express a wish:

Unless you had studIed hard,

Rhetorical conditional clauses

15.20

" as
} to rain, the ropes would snap. They're far too tight.
{ were

You must bc STRONG to lift that weight. I'" , in orderto lift that weight'; ' . . ,
because you were able 10 lift that weight', " . . if you were able to lift
that weight')
You'd be a fool not to take rhe scholarship. ['if you didn't , , :)

ifhe doesn'r come with us,

,
{ unless
he comes WIth us.

Concessive clauses

15,21

Concessive clauses are introduced chiefly by although or its more inrormal

variant Ihough, Other subordinators include while, whereas (formal), and

even if:

Although he hadjusIjoined, he was treated exactly like all the others.

No goals were scored, though il was an exciling game.
While I dOI/', want 10 make a fuss, I feel I must protest at your

interference.

Whereas the amendment is enthUSiastically supported by a large

majority in 'he Senate, its rate is doubtful in the House.

Except for whereas, these subordinators may introduce -ing, -I'd, and
verbless clauses, eg: Though well over eighty, she can walk/aster than I can,

320

Syntactlc .nd sem.nUc function. of aubordln.t. cl.use.

Adverbl.1 clause. 321

Concessive clauses indicate that the situation in the matrix clause is

contrary to what one might expect in view of the situation in the
concessive clause. It is often possible to view each situation as unexpected
in the light of the other and therefore to choose which should be made
subordinate:

I1 doesn 't mauer

No matter

With a hank loan or lI'ithoul it,

I or Wit
Wit' I
' I/Out a ballk loan,

There may be further reductions:

[a) In a rather formal style, the predication in the conccssiveclause may be fronted
if the subordinator is though and must be if il is as:
Faillhough / did, I would not abandon my goal.
Naked as I was, I braved the storm. ['Even though I was naked, . . . ')
That is also used concessively with obligatory fronting of a subject complement.
normally a noun phrase:

Bank /0011 or no ballk /001l,

Bank loan or no,

Even ifyou dislike ancient mOllumen/S, Warwick Castle is worth a visit.

NOTE

'

The verb be can be omitted from a universal clause iflhe subject of an SVC clause
is an abstract noun phrase:

Clauses of contrast

15,24

Whether Martin pays/or Ihe broken vase or (whether) he rep/aces il

willt a nell' l'ase, I'm not inviting HiM again.
He's getting married, whelher or 1101 hefinds ajob.
Whether uained or Itot, Marilyn is doing an excellent job.
Whether right or wrOllg, your son needs all the support you can give

Clauses oC contrast are introduced by several of the subordinators that

introduce concessive clauses (c/ 1 5.21): whereas, while, and (esp BrE)
whilst. Indeed, there is often a mixture of contrast and concession. The
contrastive meaning may be emphasized by correlative antithetic con
juncts such as in contrast and by contrast when the contrastive clause is
initial:
Mr Larson teaches physics, while Mr Corby teaches chemistry.
I ignore them, whereas my husband is a/ways worried about wllat they

him.

think 0/ us.

The concessive meaning comes from the implication that it is unexpected

for the same situation to apply under two contrasting conditions.
[a) It doesn't matter whether and the more informal No matter whether can also
introduce alternative conditional--concessive clauses and universal conditional
concessive clauses (cl 1 5.23):

The universal conditional-concessive clause indicates a free choice from

any number of conditions. It is introduced by the wh-words that combine
with -ever:

Whatel'er your problems (are/may be), they can't be worse than mine.
f
Ho",el'er great the pitalls
(are/may be). we must do our best to succeed.

Alternative conditionakoncessive clauses

NOTE

'\\ buy t he house.

The concessive implication in [I] comes through the inference that I can't
keep them quiet even if I choose to say something to them Crom any
possible choices.

Its possible, if difficult. ( . . ., even if it may be difficult.')

Her salary was good, ifnO! up to her expectations. ['. . .. even though it was
not up to her expectations.')

The correlative sequence whether . . . or (whether) combines the

conditional meaning of if with the disjunctive meaning of either . . . or. If
the second unit is a full finite clause, whelher may be repeated:

} we

'\\ buy the house.

[I]
Whatever I say 10 Ihem, I can't keep them quiet.
Stand perfectly still, wherel'ef you are.
HOlI'e'er much ad"ice yOIl give him, he does exactly what he wants.
Don't let them in, whoever they are.

Cl I 5.26 Note [b) for a similar fronting with reason clauses.

[b) EI'en ifcombincs the concessive force of el'en with the conditional force of if:

15.22

} we

Universal conditionakoncessive clauses

15.23

Fool that he was, he managed to evade his pursuers.

Poor Ihat they ",ere, they gave money 10 charity. (BrE)

The evell ifclause leaves open whether or not 'you dislike ancient monuments' is
true, whereas an el'ell though clause would presuppose that it was true.
lj'itself may be used concessively, synonymous either with elenif or with el'en
though:

have to face the publicity.

[b] The correlative sequence with . . . withoul is used concessively with verbless
clauses:

No goals were scored, although it was an exciting game.

11 was an exciting game, although no goals were scored.
NOTE

} whether you want to or nOl, you will

Clauses 01 exception
15.25

Clauses of exception are introduced by bllt tllm (formal). except

(informal). except tlrat, only (informal), and less frequently excepting
(tlrat), save (rare and formal), and SQl'e tllat (formal):

Vanessa is your favourite aunt, because your parents toldme so. ('Since your
parents told me so, I can say that Vanessa is your favourite aunt.')
As long as you're here, why don't we discuss our plans?
Since you seem to know Ihem, why don't you introduce me to them?

would pay you now, except thal J don't have any money on me.
No memorial remains for the brave who fell on that battlefield, save

that they will leave their image for ever in the hearts and minds of
their grateful countrymen. (fonnal)
Nothing would satisfy the child but that I place her on my lap.

(b) When as is a circumstantial subordinator, the predication may optionally be

fronted:

([ormal)
would've
asked you, only my molher told me not 10. (informal)
J

Writing hurriedly as she was, she didn't notice the spelling errors.
Tired as they were. they stayed up for the late news.

Clauses introduced by but Ihal and only must follow the matrix clause.
NOTE

That may be a circumstantial subordinator, when the subject complement is

obligatorily fronted:

The subordinator but without that is used in infinitive clauses, where it is more
common than but that in finite clauses:

Clumsy idiot Ihal he was, Michael completely ruined the dinner.

Nothing would satisfy the child bu/ for me 10 place her on my lap.

Cf 15.21 Note la] for a similar fronting with concessive clauses.

Reason clauses
15.26

Purpose clauses

In general, reason clauses convey a direct relationship with the matrix

cla se. The rcl tionship may be that of cause and effect (the perception of
an mherel objective connection, as in [I]), reason and consequence (the
peak r's mferenc of a concclion, as in [2]). motivation and result (the
llentlon of an animate bemg that has a subsequent result, as in [3]), or
circumstance and consequence (a combination of reason with a condition
that is assumed to be filled or about to be filled, as in [4]):
He's thin because he hasn'l eaten enough.
She watered the flowers because Ihey were dry.
You'll help me because you're my friend.
Since the wealher has improved, the game will be held as
planned.

15,27

Students should take notes (so as) to make rel';s;on easier.

The committee agreed to adjourn (;n order) to reemrshler lire matter
when /uller ;n/ormalion became available.

They left the door open (in order) for me to hear lire baby.
Finite clauses of purpose are introduced by so that or (less commonly and
more informally) by so, and (more fonnally) by in order tlrat :

[I)
(2)
(3)

The school closes earlier so (that) the children call gel home before
dark.

Thejury and the witnesses were removed from the court in order Ilral

(4)
Reason clauses are most commonly introduced by the subordinators
because and since. Other subordinators include as, for (somewhat
formal), and (with circumstantial clauses) seeing (that) :
J lent him the money because he needed it.
As Jane was Ihe eldesl, she looked after the others.
Since we live near the sea, we often go sailing.

they might nol Irear lire arguments 0/ lire lawyers on tire

prosecution's mOl ion for an adjournment.

These finite clauses, which are putative (cf 15.28), reqUire a modal
auxiliary.
NOTE

Much has been written about psychic phenomena, for they pose
. .

Turn the volume down so as not to wake the baby.

They left early for fear (Ihal) they would meet him.
They evacuated the building in case the wall collapsed. (BrE)

A /or-clause must be in final position.

[a) Reason clauses may express an INDIREef REASON. The reason is not related to
the situation in the matrix elause but is a motivation for the implicit speech act of
the utterance:
As you're in charge, where are the files on the new project? [,As you're in
charge, I'm asking you . . .1')

Negative purpose is expressed in the infinitive clauses by so as not 10 and in ON/er

nO/ la. and in finite clauses by in order thal . . . no/ ;forfear (Ihal), in case (BrE), or
lest (archaic and vcry formal) convey an implied negative purpose:

/asclfI{l(mg problems that have yel to be resoh'ed.

Seeing that il is aboul lo rain, we had better leave now.

NOTE

Purpose clauses are usually infinitival, and may be introduced by ill order
to (formal) and so as 10:

Result clauses
15.28

Result clauses are introduced by the subordinators so that and so:

We paid him immediately, so (thal) he left contented.
I took no notice of him, so (rhat) he fiew into a rage.

324 SynlKtlc and a.manUc function. 01 subordinate cleuN.

The same subordinators are used for purpose clauses but, because they are
putative rather than factual, purpose clauses require a modal auxiliary:
We paid him immediately, so (that) he would leave contented.
NOTE

Clauses 01 proportion
15.30

The subordinator so is indistinguishable from the eonjunct so in asyndctic

coordination, but if and is inserted so is unambiguously the conjuncl:

As Ire grew disheartened, (so) his work deteriorated.

As the lane got narrower, (so) the overhanging branches made it

We paid him immediately, alld so he left contented.

more difficult for us to keep sight of our quarry.

Clauses ot similarity and comparison

15.29

The more she thought about it, Ihe less she liked it.

For both similarity clauses and comparison clauses, there is a semantic

blend with manner if the verb is dynamic.
Clauses of similarity are introduced by as and (esp informal Am E) like.
These subordinators are commonly premodified by just and exactly:
Please do (exactly) as J said.
h was (Just) like J imagined it l./Ould be (esp informal AmE)

[I]
[2]

Noncorrelative fhe is also used in the same sense:

She liked it less, the more she thought about it.
Clauses ot prelerence
15.31

Clauses of comparison are introduced by as if, as though, and (esp

informal AmE) like:

take the slowest train.']

They'll fight to the finish sooner thall surrellder. ( They prefer to fight
to the finish. ']

If the comparison is hypothetical (implying lack of reality), a subjunctive

or hypothetical past may be used as an alternative (cl 14. 12/):

was

She treated meas though J were

'

The same subordinators may introduce finite clauses:

a stranger.

Rmller than (that) she should miss her train, I'll get the car over.

I had been

The subordinators as, as if, and as though can introduce non finite and
verbless cia uses:
Fill in the application form as instructed.
You should discuss the company with him as though unaware that
you were being consideredfor a job.

As ifand as though may also introduce to-infinitive clauses:

She winked at me as if'o say that shouldn ', say anything.

NOTE

la] If the as-clause is placed initially, correlative so introduces the matrix clause in
formal literary style:
(JUSI) as a moll! s
i allracled by a lighl, so hc was fascinated by her.
The clause then exprcsses an analogy.
[b) There are prescriptive objections to the use of like as a subordinator. It is more
acceptable when it expresses pure similarity, as in (2), since that is the meaning
expressed by the preposition like, than when it exprcsses manner or comparison.
Hence like would be less acceptablc if it replaced as in [11 or 131.

I1

Clauses of preference are usually nonfinite. They may be introduced by

the subordinators rather than and sooner t/Jan, with the bare infinitive as
the verb of the clause:
Rather thall go there by air, I'd take the slowest train. ["I'd prefer to

(3)

She looks as if she's gelling beller.

{I

Proportional clauses involve a kind of comparison. They express a

proportionality or equivalence of tendency or degree between two
situations. They may be introduced by as, with or without correlative so
(formal), or by the fronted correlative the . . . the followed by compara
tive forms:

Comment clauses
15.32

Comment clauses are parenthetical disjuncts. They may occur initially,

finally, or medially. and thus generally have a separate tone unit:
KINGston, 1 as yOIl probably

KN6w,

We distinguish the following types:

(i) like the matrix of a main clause:

I is the capital of JaMAIca I

There were no other applicants, beliel'e, for that job.

(ii) an adverbial finite clause (introduced by as):
I'm working the night shift. as you kllOw.
(iii) a nominal relative clause:
What was more upsetting, we lost all our luggage.

(iv) to-infinitive clause as style disjunct:

I'm not sure what to do, 10 be honest.

,I
- which is how the kangaroo came 10 ha)'e a pouch. [said at the

(v) -ing clause as style disjunct:

end of a story)

I doubt, speaking as a layman, whether television is the right medium

for that story.

Sentential relative clauses parallel non restrictive postmodifyingclauses

in noun phrases (cf 1 7. 1 1 ) in that they are separated by intonation or
punctuation from their antecedent. They are commonly introduced by the
relative pronoun which, but which may also be a relative determiner of
abstract nouns, as in [6] and [7]:

(vi) -ed clause as style disjunct:

Stated bluntly, he had no chance of winning.

In each category, there are idiomatic or cliche expressions; you see, as I

say, what's more 10 the point, to be fair. generally speaking, put bluntly.

The plane may be several hours late, in which case there's no

Similarly, in each category there is at least some freedom to coin new

expressions.
Comment clauses, many of which are characteristic of spoken English,
are generally marked prosodically by increased speed and lowered
promtnence.
NOTE

Type (i) comment clauses, which are the most important. generally comain a
transitive verb or an adjcctive which elsewhere requires a nominal thar-clause as
complementation. We can therefore sec a correspondence between sentences
containing such clauses and sentences containing indirect statements:
There were no other applicants, I belie'e. for that job.
I believe that there were no other applicants for that job.
Since the that of an object lhal-clause is normally delelable, only the intonation
(reflected by comma separation in writing) distinguishes an initial comment clause
from an initial matrix clause:

/}

You KN6w, III think you're WR6NG

ou know IS a comment clauseJ
You know, I hink you're WR6NG . I Y
You jk now (that)

I think you're WRONG , . [ You know is a matrix clause]

Closely related to comment clauses of type (ii) (as you know) and type (iii)
(what's more surprising) are SENTENnAL RELATIVE CLAUSFS. Unlike
adnominal relative clauses, which have a noun phrase as antecedent, the
sentential relative clause refers back to the predicate or predication of a
clause ([I] and [2]), or to a whole clause or sentence, (3J and [4]), or even to
a series of sentences ([5]):
They say he plays truant, which he doesn't.
He walks/or an hour each morning, which would bore me.
Things then improved, which surprises me.
Colin married my sister and I married his brother, which
makes Colin and me double in-laws.

point in our waiting.

They were under water for several hours,from which

experience they emerged unharmed.

[6)
[7)

The subject 01 nonllnlte and verbless clauses

15.34

Nonfinite and verbless adverbial clauses that have an overt subject but are
not introduced by a subordinator are ABSOLlrTEclauses, so termed because
they are not explicitly bound to the matrix clause syntactically. Absolute
clauses may be -ing, -ed, or verbless clauses:
No further discussion arising, the meeting was brought to a close.
LUllciljinished, the guests retired to the lounge.
Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with

excitement.

Sententlal relative clauses

15.33

[5)

[I]
(2)
[3J
(4)

Apart from a few stereotyped phrases (eg: present company excepted,

weather permiuing, God wiJling), absolute clauses are formal and
infrequent.
When a subject is not present in a nonfinite or verbless clause, the
normal ATTACHMENT RULE for identifying the subject is that it is assumed
to be identical in reference to the subject of the superordinate clause:
The oranges, when (they are) ripe, are picked and sorted
mechanically.
The attachment rule is commonly given for participle clauses, but it
applies equally to infinitive and verbless clauses:
Persuaded by our optimism, he gladly contributed lime and money to
the scheme. ['Since he was persuaded . . .']
Driving home after work, I accidentally went through a red light.

['While I was driving home after work . . .'J

Confident of the justice of their cause, they agreed to put their case

before an arbitration panel. ['Since they were confident . . . ']

To climb 'he rock face, we had to take various precautions. [, So that

we could climb . . .']

I'

Comparetl"e cl.un.

328 Syntactic and manUc functions of subordinate clau...

They stood silently, their eyesjixed on the horizon.

Elizabeth dived in headjirst.
They strolled through the park with their arms intertwined.

Sometimes the attachment rule is violated:

?Driving to Chicago that night, a sudden thought struck me. ['I was

driving']

The violation is considered to be an error. Such unattached (or dangling)

clauses are totally unacceptable if the sentence provides no means for
identifying the implied subject:

Comparative clauses

Reading the evening paper, a dog started barking.

NOTE

The attachment rule does not apply, or at least is relaxed, in certain cases:
(a) The clause is a style disjunct, and the I of the speaker is the implied subject:

15.36

Putting it mildly. you have caused us some inconvenience.

(b) The implied subjCt:l is the whole of the matrix clause:

In a comparative construction, a proposluon expressed in the matrix

clause is compared with a proposition expressed in the subordinate clause.
Words that are repeated in both clauses may be omitted in the subordinate
clause (cl 1 5.38):
lane is as healthy as her sisler (is).
Jane is healthier than her sister (is).

I'll help you iJnecessary. I' . . . ifit is necessary.']

When dining in the res/auran/, a jacket and tie are required. (,When one
dines . . .'J
Being Christmas, the government offices were closed. ('Since it was . . .']

Supplementive clauses
Adverbial participle and verbless clauses without a subordinator are
they do not signal specific logical relationships,
but such relationships are generally clear from the context (cf also 7.14).
The formal inexplicitness of supplementive clauses allows considerable
flexibility in what we may wish them to convey. According to context, we
may wish to imply temporal, conditional, causal, concessive, or circum
stantial relationships. In short, the supplementive clause implies an
accompanying circumstance to the situation described in the matrix
clause. For the reader or hearer, the actual nature of the accompanying
circumstance has to be inferred from the contcxt:

Don is sensitive enough 10 understand your feelings.

Marilyn was too polite ro say anything abolll my clothes.

SUPPLEMENTIVE CLAUSES:

[3]
[4)

More narrowly, comparison covers the types exemplified in [I} and [2] or
even just those comparisons - like [2] and [5) - that require a than-clause:

{
Jane is

more healthY
healthier
less healthy

than her sister is.

[5J

Comparisons of equivalence, nonequivalence, and excess (cf 15.41) are

nonassertive, as can be seen from the use in them of non assertive forms:

Reaching the river, wc pitched camp for the night. ['When we

reached the river, . . .']

Julia, being a nun, spent much of her time in prayer and meditation.
['. . . , since she was a nun, . . .']
A ware of (he dangers to American citizens during the crisis, she still
insisted on staying with the . others.
The sentence is ambiguous, takell out of cOlltext. ['if/when it is . . . )
Using a sharp axe, Gilbert fought his way into the building. ['By
using a sharp axe . . .']
Marilyn crawled through the narrow tunnel, hands infront.
We spoke face toface.

[I J
[2J

The comparison is with respect to some STANDARD OF COMPARtSON: health

in [I) and [2]. The clause element that specifies the standard is the
COMPARATIVE ELEMENT (henceforth 'comp-element'): as healthy in [I] and
healthier in [2]. The BASIS OF COMPARISQN (which may be implied from the
context rather than overtly expressed) is Jane's sister in [I] and [2].
Broadly conceived, comparison includes comparisons of EQUIVALENCE
(as in [I]) and NONEQUIVALENCE (as in {2D, and comparisons of
SUFFICtENCY and EXCESS (as in [3] and [4]):

(c) If the implied subject is an indefinite pronoun or prop it (cf 10.14), the
construction is considered less objectionable:

15.35

329

{as hard as } she ever dId..

harder than
{ as much as } any other food.
He eats vegetables

She works

more than

We use more and the inflectional variant in -er, the typical comparative
items, to exemplify comparative instructions in the sections that follow.

'

NOTE

The standard of comparison involves a scale without commitment to absolute

values. Hence, [I] and [2) do not presuppose that Jane's sister is healthy.

330

Synt.cflc .nd um.ntlc function. of .ubordlFlllte cl.u...

Clause functions of the comp-element

15.37

Morton has more expensive clothes than I have.

In one interpretation more modifies expen.sil'e ('clothes that are more expensive');
in the other interpretation more is the determiner for the noun phrase ('a greater
quantity of expensive clothes').
(c] The modifying sequences more ofa . . . and le.s.s of a . . occur with gradable
singular noun heads:

The comp-clement of a comparative construction can be any of the clause

elements, apart from the verb:
subject:

More people use this brand than (use) any other window-cleaning

fluid.

He's more ofa fool than 1 thought (he was).

It was less of a success than I imagined (it would be).

direct object:

Cfthe how-question. HolI' much ofafool i.s he?[,To what extent is he (in your view)
a foolT]
There are parallel constructions with a.s much ofa . . . a.s and a.s litlle ofa . . . a.s:

She knows more history than most people (know).

indirect objcct:
That toy has given more children happiness than any othcr (toy)
(has).

It was as much/little of a success as 1 imagined (it would be).

(d] When the contrast involves two points on the same scale, one higher than the
other, the part following than cannot be expanded into a clause. Than is then
functioning as a preposition in a nonclausal comparison:

subject complement:
Lionel is more relaxed than he used to be.

It's hotter than just warm. (cf It's holler than 90.)
She's wiser than merely clever.
We drove farther than (beyond) Chicago.
They fought harder than that.

object complement:
She thinks her children more obedient than (they were) last year.
adverbial:

Another type of nonc1ausal comparison is expressed by more than:

You've been working much harder than I (have).

I am more than happy to hear that.

She behaved more than fairly to him.

The camp-clement may also be a prepositional complement:

Semantically, more than expresses a higher degree. but it also conveys a comment
on the inadequacy of what is said in the linguistic unit it modifies.
le] Some people prefer to use .so . . . a.s instead of a.s . . . a.s when the matrix clause is
negative:

She's applied for more jobs than Joyce (has (applied for.
The same range is available for the camp-element in comparisons of
equivalence; for example:

He's not .so naught)' a.s he was.

As many people use this brand as (use) any other window-cleaning

fluid.

NOTE

ra] There is a type of nonclausal comparison in which more . . . than, le.s.s . . . tl/tw,
and a. . . . a.s are followed by an explicit standard of comparison:
I weigh more than 200 pounds.
It goes faster than 100 miles per hour.
The strike was nothing less than a national catastrophe.
Our factory consumes as much as 500 tons of solid fuel per week.
Another nonclausal comparison is exemplified by:

}r

1 was more angry than frightened.

I was angry more than frightened.

.
I t IS more true to say that 1 was
.

..]

15,38

Ellipsis ofa part orthe comparative clause is likely to occur when that part
is a repetition of something in the matrix clause. Since it is normal ror the
two clauses to be closely parallel both in structure and content, ellipsis is
the rule rather than the exception in comparative constructions. Here is a
set or examples or optional ellipsis and optional substitutions by
pronouns and by pro-predicate or pro-predication:
James and Susan often go to plays but

The infltional form is not possible:

1 was angrier than frightened.

(b] When more precedes an adjective in a noun phrase, there may be ambiguity.
For example. more expen.sive clothe.s is ambiguous in:

11

EllipsiS In comparative clauses

(i) James enjoys the theatre more than Susan enjoys the theatre.
(ii) James enjoys the theatre more than Susan enjoys it.
(iii) James enjoys the theatre more than Susan does.
(iv) James enjoys the theatre more than Susan.
(v) James enjoys the theatre more.
Ellipsis orthe object generally cannot take place unless the main verb too

332

Comp.r.ttve cl.u...

Syntactic .net ..m.ntic functions 01 aubordln.te cl.u...

She'll enjoy it more than (she enjoyed it) last year.

is ellipted, as in (iii) and (iv), where there is a choice between the retention
of an operator and its omission:

This provides the basis for the total ellipsis of the subordinate clause in
examples like:

lames knows more about the theatre than Susan knows.

The camp-clement is the hinge between the matrix clause and the
comparative clause. Since the comp-element specifies the standard of
comparison, the same standard cannot be specified again in the
comparative clause:

333

You are slimmer (than you were).

You're looking better (than you were (looking .
NOTE

Jane is healthier than her sister is healthy.

James enjoys the theatre more than Susan much enjoys the theatre.

[a] There are two othcrconlexts in which thc comparative clause is omitted. One is
wherc there is anaphoric rercrence to an implied or actual preceding clause or
sentence:
I caught the bus rrom town: bUI Harrycame home even laler. [ie laterthan J
came home']
'

The standards of comparison in the two clauses may, however, be

different.

The other is where the rererence is to thc cXlralinguistic situation:

Mary is cleverer than Jane is prelty.

You should have come home earlier. tie 'carlier than you did'}

Ambiguity through ellipsis

15.39

[b] The partial contrast may be in a superordinatcclause in the matrix clause or the
comparativc clause:

When normal ellipsis is taken to its fullest extent, ambiguity can arise as to
whether a remaining noun phrase is subject or object:

She thinks she's ratter than she (really) is.

Hc's a greatcr painter than people suppose (he is).
She enjoyed il more Ihan I expected (her to (enjoy il.

He loves his dog more than his children.

The above example could mean either ( I ] ' . . . than his children love his
dog' or [2] 'than he loves his children'. If his children is replaced by a
pronoun, formal English makes the distinction:
He loves his dog more than they.
He loves his dog more than them.

[I J
[2J

In other styles, however, the objective case fhem is used for both [1] and [2].
Since both fonns can be criticized (on account of stiffness on the onc hand,
and 'bad grammar' on the other), and since in any event we cannot be sure
that the objective case in [2] represents choice in formal style and is
therefore unambiguous, it is better to expand the clause (fhan (hey do; Ihan
he does tltem) where there is danger of ambiguity.
Partial contrasts
15.40

If the two clauses in a comparison differed solely in the comp-element ( ,

.

hear it more clearly than ' hear it), the comparison would of course be

nonsensical; therefore, a contrast of at least one variable is required

between the two clauses. The contrast may affect only tense or the
addition ofa modal auxiliary. In such cases it is normal to omit the rest of
the comparative clause after the auxiliary:
I
I

hear it more clearly than I did. ['than I used to hear if]

get up later than I should. ['than I should gel up']

If the contrast lies only in tense, it may be expressed in the comparative

clause solely by an adverbial:

15.41

Enough and lOO

There are comparative constructions that express the contrasting notions

of sufficiency and excess, chiefly with enough and 100 followed by a to
infinitive clause. Paraphrase pairs may be constructed with antonymous
items:

{They're rich enough to own a car.

They're not too poor to own a car.
{ The book is simple enough to understand.

The book is not too difficult to understand.

If the context allows, the infinitive clause may be omitted.

The negative force of 100 is shown in the use of nonassertive forms.
Contrast:
She's old enough to do some work.
She's too old to do allY work.
The infinitive clause may contain an overt subject:
It moves too quickly for mosl people (0 see (it).
He was old enough for liS to talk to (him) seriollsly.
As these examples indicate, a direct object or the object of a prepositional
verb may be omitted if it substitutes for the superordinate subject.
When there is no subject in the infinitive clause, it is identified with the
supcrordinate subject or with an indefinite subject:

334

SyntKtlc and ..manUc functions of subordinate clau..s

Comparative etau...

She writes quickly enough 10 finish Ihe paper on lime. ['for her to
finish the paper on time']
He was old enough 10 lalk 10 him seriously. ['for others to talk to him
seriously']
And there may be ambiguity as to which identification to make:
She was too young 10 dale. ( . . . to date others' or 'for others to date
her'J
'

When neither subject nor object is expressed in the infinitive clause,

ambiguity is possible with verbs that may be used transitively:

(her).
(for others)
. .
to help
Shels fnendly enough
(others).
(for her)
NOTE

Enough ofa . . . and too much ofa . . . may be constructed with gradable nouns (cf
t5.37 Note le]),

.
Hc s

So . . .

15.42

{ CnOUgh }ora coward to do that.

too much

Cfalso: He was fool enough

..

to go

out without a coat.

(tlral) and sucJr . . . (tlrat)

The correlatives so . . . (Ihat) and such . . . (that) introduce cOl;lstructions

that combine the notion ofsufficiency or excess with that of result. So is an
adverb premodifying an adjective or adverb, and such is a predeterminer.
Paraphrase pairs may be obtained between these constructions when the
thal-clause is negative and constructions with too and an infinitive clause:
It's so good a movie rhat we mustn't miss it.
- It's 100 good a movie 10 miss.
I1 was such a pleasant day Ihar I didn't want to go to school.
- It was too pleasant a day to go to school.

There may be also similar paraphrases with constructions with enough

when the flrar-clause is positive:
It flies so fast tlrat it can beat the speed record.
- It flies fast enouglr to beat the speed record.
I had such a bad headache that I needed two aspirins.
- I had a bad enough headache to need two aspirins.
When so is used alone with a verb and such is used with a noun that is
not premodified, they express a high degree and the construction conveys
the notion of result:
I so enjoyed it that I'm determined to go again. rI so much enjoyed
it . . .'J

335

There was such a crowd that we couldn't see a thing. [,There was such
a large crowd . . . ']
NOTE

(a] The subordinator thal may be omined rrom the that-clausc. An infonnal
variant substitutes intensifier that ror so and omits the subordinator that:

1 was 'that tired 1 couldn't keep my eyes open.

[b] The somewhat ronnal construction so/such . . . as with the infinitive is

sometimes used in place of so/such with a that-clause:
His temper was so violent as to make even his closest companions fear him.
The brilliance or her satires was such as to make even her victims laugh.

Bibliographical note
On nominal clauses in general, see Huddleston (1971, Chs. 4 and 5); Stockwell et
al. ( 1 973, Ch. 8); Vendler(1968). On that-clauses in particular, sec Hoopcr ( 1 975).
On adverbial clauses of timc in general, sce Edgren (1971).
On adverbial clauses or concession, sec Aarts ( 1988); Altenberg (1986).
On clauses or reason, see Ahcnberg ( 1984) .
On comment clauses, see Lakoff G. (1974).
On nonfinite and verbless adverbial clauses introduced by a subordinator, see
8acklund ( 1984).
On adverbial -ing clauses, see Greenbaum ( 1 973).
On comparative clauses. see especially Huddleston (1971. Ch. 6).
,

Multi-word yerba 337

16

The tank blew up.

One of my papers has gone astray.
The two girls have lallen out. ( = 'quarrelled')

Complementation of verbs and adjectives

In phrasal verbs like give in ('surrender') or blow lip ('explode'), we

cannot predict the meaning of the idiomatic combination from the
meaning of verb and particle in isolation. But in free combinations (eg:
walk past ) we can do so. Furthermore, the semantic separability of the
two parts is shown by possible substitutions: for walk in walk past, for
example, we can substitute rull, trot, swim, fly, elc; and for past we can
substitute by, ill, throllgh, OI'er, etc. In other cases the adverb in a free
combination has an intensifying force (eg: chalter away) or an aspectual
force (eg: drink up).
There are also syntactic signs of cohesion. Normally the particle of a
phrasal verb cannot be separated from the lexical verb ( She turned right
lip), but this separation is possible in free combinations (Go slraighl on).
Similarly, the adverb can be fronted in free combinations (0111 came the
SUII; Up YOII come), but not in phrasal verbs (*Up blew Ihe lank; *Olll lte
passed ['fainted'.

Introduction
16. J

In this chapter we examine the COMPLEMENTATION of verbs and adjectives,

ie the grammatical patterns that follow a verb or adjective and complete

the specification of a meaning relationship which that word implies. We

begin with multiword verbs.

Multi-word verbs
16.2

The two main categories of multi-word verbs consist of a lexical verb plus
a PARTICLE, a neutral designation for the overlapping categories of adverb
and preposition that are used in such combinations (cfI6.3ff). In PHRASAL
VERBS the particle is an adverb (eg: drink up,find OUI ) and in PREPOSITIONAL
VERBS it is a preposition (eg: dispose of, cope with). In addition, there are
PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS with verbs with two particles, an adverb
followed by a preposition (eg: put up with, cl 1 6.9), and types of muhi
verbs that do not consist of lexical verbs followed simply by particles (eg:
cut short, pUI paid to), cI 16.10.

There is not a sharp boundary between multi-word verbs and free

combinations, where the parts have distinct meanings. Rather, there is a
gradience ranging from idiomatic and syntactically cohesive combi
nations to combinations that are loosely connected.
Intransitive phrasal verbs
16,3

One common type of multi-word verb is the intransitive phrasal verb

consisting of a verb plus an adverb particle, as exemplified in:
The plane has just touched down.
He is playing around.
I hope you'll get by.
How are you gelling 0111
The plane has now taken off.
Did he catch 0111
The prisoner finally broke down.
She turned up unexpectedly.
When will they give in?

Transitive phrasal verbs

16.4

Many phrasal verbs may take a direct object, and are therefore transitive;
We will set lip a new unit.
Shall I put away the dishes?
Filld out if they are coming.
She's bringing up two children.
Someone turned 011 the light.
They have called off the strike.
He can't live dowlI his past.
J can't make 0111 what he means.
We pllshed home our advantage.
She looked up her rriends.
I've handed il/ my resignation.
They may have bloll'n lip the bridge.
Some combinations, such as gil'e ill and blow lip, can be either intransitive
or transitive. In some cases, eg give ill, there is a substantial difference in
meaning, whereas in others. eg blow up, there is not.
As with free combinations of the same pattern, the particle can
generally either precede or follow the direct object;
They IIImed 011 the light. ..... They turned the light on.
But when the objcct is a personal pronoun, the particle must usually
follow the object:
*They tllmed all it. ..... They turned it 011.

338

Comptemenhltion of verb. end edJecttve.

Multi-word verb.

The particle tends to precede the object if the object is long, or if it is

intended that the object should receive end-focus (cf I 8.2, 18.5).
Like intransitive phrasal verbs, transitive phrasal verbs are dis
tinguished semantically from free combinations of verb and adverb.
Contrast the phrasal verb take ill in She took in her parents ['deceived']
with the free combination in She took ill the box ['brought inside'], where
the two parts preserve their separate meanings.
If the transitive phrasal verb is fully idiomatic, the particle cannot
normally be separated from the lexical verb by anything except the object,
not even by an intensifier such as right. Hence, bring up is a free
combination in She brought the girls right up ['led them up' (the stairs,
etc)], since the phrasal verb brillg up ['rear'] does not allow the
interruption.
NOTE

(:: l (L
i Ch

put

down.
up.

Type I prepositional verbs

16.5

Many people looked disdainfully al the picture.

whereas insertion between verb and direct object is usuaUy avoided
unless the direct object is long:
?*Many people examined disdainfully the picture.
We can also isolate the whole prepositional phrase from the verb in other
ways, eg:
On whom did he call? On his mother.
He called on his mother and on his sister.

He called on his mother more often than 011 his sister.

There are therefore two complementary analyses of a sentence like She
looked offer ['tended'] her son:
ANALYSIS

A type I prepositional verb consists of a lexical verb followed by a

preposition with which it is semantically and/or syntactically associated:
Look al these pictures.
I don't care for Jane's parties.
We must go into the problem.
Can you cope with the work?
I approve o/their action.
His eyes lighted UpOIl the jewel.

The noun phrase following the preposition is a PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT, a

tenn that suggests an analogy with the tenn direct object. Compare the
'transitive' relationship of look at and these pictures in Look at these
pictures with that of examine and these pictures in Examine these pictures.
Similarly, the passive is frequently possible for prepositional verbs, as in:
The picture was looked at by many people.

I:

S
She

ANALYSIS

2:

looked

after

her son

The distinction between prepositional verbs and free combinations

it

Similarly, it is possible 10 insert an intensifier of the particle for at least some of

these phrasal verbs (eg: They furned lhe music right up).

il

On the other hand, we can easily insert an adverbial between the lexical
verb and the preposition:

la] Some transitive phrasal verbs do not easily allow the particle to come afler the
object, unless the object is a pronoun; eg: ?They hadgiven hope up: ?They laid rheir
arms down. Conversely, some do not easily allow it to come before the object; for
example, only final position is possible in the idiomatic hyperbolic expressions /
was crying my eyes our; I was sobbing my heart out.
(b] Some phrasal verbs are semi-idiomatic and allow a limited number of
substitutions, eg for Let"s lurn on lhe lighl :

Lot',

339

16.6

One criterion for distinguishing prepositional verbs (eg: We called on the

dean) from free combinations of verb plus preposition (eg: We called after
lunch) is the possibility of making the prepositional object the subject of a

corresponding passive clause. In this PREPOSITIONAL PASSIVE the prep

osition is STRANDED in its post-verbal position. Contrast:
The dean was called on.

*Lunch was called after.

Here are some examples of the prepositional passive:

Though something very different from ordinary forest management
is calledfor, the trees in the parks do need the forester's skilled
consideration.
This matter will have to be dealt with immediately.
Other possibilities are talked of by many of our colleagues.
If a woman with a university degree rejects a career for marriage, her
education is not to be thought of as thrown away unless we count
the family arena of no importance.
A second criterion is that wh-questions eliciting the prepositional object
are formed with the pronouns who (m) and what (as with direct objects)
rather than with adverbial questions:
John called on her. - WIIO(m) did John call on?
John looked for it. - What did John look for?

340

Multi-word vel'b.

Complementatlon of vert.. and adJective.

*the friends up whom she called.

- * Up which friends did she call?

Contrast the free combinations in:

John called from the office. ..., Where did John call from?
John called after lunch.
..., When did John call?
NOTE

(e) The particle of a phrasal verb is normally stressed, and in final

position normally bears the nuclear tone, whereas the particle of a
prepositional verb is normally unstressed and has the 'tail' of the
nuclear tone that falls on the lexical verb:

la] The passive is acceptable in some instances where the preposition introduces a
prepositional phrase of place and is not in idiomatic combination with the verb.
For example:
They must have played on this field last week.
..... This field must have been played on last week.
Visitors are not to sil on these Louis XV chairs.
..... These Louis XV chairs are not 10 be sal on.
Primitive men once lil'ed in these caves.
..... These caves were once lived in by primitive men.

Which friends did she CALL on?

- Which friends did she call up?
Type 11 preposlllonal verbs
16.8

The passive is possible in these instances because the prepositional complement is

being treated as an affected participant in the clause (c/ IO.9.n.
[b] Some combinations allow both types of wh-questions: She died 0/pneumonia
could be an answer either to How didshedie? or (more usually) Whal did she die oj?

Type I prepositional verbs resemble transitive phrasal verbs superficially,

but the differences are both syntactic and phonological. The contrast is
exemplified for the prepositional verb call on ('visit') and the phrasal verb
call up ('summon').
(a) The particle of a prepositional verb must precede the prepositional
object (unless the particle is stranded), but the particle of a phrasal
verb can generally precede or follow the direct object:
She caned on her friends.
..., *She called her friends Ofr.

The direct object becomes the subject in the corresponding passive clause:
The gang robbed her o/her necklace.
- She was robbed o/her necklace (by the gang).
NOTE

She called up her friends.

-.. She calledher friends up.

(b) When the object is a personal pronoun, the pronoun follows the
particle of a prepositional verb but precedes the particle of a phrasal
verb:
She called on them.
- *She called them on.

(2) The second is exemplified by catch sight of, keep pace with, gire wa)' to. /o.fe
touch with, cross swOrt/s with, keep robs on, gil'e rise to. Only the prepositional
objecl can become the passive subject, Ihough il is considered somewhat clumsy:

(c) An adverb (functioning as adjunct) can often be inserted between

verb and particle in prepositional verbs, but not in phrasal verbs:

(d) The particle of a phrasal verb cannot precede a relative pronoun or

wlr-interrogative:
the friends 011 whom she called
- 0" which friends did she call?

There arc two minor subtypes in which the direct object is part of the idiomatic
combination:
(I) Thc first is exemplified by make a m(!S.f 01; make al/owance/ur, take care of,
pa)' attention 10. ,ake lIdl'lInrage of h allows a second les acceptable passive in
which the prepositional object becomes subjecl:
A (Ierrible) mess has been made o/ Ihc house.
- (1) The house has been made a ( Icrrible) mess of

She called them up.

.... *She called up them.

She called angrily 011 her friends.

- *She called angrily up her friends.

Type 11 prepositional verbs are ditransitive verbs. They are followed by

two noun phrases, normally separated by the preposition: the second
noun phrase is the prepositional object:
He depril'ed the peasants o/their land.
They plied the young man witfr food.
Please confine your remarks to the matter under discussion.
This clothing will protect you from the worst weather.
Jenny tfranked us/or the present.
May I remind you % ur agreement?
They have provided the child with a good education.

The distinction between prepositional verbs and phrasal verbs

16.7

341

The lifeboat was suddenly caught sight of

Phrasal-preposltlonal verbs
16.9

have in addition to the lexical verb, both

an adverb and a preposition as particles. Type I phrasal-prepositional
verbs have only a prepositional object:
PHRASAL-PREPOSITIONAL VERBS

We are all looking/orward 10 your party on Saturday.

He had to put lip with a lot of tcasing at school.

Verb c:omplemenl.tlon

342 Complemenl.llon of '4'e"'" end adJectln.

or a participle, with or without a following preposition:

Why don't you look in on Mrs Johnson on your way back?

He thinks he can get away with everything.

put paid to, get rid of, have done with, leave N standing, .fend N
packing, knock Njlying, get going

The prepositional passive is possible, though liable to sound cumbersome.

These examples, however, are normal and acceptable:

(c) VERBS WITH TWO PREPOSITIONS

These are a further variant on prepositional verbs:

These tantrums could not be put up with any longer. ('tolerated')

The death penalty has been recently done away with. ['abolished')
,
Such problems must be squarely laced up to. ( confronted')
They were looked down on by their neighbours. ('despised')

It developed from a small club into a mass organization in three

years.
Similarly: struggle with N for N, compete with N lor N, apply to Nlor N,
lalk to N about N. Normally either one or both prepositional phrases can

Type 11 phrasal-prepositional verbs are ditransitive verbs (cl 16.32).

They require two objects, the second of which is the prepositional object:

be omitted.

Don't take it out on me! (,vent your anger')

The manager fobbed me off with a lame excuse. (esp BrE)
We put our success down to hard work. ('attribute lO')
I'll let you in on a secret.

Verb complementation

Only the active direct object can be made passive subject with these:
Our success can be put down to hard work.
For both types, the wh-question eliciting the prepositional object is
formed with the pronouns who (m) and what (cl 16.6):

Intranaltlve yerba
16.11

He smokes (a pipe).

The constructions may be copular, eg: break el'en, plead guilty, lie 10111. Or
they may be complex-transitive with a direct object following the verb (or
the adjective if the object is long) eg: cut (their trip) short, work (the nail)
loose, rub (herself) dry (cl 16.25 Note [c]). Sometimes the idiom allows
additional elements. such as a modifier of the adjective "ut as short liS
possible), an infinitive (play hard to get), or a preposition (ride roughshod
over).

(b) VERB-VERB COMBINATIONS

In these idiomatic constructions the second verb is nonfinite, and may be
either an infinitive:
make do with, make (N) do, let (N) go, let (N) be

use.

Your views do not matter.

She is reading (a book).

In some cases the intransitive verb acquires a more specific meaning: eg:
John drinks (heavily) [,drinks alcohol'].
Other intransitive verbs can also be transitive, but the semantic
connection between subject and verb is different:

In addition to the types of multi-word verbs discussed in 1 6.3-9, some

other idiomatic verb constructions may be noted:
(a) VERB-ADJECTIVE COMBINATIONS
These are similar to phrasal verbs. Compare:
Meg put the cat out.

INTRANSITIVE

Others can also be transitive with the same meaning and without a
change in the subject-verb relationship:

Other multi-word verb constructions

Meg put the cloth straight.

Where no complementation occurs, the verb has an

Some verbs are always intransitive:
John has arrived.

She looked in on Mrs JoJIIIson on our way back.

- ( Who(m)) did she look in on?
They put their success down to hard work.
- What did they put their success down to?

16,10

343

Thc car stopped.

NOTE

She stopped the car.

Intransitive verbs include intransitive phrasal verbs, eg:Jall out ['quarreI'J. (/16.3.

Copular verba
16.12

Subject complement
A verb has COPULAR complementation when it is followed by a subject
complement or a predication adjunct (cl 8.14) and when this element
cannot be dropped without changing the meaning of the verb. Such verbs
are COPULAR (or linking) VERBS, the most common of which is the copula
be.

Copular verbs fall into two main classes, according to hethe the
subject complement has the role of current attribute or resultmg attribute

(c! 10.9):

344 Complemenhltlon of ...erb. end .dJecti...e.

CURRENT:
RESULTING:

Noun phrase as direct object

16.15

copulas: appear, be, Jeel, look, seem, mwll (A), sound,

laSle [A)
RESULTING

Some common examples of the numerous monotransitive verbs that may

be used in the passive: believe, bring, call, close, do, enjoy, Jeel, jifltl, gel,

[a) After certain copulas (appear,Jeel. look, seem, .found). both AmE and BrE
prefer an infinitive construction with 10 be rather than simply a noun phrase:

It appears the only solution.

hear, lrelp, keep, knolV, lose, IOl'e, make, need, receive, remember, see, take,
use, win.

A few stative monotransitive verbs (some in particular senses) normally

do not allow the passive. These MIDDLE VERBS include hal'e, jit, suit,

It appears 10 be the only solution.

There is also a tendency with such copulas. especially in informal AmE. to prefer a
construction in which the verb is followed by like: 11 seems like Ihe only solulion.
[b] Some copulas are severely restricted as to the words that may occur in their
complement. The restriction may be to certain adjectives or to a semantic set of
words. Here are some examples. with typical adjectiveeomplements: loom (large).
Jail (silem), plead (innocenl), rest (assured), run (wild), spring (open). See also
10.7 Note [b).

resemble, equal. mean ( 'Oculist' means 'eye doctor'), conrain, hold ( The
hall holds over Ihree hundred people), comprise, lack.

They havc a large house. - *A large house is had (by them).

NOTE

The principal copula that allows an adverbial as complcmentation is be.

The adverbials are mainly space adjuncts (eg: The kitchen is downstairs)
but time adjuncts are common with an eventive subject (eg: The party will
be at nine) and other types of adjunct are possible too (eg: She is ill good
health). Two other copula verbs that occur with space adjuncts (or
adjuncts metaphorically related to these) are get (eg: How did you get
here?) and keep (eg: They kept our oJ Irouble).
With intransitive verbs such as live. come, go, lie, remain, stand, and
sray. the adverbial :s not always clearly obligatory. But the positional or
directional meaning or these verbs is completed by the adverbials:
My aunt lives ill TorOIllO.
They arc staying nearby.
Come over here.

NOTE

[a] The verbs seem, appear, look, soundJeel, smell. and laste may be complemented
by an adverbial clause beginning as if or as Ihough: 11 seems as if Ihe wealher is
improvillg.
[b] Behal'e iseomplemented by a manner adverbial (He behal'edbadly) and last and
lake by a duration adverbial (The course lasled (Jor) IIIree mOll/lIS}.

Monotransltlve verbs
16.14

Monotransitive verbs require a direct object, which may be a noun phrase.

a finite clause, or a nonfinite clause. We include in this category. for our

There are also monotransitive phrasal verbs, eg: bring about. pur off(cf 1 6.4}.
These take a direct object and can be used in the passive.

Noun phrase as prepositional objcd

Complementation by adverblals
16.13

Direct objects are typically noun phrases that may become the subject ora
corresponding passive clause:
Everybody understood the problem.
..... rhe problem was understood (by everyone).

copulas: become, get (A), go [A], grow (A), prove, turn

See also 10.7 NOle [a).

NOTE

345

present purposes, type I prepositional verbs such as look al (cf 16.5) and
type I phrasal-prepositional verbs such as pUI up wirh (cf 1 6.9).

The girl seemed very restless.

The girl became very restless.

The most common copular verbs are listed below. Those that are used
only with adjective phrases are rollowed by '(A)':
CURRENT

Verb complemenhltlon

16.16

The prepositional object of type I prepositional verbs (cJ 16.5) and type I
phrasal-prepositional verbs (cf 16.9) resembles the direct object in
accepting the passive (though often with some awkwardness in style) and
in being elicited by a pronoun in questions:
The management paid for his air.Jares.
- His air fares were paid for by the managemenl.
- What did the management pay for?
Your sister has checked up on me.
- I have been checked up on by your sister.
Who (m) has your sister checked up on?
....

NOTE

Another indication of the closeness of a prepositional object to a direct object is

that when a prepositional verb is followed by a thai-clause or a lO-infinitiveclause.
the preposition disappears and the prepositional object merges with the direct
object of the monotransitive pattern:
They agreed

on the meeting.
(thal) they would meet.
to meet each other.

Yet the preposition that is omitted before a Ihlll-clause can reappear in the
corresponding passive: Thlll they should meet was agreed (011). This is so even in
extraposition (cJ 18.23). where the preposition immediately follows the passive
verb phrase:
It was agree(J (on) that they should meet.

346

Complemenhlllon 01 verbs and adJectlvea

Verb complenMnhlUon

Examples ofsuasive verbs: agree, ask, command, decide, demand, insist,

intend, move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, suggest, urge.

Complementation by a finite clause

Tlral-clause as object

16.17

347

The conjunction that in that-clauses functioning as object is optional, as in

/ hope (tllal) he arrives soon; but when the clause is made the passive
subject, the conjunction is obligatory (cf 15.3). The normal passive
analogue has it and extraposition, tllat being again to some extent
optional:

Emotive and hypothesis verbs

16.20

EMOTIVE

verbs are followed by a that-clause with either the indicative or

putative should:

WOrries about it.

I regret that she
It surprises me that he should worry about it.

Everybody hoped (that) she would sing.

-That she would sing was hoped by everybody. <stilted)
- It was hoped by everybody (that) she would sing.

This group of verbs includes annoy. concern, manel, rejoice, regret,

surprise, wonder, worry.
HYPOTHESIS verbs comprise wisll, suppose (in the imperative), and the
modal idiom would ratller or its contraction 'd rather. They are followed
by a thaI-clause with the hypothetical past or the were-subjunctive.

We distinguish four categories of verbs that are complemented by that

clauses: FACTUAL, SUASIVE, EMOTIVE, and HYPOTHESIS. Most verbs belong
to the first two categories. The four categories are distinguished
semantically, but also by the types of verbs that appear in the !lull-clauses.

.
taUght us.
I WISh (that) she
were here.

Factual verbs

16.18

FACTUAL

verbs are followed by a that-clause with an indicative verb:

Complementation by an extraposed subject tlrat-clause

16.21

They agreed that she was misled.

There are two sUbtypes offactual verbs. PUBLIC verbs consist of speech act
verbs introducing indirect statements; PRIVATE verbs express intellectual
states and intellectual acts that are not observable.
Examples of public factual verbs: admit, agree, announce, argue, bel,
claim, complain, con/ess, declare, deny, explain, guarantee, iniist, mention,
object, predicl, promise, reply, report, say, state, suggest, swear. warn,
write.
Examples of private factual verbs: believe, consider, decide. doubt,
expecl,jear,jeel, jorget, guess, hear, hope, know, nOlice, presume, realize,
recognize, remember, see, suppose, think, underslllnd.

It appears (that) you have lost your temper.

Common verbs in this pattern include seem, appear, and happen, and the
phrasal verbs come aboul ['happen'] and turn out ['transpire').
WIr-clause as object

16.22

Suasive verbs

16.19

should leOl'e
leave
leaves (esp BrE)

The use of the wll-interrogative clause (which generally implies lack of

knowledge on the part of the speaker) is particularly common where the
superordinate clause is interrogative or negative. But verbs that them
selves express uncertainty, such as ask and doubl, occur without this
nonassertive constraint.
Examples of verbs taking the wll-interrogative clause: ask, care, decide,

} the company.

A common alternative to the thal-clause for some suasive verbs is an

infinitive clause:
They

depend, doubt, explain, forgel, hear, know, milld, IIotice, prm'e, realize,
remember. say, see, tell, think, wonder.

.
the news to be suppressed.
IOtende d
that the news (should) be suppressed.
(more formal)

Many of the factual verbs which can take a Ihal-clause as object can also
take a wll-interrogative clause (cf 15.4).
I don't know if we can get there in time.
Have you heard whether she's coming with us?
I doubt whether the flight has been booked.

verbs are followed by a Ihat-clause either with putative should

(preferred in BrE) or with the subjunctive (cf I 4. 1 3j) . A third possibility, a
II/OI-clause with an indicative verb, occurs, though more commonly in
BrE:
SUASTVE

{
People are demanding that he

The Ihat-clause in examples like /1 seems (that) you are mistaken is an

extraposed subject, not an object of the verb. It resembles other 11101clauses in previous sections in that the conjunction is optional and the
clause is obligatory. The verb in the that-clause is indicative:

NOTE

The lisl includes prepositional verbs where the preposition is optionally omitted
before a wh-clause:

348

Complementatlon of verb. and adjective.

Verb complementalion

''tj

I inquired (about) whether the tickets were ready.

I haven't decided (on) which flight I will take.

Nonfinite clauses as direct object

16.23

Wc distinguish five types of nonfinite clauses that function as direct object

in monotransitive complementation:
( I ) whinfinitive clause:

I remembered tojillout the form. ['] remembered that I was to fill out
the form and then did so.']
I remembered jilling out the form. ['I remembered that r had filled
out the form.']

..

NOTE

The Curies discovered how to isolate radioactive elements.

la] Monotransitive prepositional verbs are found in all five Iypes. The preposition
is optionally omiued in ( I ) and obligatorily omitted in (2), cf. 9 . 1 :

(I)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

(2) subjectless infinitive clause:

Ruth prefers to go by bus.
(3) subjcctless ing participle clause:

I couldn't decide (on) which bicycle to buy.

She decided to buy a bicycle.
She decided on buying a bicycle.
We longed/or the lesson 10 cnd.
Don't count on their helping you.

Phrasal verbs and phrasal-prepositional verbs arc found with types (3) and (5):

They like talking about their work.

(4)

349

(J)

toinfinitive clause with subject:

Charles wants you to standfor election.

(5)

(5) ing participle clause with subject (cf 15. 10):

16,24

00

In COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE complementation, the two elements following the

complex-transitive verb have a subject-predicate relationship:
She considered her mother a sensible woman.
She considered her mother to be a sensible uoman.

Many monotransitive verbs take more than one type of nonfinite

complementation. Common verbs are listed below for the five types:
( \ ) decide, discuss, explain,jorgel, know, learn, remember, say, see, tell,

[ I]
[2]

The relationship between the elements her mother and a sensible womall in
[I) and [2] is equivalent to the same elements in the subordinate finite
clause in [3]:

think.
(2) ask, dislike, forget, hate, help, hope, learn, like, love, need, offer,
prefer, promise, refuse, remember, Iry, wan I, wish.
(3) and (5) (can'l) bear, dislike, enjoy, jorgel, hate, (can 't) help, like,
love, (not) mind, miss, need, prefer, remember, (can't) stand, SlaN, stop.
(4) (can 't) bear, dislike, hale, like, love, prefer, want, wish.
Where both infinitive clauses - (2) and (4) - and participle clauses - (3)

PlIt

Complex-transitive verbs

How to isolate radioactive elements was discovered by Ihe Curies).

and (5) -are admitted, several factors influence the choice. The infinitive is
biased towards potentiality and is therefore favoured in hypothetical and
non factual contexts ( Wouldyou like to see my stamp collection?), whereas
the participle is favoured in factual contexts (Brian loathed Jiving in the
country). For the three retrospective verbs jorgel remember, and regret
this potentiality/performance distinction is extended into the past:

got around to

Ib] For the verbs deserve. need, and require in type (3), the implied object of lhe
participle is identical with the subject of the supcrordinate clause: Your shoes need
mending (c/ Your shoes neet/ lo be mended).

I hate them/their gossiping about our colleagues.

When the nonfinite clause has no subject - as in ( 1 ), (2), and (3) - its
implied subject is usually identical with that of the superordinate clause.
The status of these clauses as direct object is confirmed when they are
replaced by a coreferential pronoun it or that ; for the example sentence in
( I ): The Curies discovered that. Another indication of their status is that
they can be made the focus of a pseudo-cleft sentence (cf I S.20): What
Ruth prefers is 10 go by bus. The passive is usually not admissible (but cf:

{ took up

} driving a bicycle.
{ off
.
1
} helr. seemg
us.
I kJOflI"Qr(
'
I to

She

She considered Ihal her mother was a sensible woman.

[1]

Yet the passive suggests that the two elements in [1] and [2] are not a single
constituent, since the first element - as direct object - is separated from the
second element and becomes the passive subject:
Her mother was considered (by her) (to be) a sensible 1I'0man.
Direct object and object complement

16,25

In the clausal pattern SVOC (cj 10.1), the object complement is an

adjective phrase or a noun phrase. The attribute role of the object
complement may be CURRENT. as in [I] and [2], or RESULTING, as in [3] and
[4] (cl 10,9 Note [all :

350 Complement.llon of veriM .nd adJective.

The secretary left all the letters unopened.

I have often wished myself a millionaire.
The long walk made us all hungry.
The committee has elected you its chairman.

Verb complemenl8Uon

[ I]
[2]
[3]
[4]

Space position adjuncts also occur in this construction:

Always keep your eyes on the road when driving.
The attackers caught us off ollr guard.
The passive of this construction is exemplified for this last sentence:

The direct object can be made the passive subject:

All the letters were left unopened (by the secretary).

We were caught off our guard (by the attackers).

[ la]

Adjuncts of other semantic types are less common, but they include a
manner adjunct with treat (Her parents treated her badly).

Many verbs admit both adjective phrases and noun phrases as object
complements. The most common verbs for this construction are listed
below. Those used only with adjective phrases are followed by '[A}', and
those used only with noun phrases are followed by '[N1':

Direct object and Io-infinitive clause

16.27

appoint [NJ, believe, call, choose [N], consider, declare, elect [N],jind,
get [A], like [A], make, name [N], prefer [A], think, want [A).
NOTE

[a) For some verbs, the object complement is optional; eg: elect in The ('ommitlee
has elected you (its chairman).
[b) Prepositional verbs, mainly with the preposition as, take a prepositional object
complement; eg: They described her as a genius; He took mefor afool. Sometimes
the preposition is optional; eg: They elected me (as) their leader. Common
examples of these prepositional verbs follow, with those taking an optional
preposition listed first: choose (as), consider (aJ), elect (aJ) IN], make (into) IN);
accept as, define as, intendlll [N], mistakefor, regardas, seeas, take as/for. treat as.
use as.
[(I The SVOC pattern includes a number of verb-adjective collocations; for
example: boil (an egg) hard, buy IN] cheapJreeze (N] hard, paint (N] red/blue . . .,
knock (someone) JenJeless. The adjectives open, loose, free, and clean are
particularly common: push (N] open, shake [N] loose. set fNlfree, Il"ipe [N) clean.
Id] The object is generally post posed by extraposition if it is a that-clause. and an
anticipatory it then precedes the object complement:

In such cases, the infinitive clause normally contains a verb used statively,
especially be. The finite clause is preferred in normal usage, but the
infinitive clause provides a convenient passive form:
The traffic was reported to be heavy.
Common factual verbs: believe, consider, expect,jeel,jind, knolV, suppose.
Nonfactual verbs include verbs of intention, causation. modality, and
purpose:
They intended Maria to sing an aria.
The meeting elected her to be the next treasurer.
My contract allows me to take onc month's leave.
Our teachers encouraged us to think for ourselves.

The collocations make sure and make certain are followed by an object tlust-clause
without anticipatory it:

Common nonfactual verbs: allolV, appoint, cause, compel, cOlldemn, dare,

get, help, illtend, mean, permit, require.

Please make sure that you enclose your birth certificate.

16.26

NOTE

fa) Some verbs in this construction occur only in the passive: mmOllr. $(I)" see.
The field marshal was said to be planning a new strategy.

In the SVOA pattern (cf 1 0. 1 ), the complex-transitive verb is comple

mented by a direct object followed by a predication adjunct. The adjuncts
are characteristically prepositional phrases of direction or metaphorical
extensions of the notion of direction:
I slipped the key imo the lock.
Take your hands out ofyour pockets.
May I sec you to your seal? ['escort you . . . ']
They talked me into it. ['persuaded me . . ."]
He stood my argument on ils head.

Some of the verbs taking a direct object and to-infinitive clause in

complex-transitive complementation correspond to the factual verbs that
take a that-clause with an indicative verb (cf 1 6. 1 8):
The police reported the traffic to be heavy. <formal)
The police reported that the traffic was heavy.
John believed the stranger to be a policeman. <formal)
= John believed that the stranger was a policeman.

I think il very odd that nobody is in.

Direct object and adjunct

351

Others occur chiefly in the passive: repute, think. The verb get is not found in the
passive.
Ibl Examples of multi-word verbs in this pattern are the prepositional verbs count
on. depend 011. rely on; the phrasal verb make out; and the phrasal-prepositional
verb keep on al.

Direct object and bare infinitive clause

16.28

Two small groups of verbs take this pattern of complex-transitive

complementation: three causative verbs (have, let, make) and some

352

ComplemenhlUon 01 verbs and adjective.

Verb compmentatlon

Someone must have seen the car stolen.

I wanl this watch repaired immediately.
She had the car cleaned.

perceptual verbs of seeing and hearing (feel, hear, notice, obsene.

overhear, see, watch). In addition, help and (esp BrE) know may occur
with the bare infinitive or the to-infinitive.
They had me repeal lhe message.
You shouldn't let your family illlerJere wilh our plans.
We must make the public take notice oJ us.
Did you nolice anyone leave the house?
The crowd saw Gray score Iwo goals.
Sarah helped us (to) edil the scripI.
I have known John (to) give better speeches than [hat. (esp BrE)

For some verbs there are corresponding constructions with an infinitive

copular verb, generally be: I want this watch to be repaired immedialely.
Since the participle clause is passive, the superordinate clause is not
normally in the passive: ?The car must /rave been seen stolen.
Dltranlltlve verbs
Noun phrases as both indirect and direct object

The passive normally requires a to-infinitive:

16.31

John must be made to take notice of us.

NOTE

Certain verbs in this pal1ern do not occur in the passive: feel, /UII 'e, lel, watch.
There is an apparent passive in felJall and lel go ( They were lel go/fall) . but these
are fixed expressions. Only lel has a passive of the infinitive clause ( They Il'l
Ihemselves be led away). Corresponding passives of the infinitive clause with verbs
of perception require a copula, usually being (The crowd H'a/ched 111'0 goals being
scored) , c/ 16.29; see also admits a passive construction formed with the -ell
participle without be (The crowd saw two goals scored, cf 16.30), which is the only
passive if the verb is hm'e ( They had 'he message repellled).

Most ditransitive verbs can also be monotransitive. The indirect object

can often be omitted: She may give (us) a large donation. With a few verbs
(eg: ask. pay, teach, lell. show) either object can be omitted:
He taught us physics.
-- He taught us.
...... He taught physics.
Some ditransitive verbs have two passive analogues, which we distinguish
as 'first' and 'second':

Three small groups of verbs take this type of complex-transitive

complementation: perceptual verbs, many of which also occur with the
bare infinitive, cf 16.28 (feel, hear, nOlice, obsene, olwhear, perceive, see,
smell, SpOl, spy, II,-'atch), verbs of encounter (carch, discOI.er. jind, lem'e).
and the two causative verbs get and have. Sce also 4.35.
This complementation pattern differs from the monotransitive pattern
(5) in 16.23 in that the noun phrase following the superordinate verb
cannot take the gcnitive case (cJ 1 5. 10):
I saw him lying on the beach.

The girl was given a doll.

A doll was given the girl.

*' saw his lying on the beach.

[SECOND PASSIVE]

Object and prepositional object

We could hear the rain splashillg 011 the roof

--The rain could be heard splashing 011 the roof
A teacher caughl them smoking in the playground.
They were caught smoking in Ihe playground (by a teacher).

16.32

There are numerous ditransitive verbs that take a prepositional object as

the second object (cl 16.8):
We addressed our remarks to the children.
We reminded him oJthe agreement.

__

[ I]
[2]

Ditransitive verbs with prepositional objects normally have only the first
passive:

Direct Object and -ed participle clause

Three small groups of verbs occur with this type of complex-transitive

complementation: perceptual verbs (see, hear, feel. 1I'(llch), volitional
verbs (like. need, IIant ), and the two causative verbs gel and have:

[nRsT PASSIVE]

Of these two, the first passive, in which the indirect object becomes
subject, is the more common. The prepositional paraphrase is more usual,
as an alternative, than the second passive: A doll was givefl lo IIIe girl. We
list ditransitive verbs in 16.32 together with their prepositional
paraphrases.

The passive with this pattern is regular:

16.30

Ditransitive complementation in its basic form involves two object noun

phrases: an indirect object, which is normally animate and positioned
first, and a direct object, which is normally inanimate:
He gave the girl a doll
S V
Od
0;

Direct object and -ing participle clause

16.29

353

Our remarks were addressed to the children.

He was reminded of the agreement.

[ la]
[2a]

l'
354

ComplemenlllUon of verbs end ed}ectlv

Verb comptemen..Uon

[cl A rew ditransitive verbs do not have prepositional paraphrases: allow, c/Ulrge,
fine. refuse.
[dJ See 16.8 Note ror idiomatic combinations with prepositional verbs such as
make a mess of and 16.9 ror dilransitive phrasal-prepositional verbs.

Here are examples of ditransitive prepositional verbs:

accuse of
advise about
charge with
compare with
congratulate on
deprive of
explain to
inform of
interest in

introduce to
persuade of
prevent from
protect from
punish for
sentence to
suspect of
thank for
treal to

Indirect object and Ihat-clause object

16.33

Derek was convinced (by Natalie) (that) she was right.

[la)

With some verbs, including convince, the indirect object cannot be

omitted.
Ir the ,hat-clause introduces an indirect statement, it contains an
indicative verb:
Ava told Jack that dinner was ready.

Most ditransitive verbs that take two noun phrases as objects can also
be paraphrased with a prepositional object equivalent to the indirect
object:

Irit introduces an indirect directive (cfI 4.20), there are several options (c!
16.19): the verb may be indicative or subjunctive, and often contains
putative should or another modal auxiliary:

Robert read me a chapter.

- Robert read a chapter 10 me.
I gave Justin some or my shirts.
- I gave some or my shirts to Justin.

A dozen students petitioned the college cher that he

provides
Provl de
.
them with vegetarian meals. (formal)
shou1d prov!de
might provide

We list some common ditransitive verbs that allow both possibilities.

Those in list ( I ) take the preposition to and those in list (2) take the
preposition for:
( \ ) bring, deny, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, promise, read. send, show,

The indirect directive construction is rare and rormal in comparison with

the equivalent infinitive construction (cf 1 6.36): A dozen studems

teach, throw
find,
make, order, save, spare
(2)

pelitioned the col/ege chef 10 pro"ide fhem with vegetarian meals.

We list common verbs that take an indirect object and (a) a that-clause
object as indirect statement: advise, bet, convince, inform, persuade.
promise, remind, show, teach, tell, warn, write; (b) a that-clause as indirect
directive: ask, beg, command, instruct, order, persuade, tell.

(aJ A few ditransitivc prepositional verbs (eg: pay, sefl'l'. ,ell) take one of two

prepositions. In one the prepositional object is equivalent to the indirect object. in

the other to the direct objcct:
Ooris told David her version or the events.
- Doris told her version or the events to DllI'i(J.
- Doris told David abouf her l'ersiOfl of fhe events.

Prepositional object and that-clause Object

16.34

A few other verbs (eg: e/lvy, excuse. forgil'e) have a prepositional objcct
(introduced by for) that is equivalent 10 the direct object:

Some ditransitive prepositional verbs take a prepositional object and a

that-clause:
Estelle mentioned (to me) that her daughter was getting married.
Phi lip recommended (to me) that I buy Harrods malt whisky.

Matthew envied me my video-recorder.

- Matthew envied mefor my video-recorder.

Robert asked Benjamin a favour.

- Robert asked a ravour of Benjamin.

[I)

Only the first passive is acceptable:

Sidney provided Justin with a Danish apple pastry.

- Sidney provided a Danish apple pastry for Justil/.

[b] Ask takes the preposition of 10 introduce a prepositional object that

equivalent to the indirect object:

Some ditransitivc verbs take as direct object a that-clause:

Natalie convinced Derek (that) she was right.

Some verbs allow more than one preposition. The different possibilities
provide a means of achieving different endfocus (cl 18.5):

NOTE

355

As shown by the parentheses, the prepositional phrase is optional. Some

or the ditransitive verbs listed in 16.33 can be optionally rollowed by a
preposition:

IS

Jonathan wrote (to) me that he was going to a summer camp this

year.

356

Verb complementation

ComplementaHon of verb. and adjective.

(bl The verb promise is exceptional in that the implied subject of the infinitive
clause is the superordinate subject: I promised Howard to take two shirts Jor his
Jather ('I promised Howard that I would take two shirts for his father').

Unlike the verbs in 16.33, ditransitive prepositional verbs allow the

rharclause to become subject of a corresponding passive clause, more
acceptably with extraposition:
That David was innocent has been proved by Jonalhan .
...... It has been proved (by Jonathan) that David was innocent.

Infinitival complementation: monotransltlve, ditransitlve,

complextransltlve

We list examples where (a) the rhatclause is an indirect statement, and

(b) it is an indirect directive: (a) admit, announce, complain, confess,
explain, menrion, poim out, prove, remark, report, say, write (to) ; (b) ask

16.37

(of), propose, recommend, suggest.

Indirect object and wh-clause object

16.35

357

We can now distinguish three superficially identical structures that

conform to the pattern N, V N2 toV NJ, where N is a noun phrase and V
is a verb phrase. The three structures display three types of complemen
tation of the first verb phrase: monotransitive (cf 1 6.23), ditransitive (c!
16.36), and complex-transitive (cf 16.27).
MONOTRANSITIVE

The second object may be a finite whclause:

Martin asked me what time the meeting would end.

Wendy didn't tell me whether she had phoned earlier.

The governors like all parents to visit the school.

Besides ask and reil, the verbs used in this construction are those listed in
group (a) in 16.33. A preposition, usually optional, may precede the
whclause:

[I ]

N,
DITRANSITIVE

Would you remind me (aboUl ) how we start the engine?

Some of the verbs also take a wll-infinitive clause as second object:

I persuaded Justin to write an essay.

She advised us what to wear for the party.

[2]

Prepositional verbs also appear in this pattern:

Could you please suggest to me which museums to visit?

COMPLEX-TRANSITIVE

Indirect object and to-infinitive clause object

16.36

This pattern is used with verbs that introduce indirect directives. Only the
indirect object can be made subject of the corresponding passive
construction:
I persuaded Mark to see a doctor.
Mark was persuaded to see a doctor.

They expected Robert to win the race.

[I]
[ I a]

N,

N,

[3]

(b) When preceded byfor, the infinitive clause, including Nz. can easily
be made the focus of a pseudo-cleft construction:
What the governors like isfor all parents /0 visit the school.

raj With some supcrordinate verbs. the infinitive clause may be replaced in rather
fonnal style by a that-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive:

[I b]

The governors like all parents to visit the school, and the teachers like
that too.

command, emreat,jorbid, implore, instruct, invite, order, persuade, remind,

request, recommend, teach, tell, urge.

I persuaded Mark that he should see a doctor.

'-.,--'

In monotransitive complementation, N2 is within the infinitive clause

and functions as its subject. Accordingly, we find the following features
associated with this type of complementation:
(a) The infinitive clause, including Nz, can be replaced by a pronoun:

The subject of the superordinate clause (J in [1]) refers to the speaker of a

speech act, and the indirect object refers to the addressee (Mark in [I]).
The implied subject of the infinitive clause is generally identified with the
indirect object ('I persuaded Mark that he should see a doctor').
Here is a list of common verbs used in this pattern: advise, ask, beg,

NOTE

Co

(c) The object of the infinitive clause can be made into its subject if the
clause is turned into the passive:

358

Adlecttve complementation

Comptementatlon of verbs and adlKtlve.

Adjective complementatlon

The governors like the school to be visited by all parents.

(d) In a reduced construction, infinitival to is obligatorily retained:

Adjective complementatlon by a prepositional phrase

The governors like them to.

16.38

The governors like them and We like them to are not synonymous.

(e) Existential there can function as subject of the infinitive clause:

Below we give some examples of adjectives listed according to the

prepositions that accompany them. They include participial adjectives (cf
7.5). It is often possible for an adjective to take a choice of prepositions, as
in angry about, angry at, and angry with.

In ditransitive complernentation, none of the features (a)-{e) apply,

since N2 functions as indirect object within the superordinate clause and is
not a constituent of the infinitive clause:

ABOUT:

[2a)
[2b)
[2c)

AT:
FOR:
FROM:

OF:
ON/UPON:
TO:

The infinitive direct object clause can be omitted:

I persuaded Justin.

[2d)

WITH:

On the other hand, the indirect object can be made passive subject of the
superordinate clause:
Justin was persuaded to write an essay.

16.39

* All parents were liked to visit the school.

A complex-transitive verb such as expect in They expected Robert to win
the prize displays the same features as a monotransitive verb such as like,
except that (like ditransitive persuade) N2 is an object and can become the

Like that-clauses following a verb (cf l 6 . 1 7ff), that-clauses following an

adjective may have an indicative verb, a subjunctive verb, or putative
should (cf 1 4 . 1 3f) . Three types are distinguished:
(a) The indicative is used with adjectives expressing degrees of certainty
or confidence (eg: aware, cerrain, confident, sure):
We were confident that Karen was still alive.

passive subject of the superordinate clause:

(b) The subjunctive or putative should is used with adjectives expressing

volition (eg: anxious, eager, willing):

[3a)

With expect, though not with all complex-transitive verbs, there are two
other possible passive constructions (the first applicable also to mono
transitive complementation):
They expected the prize to be won by Robert.
The prize was expected to be won by Robert.

happy, annoyed, reasonable, worried

alarmed, clever, good, hopeless
grateful, sorry
different, distant, distinct, free
afraid, fond,full, tired
dependent, keen, based, set
close, due, grateful, similar, opposed
bored, friendly, happy, pleased

Adjective complementation by a finite clause

[2e)

Contrast, the unacceptability of:

Robert was expected to win the prize.

Like prepositional verbs, adjectives often fonn a lexical unit with a

following preposition. The lexical bond is strongest with adjectives for
which, in a given sense, the complementation is obligatory; for example,
averse to, bent on, conscious of, fond of

We like there to be a full attendance.

*' persuaded that.

*What I persuaded was for Justin to write an essay.
*1 persuaded the essay to be written by Justin.

359

I am anxious that he

{ Z

OUld be

. IS

} permitted to resign.

(c) The indicative or putative should is used with emotive adjectives (eg:
angry, annoyed, glad, pleased, surprised). The indicative is chosen when
the that-clause is intended to refer to an event as an established fact. The
following pairs illustrate the choices:

[3b)
[3c)

In (3c] there are passives in both the superordinate clause and the infinitive
clause.

..

am sorry (that) you hm'e to leave so early.

(that) you should have been (so) inconvenienced.

.
I am surpnsed (that) you didn 't eaU the doctor before.
(that) anyone of your intelligence shouldswallow a
lie like that.

360

Adledive complementatlon

Complementation of verb. and adlectlve.

In a superficially similar construction, the that-clause is an extra posed

subject. Three types or adjectives and the corresponding verb choices are
again distinguished, matching those given above:
(a) It is true that she is a vegetarian.

{;:hould) be } lifted tomorrow.

It is strange that she {
lOuld be } so late.

In type (ii), the sentence corresponds to one in which the adjective

becomes an adverb, while the infinitive becomes the finite verb:

We list common examples or each type:

(a) certain, clear, likely, obvious, plain, possible, true, unlikely
(b) essential, important, impossible, necessary
(c) curious. disappoiming, /ortunate, odd, sad, surprising, ulI/orrunate
NOTE

Some adjeclives lake a wh-clause (nonnally with an indicative verb) as

complementation. Onc type has an experiencer as subject and may be followed by
an optional preposition:
I was doubtful (as to) whether I should stay.
He is careful (about) what he does with his money.
Other examples: ctJrejul (aboul),Jussy (about), unclear (about) , Ill/certain

(of).

unsure (of) .

It was unclear what they would do.

It was not obvious how far the modernization would g

o.

Adjective complementatlon by a tlnflnitlve clause

We distinguish seven kinds or construction in which an adjective is
rollowed by a to-infinitive clause. They are exemplified in the rollowing
sentences, which are superficially alike:
(i) Bob is splendid to wait.
(iO Bob is slow to react.
(iii) Bob is !>orry to hear it.
(iv) Bob is hesitallf to agree with you.
(v) Bob is hard to convince.
(vi) The rood is ready to eat.
(vii) It is important to be accurate.
In types (i-iv) the subject orthe main clause (Bob) is also the subject orthe
infinitive clause. We can thererore always have a direct object in the
infinitive clause ir its verb is transitive. For example, ir we replace
intransitive wait by transitive build in (0, we can have: Bob is splendid to
build this house.

Bob is slow to react.

Bob reacts slowly.

In another analogue, the adjective is followed by in and an ing participle:

Bob is slow ifl reacting. Other adjectives in this small group are quick and
prompt.
In type (iii), the head or the adjective phrase is an emotive adjective
(commonly a participial adjective), and the infinitive clause expresses
causation:
I'm .wrry to have kept you waiting. ['I'm sorry because I have kept
you waiting']
I was excited to be there. ['To be there excited me')
Other adjectives in this type include afraid, ashamed, disappointed, glad,
happy. interested, relieved, surprised, worried.

In the second type the II'h-clause is an extraposed subject:

16,40

1 8.23): It is splendid 0/ Bob to wait. This type also permits a head noun
between the adjective and the infinitive: Bob must be a spiel/did craftsman
10 hal'e built this house. Adjectives in this type are evaluative or human
behaviour. They include careful, careless, crazy,/oolish, mad, nice, silly,
wise, wrong.

(b) It is essential that the ban

(c)

361

For types (v-vii), on the other hand, the subject or the infinitive is
unspecified, although the context onen makes clear which subject is
intended. In these types it is possible to insert a subject preceded by/or: eg
in type (vi): The/ood is ready (/or the children) to eat.
Type (i) has an analogue in a construction involving extraposition (c/

In type (iv), the head or the adjective phrase expresses volition or a

modal meaning such as ability or possibility. Adjectives in this type
include able, aflxious, certain, eager, inclined, keen, likely, ready, reluclam,
sure, unable, willing. Some ofthe most common adjectives in this type tend
to link with the preceding copula be to rorm a semi-auxiliary verb (c/3. 1 8):
be able to. he willing to, be sure to.

In type (v), the subject of the sentence is identified with the unexpressed
object or the infinitive clause. which must thererore have a transitive verb;
hence we could not have *Bob is hard to arril'e. There is an analogous
construction in which the adjective is complement to an infinitive clause
acting as subject or extraposed subject (c/ 1 8.23):
To convim:e Bob is hard.

It is hard to cOllviflce Boh.

Unless there is ellipsis, we cannot omit the infinitive clause, and so a

sentence like The bread was hard to bake in no way implies The bread I\as
hard. Like types (vi) and (vii), type (v) permits/or + subject to be inserted
at the beginning or the infinitive clause: Those darts are awkward (/or a
beginner) to use. Other adjectives in this group include difficult. easy,
impossible, nice (inrormal), pleasafl/.
In type (vi) too the subject orthe main clause is identified with the object
or the infinitive clause. But unlike type (v), type (vi) has no analogous
construction with an infinitive clause subject:
The rood is ready (ror you) to eat.
*To eat the rood is ready.

362

Complementlitlon 01 verbs and adJective.

17

We can generally omit the infinitive clause ( The/ood is ready), and we can
substitute a passive infinitive clause without change of meaning (The/ood
is ready to be ea/en). Other adjectives in this type include available, free,

The noun phrase

soft,

In type (vii) the infinitive clause is an extraposed subject

To spray the trees every year is essential.
It is essential (for you) to spray the trees every year.

17.1

Adjectives in this type express volition, modality, or emotion (c! 16.39).

They incJude jortunate, important, possible, surprising, wrong.
NOTE

la] Some adjectives belong to types (iv) and (vi) (eg: available,fit,free, ready), so
that a sentence like The lamb is ready 10 eat is ambiguous: either equivalent to The
lamb is ready to be ea/en (type vi) or The lamb is ready to eat something (type iv).
[b] l n both lype (v) and type (vi), the infinitive clause can end with a stranded
preposition: He is difficull 10 talk to: The paper is looflimsy 10 wrile 011.

Adjective complementatlon by an -Ing participle clause

16.41

That girl is Angela Hunt.

That g;r\ ;s tall.
That girl was standing in the corner.
You waved to that girl when you entered.
That girl became angry because you waved to her.

An adjective may take an -ing participle clause as its complementation. In

some cases, a preposition optionally intervenes:
I'm busy (with) getting the house redecorated.
We'reforlunate (in) having Aunt Mary as a baby-sitter.
In other cases the preposition is obligatory:

That tall girl standing in the corner who became angry

because you waved to her when you efflered is Angela Hunt.

We are used to not having a car.

I'm hopeless at keeping the garden tidy.
She's not capable of looking after herself.

[la]
[1 b]
[le]
[Id]
[le]
(2)

Moreover, working back from [2], we could unhesitatingly reconstruct

any of the sentences [la- le) and in fact we could not understand the noun
phrase subject of [2) unless we recognized its component parts as they are
set out in [I).
Yet (2) has introduced many changes. We have suppressed all or part of
the verbs in [Ib] and [lc] (different in tense and aspect); we have put the
complement tall of [I b] before the noun girl; we have replaced that girl of
[le] by who.
The purpose of the present chapter is to state the conditions governing
such changes.

Bibliographical note
On phrasal verbs and other types or multi-word verbs, see Aarts (1989); Akimoto
( 1 983); Bolinger (1971); Dixon (1 982b); Frascr ( 1976); Lipka ( 1972); Makkai
( 1972); Sroka ( 1972).
On general aspects or verb classification and complementation, sce AlIerton
( 1982); Andersson (1 985); Chomsky ( 1965, Ch. 2): Fillmore (1968, 1977a, 1977b);
Halliday ( 1967--68); Lyons (1 977, Ch. 12).
On verb compiementation by finite clauses (especially by that-clauses), see
Behre ( 1 955); Kiparsky and Kiparsky (1970).
On verb complementation by nonfinite construction, see Van Ek (1966); Freed
( 1 979): Ma;r ( 1990).

In discussing nouns, determiners, and pronouns in Chapters 5 and 6, we

were of course dealing with the fundamentals of noun-phrase structure.
But we have deferred until this point in the book our consideration of the
noun phrase itself so that other constituents common in noun-phrase
structure (such as adjectives, adverbs, and clauses) had themselves been
individually explored. In other words, just as we have seen in Chapter 14
that the sentence may be indefinitely complex, so may the noun phrase.
This must be so, since sentenccs themselves can be reshaped so as to come
within nounphrase structure. For example, the following simple and
complex sentences [la-le] can be re-expressed as one simple sentence [2]
with a very complex noun phrase as subject:

17.2

In describing complex noun phrases, we distinguish three components:

(a) The head, around which the other components cluster and which
dictates concord and other kinds of congruence with the rest of the
sentence outside the noun phrase. Thus, we can have [I], (2), and [3]:

..

That tall girl standing in the corner . . is . . .

Those tall girls standing in the corner . . . are . . .
He addressed that girl standing in the corner.
.

[ 1]
[2]
[3]

364

Tempor.r), and perm.nent

The noun phr...

(b) The premodijication, which comprises all the items placed before the
head - notably, determiners, adjectives, and nouns. Thus:
That tall girl
Some very expensive office furniture

(c) The postmodijication, comprising all the items placed after the head notably, prepositional phrases, nonfiniteclauses, and relative clauses:

365

question - being treated as unique - will not normally admit restriction.

But any head can be nonrestrictiveiy modified:

The tall girl, who is a chemist, is Angela Hunt.

Here the only information offered to identify the girl as Angela Hunt is the
allusion to her tallness; the mention of her work as a chemist is not offered
as an aid to identification but for additional interest.
Modification at its 'most restrictive' tends to come after the head: that
is, our decision to use an item as a premodifier (such as silly in The silly boy
got lost ) often reflects our wish that it be taken for granted and not be
interpreted as a specific identifier. Secondly, restrictive modification tends
to be given more prosodic emphasis than the head; nonrestrictive
modification, on the other hand, tends to be unstressed in pre-head
position, while in post-head position, its 'parenthetic' relation is endorsed
by being given a separate tone unit (2. 1 5), or - in writing - by being
enclosed by commas.

The chair by the wall

All the boys playing in the garden
A car which she bought recently
We shall also be concerned in this chapter with apposition, a
construction typically presenting noun phrases of identical reference, as
ID:

My dentist, Susan Williams, is heavily overworked. (my dentist is

Susan Williams)
The authorities are worried by the problem 0/ "alldalism. (the
problem is vandalism)

Temporary and permanent

Restrictive and non restrictive
17.3

Modification can be restrictive or nonrestrictive. That is, the head can be

viewed as a member of a class which can be linguistically identified only
through the modification that has been supplied (restriclil'e). Or the head
can be viewed as unique or as a member of a class that has been
independently identified (for example, in a preceding sentence); any
modification given to such a head is additional information which is not
essential for identifying the head, and we call it flOflrestrictive.
In example [2] of 17.\. the girl is only identifiable as Angela Hunt
provided we understand that it is the particular girl who is tall, who was
standing in the corner, and who became angry. Such modification is
restrictive. By contrast, consider the following:
Come and meet my famous mother.
Here, the modificationJamous is understood as nonrestrictive. Again:
Angeia Hunt, who is (over there) in the corner, wants to meet you.
This sentence has a nonrestrictive relative clause since Angela Hunt's
identity is independent of whether or not she is in the corner, though the
information on her present location may be useful enough. In these
examples, the modification is inherently nonrestrictive, since the heads in

17.4

There is a second dichotomy that has some affinities with the distinction
between restrictive and nonrestrictive but rather more with the contrast of
nonprogressive and progressive in predication (4.7ff), and generic or
specific reference in determiners (S.I I1f. S.22J!). Modification in noun
phrase structure may also be seen as permanent or temporary, such that
items placed in premodification position are given the linguistic status of
permanent or at any rate characteristic features. Although this does not
mean that postmodification position is committed to either temporariness
or permanence, those adjectives which cannot premodify have a notably
temporary reference. Thus The man is ready would be understood as
having reference only to a specific time, and this corresponds to the
nonoccurrence of The ready man. On this basis, we see that timid and
aJraid are contrasted in part according as the first is seen as permanent, the
second as temporary:
A man who is timid - A timid man
A man who is afraid An afraid man
_ .

Just as some modifiers are too much identified with temporary status to
appear in pre-head position, so there can be modification constrained to
pre-head position because it indicates permanent status. Compare
originalin the original )'ersion and Her work is quite original ; in the latter, it
would permit adverbial indication of time span (now, always, . . . ), as well
as use in premodification.

Postmodmc.tlon

Postmod IlIcation

On the other hand, human babies can be regarded (though rarely perhaps
by their parents) as not having developed personality:

Explicitness
17.5

367

This is the baby which needs inoculation.

As we saw in 17.1, premodification is in general to be interpreted (and

most frequently can only be interpreted) in terms of postmodification and
its greater explicitness. It will therefore be best to begin our detailed study
of nounphrase structure with the forms of postmodification.
Explicitness in postmodification varies considerably, however. It is
greater in the finite relative clause

Though ships may take the personal pronoun she (5.46 Note [c)), the
relative pronoun is regularly nonpersonal:
Is sire the ship which is due to leave for Panama tomorrow?
It is noteworthy that collective nouns (5.46) are usually treated as personal
when they have plural concord, nonpersonal when they have singular:

The taxi which is waiting outside

The

than in the non-finite clause

.
.
..
{ committee }{ who were } responsible
for thiS decision . . .

group

'I
Whle

was

The taxi waiting outside

from which the explicit tense (;s?/was?) has disappeared, though this in
turn is more explicit than

Case In the relative pronoun

17.6

The taxi outside

from which the verb indicating a specific action has also disappeared. We
are able (and usually must be able) to infer such facts as tense from the
sentential context much as we infer the subject of nonfinite adverbial
clauses (1 5.34);

The woman whose daughter you met is Mrs Brown.

(The woman is Mrs Brown; you met her daughter)
The house whose roof was damaged has now been repaired.
(The house has now been repaired, its roof was damaged)

}r

now IS
. ..
lor me.
.h
The taxI wailing outSI'd e Ias/ mg
t was

Part of the relative clause's explicitness lies in the specifying power of

the relative pronoun. It is capable (a) of showing agreement with the head,
and (b) of indicating its status as an element in the relative clause
structure.
Agreement is on the basis of a two-term 'gender' system. personal and
non-personal (5.45ff):

The girl who spoke to him

The girl to whom he spoke
The girl who(m) he spoke to
The girl who(m) he met

london, which . . .
The fox/animals which . . .
The human body which . . .
The unicorn which . . .

It will be seen from these examples that 'personality' is ascribed basically

to human beings but extends to creatures in the supernatural world
(angels, elves, etc) which are thought of as having human characteristics
such as specch. It does not extend to the body or character, in part or
whole, of a human being, living or dead, when this is considered as
separate from the entire person. Pet animals can be regarded as 'personal'
(at least by their owners):
Rover, who was barking, frightened the children.

[I]
[2]

In examples like [2] where the antecedent head is nonpersonal, there is

some tendency to avoid the use of whose (by using, for example, /he roofof
which), presumably because many regard it as the genitive only of the
personal who.
Secondly, with a personal antecedent, the relative pronoun can show
the distinction between who and whom, depending on its role as subject of
the relative clause or as object or as prepositional complement:

Haw! you no/iced the taxi outside?

Joan, who . . .
The boy/people who . .
The human being who . . .
The fairy who . . .

Case is used to indicate the status of the relative pronoun in its clause.
There are two situations to consider. First, if the pronoun is in a genitive
relation to a noun head, the pronoun can have the form whose:

[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]

It will be noticed that when the governing preposition precedes its

complement (ef 9.2) as in the rather formal [4], the choice of whom is
obligatory. When it does not, as in the more informal [5J, or when the
relative pronoun is the object, as in [6], there is some choice between who
or whom, the latter being preferred in formal written English and by some
speakers, the former being widely current informally.
Relative pronoun and adverbial
17.7

The relative pronoun can be replaced by special adjunct forms for place,
time, and cause:

368

The nCHIn phr...

PostmodltlCllllon

That is the place where he was born.

That is the period when he lived here.
Thai is the reason why he spoke.

Provided the relative pronoun is not the subject of the relative clause, as
in [I] and (2), a further option exists in relative clause structure of having
no relative pronoun at all: the clause with 'zero' () relative pronoun. The
examples [3-6) could take this form:

[I]
[2]
[3]

There are considerable and complicated restrictions on these adjunct

forms, however. Many speakers find their use along with the correspond
ing antecedent somewhat tautologous especially [31 - and would prefer
the whc1ause without antecedent:

The boy we met . . . (who(m), that)

The table we admire . . . (which, that)
The boy the dog barked at . . . (at whom, who(m)/that . . . at)
The table the boy crawled under . . . (under which, which/that . . .
under)

[I a]
[2a]
[3a]

That is where he was born.

That is when he lived here.
That is why he spoke.

Some choice exists in placing a preposition which has a wll-pronoun as its

complement ( 1 7.6); there is no such choice with that and zero, where the
preposition must be postposed.
The choices are summarized in the diagram:

If how is used, such clauses cannot in any case have an antecedent noun:

I
1

That is how he spoke.

[4]

{ : tWhhOat
.

Moreover, there are restrictions on the antecedent nouns that can occur in
[ 1-3]. With [3], reason is virtually alone, and with [I] and [2), it is also the
most general and abstract nouns of place and time that seem to be
preferred. Thus while
The office where he works . . .

man
The table
--:

The day whell he was born . . .

The

are acceptable to most users of English, others would prefer a prep

ositional phrase in each case:
The office
The day

{ at hich . . . (fonnal)

The

which . . . at

{ on .which . . . (fonnal)

NOTE

which . . . on

or one of the less explicit fonns that we shall now be considering (The
office he works at, The day he was born).
Restrictive relative clauses
Choice of relative pronoun
17.8

Though most of the examples in 1 7 .5ffhave been of restrictive clauses, it is

in the nonrestrictive relative clauses that the most explicit forms of relative
pronoun are typically used. In restrictive clauses, frequent use is made of a
general pronoun lhat which is independent of the personal or nonpersonai
character of the antecedent and also of the function oflhe pronoun in the
relative clause:
The boy that is playing the piano . . . (or who)
The table that stands in the corner . . (or which)
The boy thal we met . . . (or who (m) )
The table that we admire . . . (or which)
The boy that the dog barked at . . . (or 01 whom)
The table that the boy crawled under . . . (or under which)
_

[I]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]

369

{ man

table

{ man at whOm }
' h
la ble a t whIC

which

} remamc. d

who(m)
that

}{

which

I saw
I glanced at

glanced

Choices are not only connected with relative formality. Some prepositions cannot
be postposed (the meeting Ihat l slept during). Who is often preferred to that when
it is subject and when the antecedent is personal (people who visit me); but Ihal is
preferred to wllo(m) when it is object, in part perhaps to avoid the who/whom
choice (people IlIal 1 visit ). When the verb in the relative clause is be, the
complement pronoun must be that or zero (John is not the man he lI'a,). This
example illustrates onc orthe most favoured uses of zero: ie when the pronoun is
objcct or complement, the subject is pronominal. and the relative clause is short.
When the antecedent is long and complex, wh-pronouns are preferred:
I have interests outside my daily professional work which give me great
pleasure.

17.9

Just as tllat and zero are available when the relative pronoun is dominated
bya preposition, so they can be used when the relative pronoun is part ofa
place, time, or cause adjunct. With place adjuncts. the preposition must
usually be expressed:
This is the garden (that) he sunbathes in.
This is the university (that) she works at.
With the time adjuncts, however, omission of the preposition is usual
whether the pronoun is that or zero:

P08tmodltlclltton 371

This is the time (that) she normally arrives (at).

Monday was the day (that) he left (on).

NOTE

He emigrated in 1 840, at which lime there was much hardship and unrest.

But when (less frequently and more formally) the pronoun is which, the
preposition must be expressed in these instances and it would be usual to
make it precede the pronoun (cf 17.7):
This is the time at which she normally arrives.
Monday was the day on which he left.

Cf also for which purpose, in which city.for which reason, by which device.

Sentential relative clauses

17.12

With cause and manner adjuncts, the usual pronoun is that or zero, and
there is no preposition:
This is the reason (that) she came.
This is the way (that) he did it.
NOTE

With manner adjuncts, it would not be abnormal to find which with a preposition
in a more formal style:

Cf'and this surprises me'; 'to my surprise'.

Quite often, which is used in these clauses as a determiner of factive
nouns which represent the antecedent clause or sentence:
The train may have been held up, in which case we are wasting our
time.

Quantified heads
Beside the noun phrase the girls Ihat he knelt', we may have one in which
the head is made quantitatively indefinite with the predeterminersuch, the
relative pronoun that being replaced by as:
Compare: As many girls as he knew . . . A further connection with
comparative sentences (c! 15.36) can be seen in:

} girls
,
Ihan he knew were at the party.

The belief that no one is infallible is well-founded.

I agree with the old saying that absence makes the heart growfonder.

The loose non restrictive relationship is often semantically indistinguish

able from coordination (with or without conjunction) or adverbial
subordination, as we indicate by paraphrases in the examples below. The
repertoire of pronouns is limited to the It'h-items:

{ who invited, him to a party.

and
mVlted h'lm to a party.
the other day.
{ who(m). I mentioned
.
Here ' RonaId WaIker
; I mentioned hlnl the other day.
{ which .was enveloped in. fog.
He got Iost on Snowd on,
when was enveloped fog.
which he was exploring.
He got lost on Snowdon, {

Then he met Barbara,

IS

The appositive clause resembles the relative clause in being capable of

introduction by Ihal, and in distinguishing between restrictive and
nonrestrictive. It differs in that the particle Ihal is not an element in the
clause structure (subject, object, etc) as it must be in a relative clause. It
differs also in that the head of the noun phrase must be an abstract noun
such asfact proposition, reply, remark, answer, and the like. For example:
,

Nonrestrlctlve relative clauses

17.11

Appositive clause.
17_13

Such girls as he knew were at the party.

MOre
C"
rewer

One type of nonrestrictive clause has as its antecedent not a noun phrase
but a whole clause or sentence or even sequence of sentences. As with the
clauses in 17. 1 1 , the relationship frequently resembles coordination, but
these clauses are also very much like disjuncts (cf 8.42, 1 5.33). For
example:
' h surprises me.
He admires
' Mrs H ewltt,
' whIC
I find strange.

This is the way in which he did it.

17.10

As a determiner, which appears in nonrestriclive clauses that are introduced by

adjuncts, but this is largely in formal style:

I
SII.'

'

'

11

10

while he was exploring il.

As with apposition generally (cfI 7.27), we can link the apposed units with
he (where the copula typically has nuclear prominence):
The belief is that no one is infallible. ( . . . Is . . .)
The old saying is that absence makes the heart grow fonder.
Or we may replace deverbal nouns like beliefby the corresponding verb
plus object clause: He believes thal I/O one is infallible.
It will be noticed that these restrictive examples have the definite article
before the head noun: this is normal but by no means invariable (except
with a few nouns referring to certainty, especially fact):
A message ,hat he would be late arrived by special delivery.
Plural heads are also rare with appositive postmodification and are
regarded as unacceptable, for example, with belief,facI, possibility.

372
NOTE

Th. noun phr...

Nonrcstriclive appositive clauses can less easily resemble relative clauses since
irrespective or nonreslrictiveness they still involvc the panicle lhO!, in sharp
contrast with nonrestrictivc relativc clauses:

-lid participle clauses

17.15

This ract. that 11101 is obligatory, should be easy to remember.

Consider now the different versions of the following:

The only car that

be repaired
} by that mechanic is mine.
{ will
is (being) repaired
was (being) repaired

The only car (being) repaired by that mechanic is mine.

-/ng participle

17,14

clauses

repaired
.
bein re aired
The only car
by that mechamc
repa re
repaired

Postmodification of the noun phrase is possible with all three of the

nonfinite clause types (14.4), and the correspondence between restrictive
relative and nonfmite clauses will be illustrated. For example:
will

{ write . .

Another example:

be wntmg
writes
the obituaries is my friend,
The man who is writing
wrote
was writing

He is talking to a girl resembling Joan. (,who resembles Joan' not

'who is resembling Joan')
It was a mixture consisting ofoil alld vinegar. ('that consisted . . :)
In all instances, the antecedent head corresponds to the implicit subject of
the nonfinite verb clause; there is no nonfinite postmodifier, therefore,
corresponding directly to the relative clause in:
The obituary that the man is writing will be published tomorrow.
Instead, we must have recourse to the passive: being wrilfen by the man
( 1 7 . 1 5).

'

The antecedent head is identical with the implicit subject of the -et!
postmodifying clause as it is with the -ing construction, but in this case the
participle concerned is as firmly linked with the passive voice as that in the
-ing construction is linked with the active. Hence, with intransitive verbs,
there is no -eel postmodifier corresponding exactly to a relative clause:

The latter will be interpreted, according to the context, as equivalent to

one or other of the former more explicit versions. So too:

But not all -ing forms in nonfinite postmodifiers correspond to progressive

forms in relative clauses. Stative verbs, which cannot have the progressive
in the finite verb phrase, can appear in participial form:

neXl week . . .
now . . .
on Tuesdays . . .
before he left . . .

Any coins found on Ihis site must be handed to the police.

('that are found . . .' or, more precisely, 'that may be found . . . )

The man writing the obituaries is my friend.

A tile/alling/rom a roo/shattered into fragments at his feet. ('which

/ell from a roof')
At the station you will see a lady carrying a large umbrella. ('who will
be carrying a large umbrella')
The student writing on the board when you came in . . . ('who was
writing . . ,')

Again, the latter will be interpreted, according to the context, as

equivalent 10 one of the former. Thus:

Postmodlflcation by nonfinlte clauses

The train which has arrived at plat/orm one is from York.

The train arrived at plalform one is from York.
Infinitive clauses
17.16

The nonfinite clause in

The next train 10 arrive was from York.
could, in a suitable context. have precisely the same meaning as the
relative clause which arrived. But the subject of an infinitive clause need
not be the antecedent. It may be separately introduced by the/or-device
( 1 5.9) or it may be entirely covert:
The man /or John to consult is Wilson.
The man to conslllt is Wilson.
The latter nonfinite clause could be understood, according to context,
as '(The man) that you/he, etc, should consult' or 'that ereryofle should
consult', Still more elliptically, the infinitive clause may omit also an entire
adjunct phrase, as in:
The lime (for YOII) 10 arrive is 8 p.m.
A good place (for her) 10 stay is the White Hart.

374

Po.tmodlHcatlon by prepo.ltlonal phr....

The noun phr...

Here a fairly common alternative is to introduce the relative pronoun and

retain the infinitive clause:
. . . time at which to arrive . . .
. . . place at whIC
- h t0 stay . . .

375

There are cases of non finite postmodification where no corresponding

finite apposition exists:

} (the subject obligatorily absent )

Any attempt to leave early is against regulations.

( * . . . that one should leave early . . . )
He lost the ability to use his hands.

Compare the way in which to do it beside the way to do it.

Finally it should be noted that voice and mood are variable, the latter
covertly:

In all these examples, the construction obliges us to infer the (often

indefinite) subject of the infinitive clause from the context. But a subject
may be explicitly introduced by a prepositional device:

The time to arrive ( = at which you should arrive)

The case to be investigated ( = that will or is to be investigated)
The money to buy food ( = with which you (or they etc) may buy)
The procedure to be followed ( which must or should or will be
followed)

The appeal for Winifred to join . .

Any attempt by Harold to leave . . .
.

Nonrestrlctlve postmodlllcation
17.17

Postmodification with nonfinite clauses can also be nonrestrictive:

The apple tree, swaying gently in the breeze, had a good crop offruit.
('which was swaying . . . )
The substance, discovered almost by accident, has revolutionized
medicine. ('which was discovered . . .')
This scholar, to be seen daily in the British Museum, has devoted his
life to the history of science. ('who can be seen . . .')

Postmodlllcatlon by prepositional phrases

Relation to more explicit modifiers

'

These clauses can be moved 10 initial position without change ofmeaning,

but in that case they can no longer be expanded into finite relative clauses.
Indeed, they have an implicit semanlic range beyond that of a relative
clause (cf 1 5.35). Thus the nonfinite clause in this example:
The woman, wearing such dark glasses, obviously could not see
clearly.
could be a reduction of a relative clause ;who was wearing . . .' or of a
causal clause 'because she was wearing . . .' or ofa temporal clause such as
'whenever she wore . . '
.

NOTE

A prepositional phrase is by far the commonest type of postmodification

in English: it is three or four times more frequent than either finite or
nonfinite clausal postmodification. The full range of prepositions is
involved:
The road to Lincoln
A tree by a stream
The house beyond the church

Two years before the war

A manfrom the electricity board
This book Oil grammar

including the complex prepositions (9.3):

Action in case of.fire

Passengers on board the ship

and including those having participial form:

A delay pending further inquiry

Cjthe semantic versatility noted in finite nonrestrictive relative clauses.

1 7. 1 1 .

Appositive postmodlflcatlon
17.18

17.19

Appositive postmodification is fairly common by means of infinitive

clauses. A restrictive example:
The appeal to join the movement was well received.
This would correspond to the finite Ihal people shOllldjoin the movement.
A corresponding nonrestrictive example:
This last appeal, to come and visit him, was never delivered.

Among the prepositions less commonly used in postmodification we

should mention Jike in the sense 'resembling': 'The man like John is over
there'. But it is common and fully acceptable in the sense 'such as':
A man like John would never do that.
It is natural to relate such prepositional postmodifications to sentences
or relative clauses with be ('the man in the corner' ...... the man (w"o) is in
the corner'), though in some instances more seems to be ellipted than the
verb be. For example. we presumably need to regard
The university as a politicalforum
as related to a somewhat fuller predication:

376

The noun phr...

.
. . acting
The university IS
regarded

Postmodlflcatlon by preposition s. phr....

..
} as a political
forum.

Again, although there is no problem with

This book on grammar

This book, on grammar,
The issue of student grants
The issue, of student grants,

The presentfor her birthday cost a great deal. (The present is for her
birthday)
The person for the job is Anila ( = the right person for the job . . . )

The issue, student grants,

So too, it is not through be sentences that we must understand

It would thus have the primary form described in 1 7.27. On the other
hand, if the ambiguous noun phrase

The guest with a funny hat

The issue(,) of student grants(,)

but rather through hal'e sentences (The man has a red beard'): cf 9.14
Note [cl .

had its nonappositive meaning (objective of: 'someone issued student

grants'), nonrestrictive function would be rare and unnatural, plainly
suggesting an awkward afterthought.

The ogenltlve
17.20

It is with "GI'e sentences that we must find the most obvious resemblance
when we turn to the commonest prepositional postmodification of all, the
of-phrase:
A man of courage- The man has courage
But, as we saw in 5.50, many relationships find expression through the of
genitive, and one that deserves brief consideration here is the appositive
relation ( 1 7.27) which in fact resembles a be sentence:
The pleasure of your company ...... Your company is a pleasure
Where the postmodification has an -ing clause, the subject may have to be
inferred from the context or it may be identified with a premodifier or the
head:
The hope of winning a prize ( = X hoped that X would win a prize)
John's hope of winning a prize ( = John hoped that he would . . . )
But a separate subject may be introduced:
John's hope of Mary( 's) winning a prize ( = John hoped that Mary
would . . . )
On Mary versus Mary's here, see 1 5.10. Where the postmodification has a
deverbal noun, a specified 'subject" must, of course, be genitive:
Bill's hope of Sarah's arrival ( = Bill hoped that Sarah would arrive)
Restrictive and nonrestrictive

17.21

Prepositional phrases may thus be nonappositive or appositive, and in

either function. they can be restrictive or nonrestrictive:

(nonappositive, restrictive)
(nonappositive, nonrestrictive)
(appositive, restrictive)
(appositive, nonrestrictive)

But we must mention some limitations. The last example is rare and rather
awkward: nonrestrictive appositives would more usually be without a
preposition, as in

we cannot interpret so straightforwardly

The man with a red beard

377

Position and varied relationship

17.22

As with nonfinite postmodifiers when nonrestrictive, so with prepositio

nal phrases, the nonrestrictive function merges with adverbial expres
sions; compare (I} and [2]:

.
.
behind the fence .
Jeered at the soldiers.
The children
on the bus
which means 'Those children who were . . .

[ I]

'

.
.
behind the fence .
,Jeered at the soldiers.
The children,
on the bus

[2]

which means 'The children, who (by the way) were . . .' or, on the other
hand, 'The children, now that they were (safely . . . r. It is rather this latter
implication that becomes uppermost if the prepositional phrase is moved
into initial position:
Behind the fence
'
On the bus,

.
.
} the children
Jeered at the soldiers.
.

Again, the prepositional phrase in the following is poised between

interpretation as nonrestrictive postmodifier and as adverbial:
Money, in aid of the refugees, was collected from students and staff.
In the former interpretation, the money collected was in aid of the
refugees, whereas in the latter, 'he act ofcollecting money was in aid of the
refugees, since in this case the adverbial modifies the whole predication
just as it would in initial position:
In aid of the refugees, money was collected .

378

Th. noun phr...

dislike Brown painting his daughter. ( (7a])

watched Brown painting his daughter. (ie: eilher I watched Brown
as he painted or I watched the process of Brown('s) painting his
daughter)
Brown deftly painting his daughter is a delight to watch. ( = [4b)
and (l})
Painting his daughter, Brown noticed that his hand was shaking. (ie
while he was painting)
Brown painting his daughter that day, I decided to go for a walk.
tie because Brown was painting)
The man painting the girl is Brown. (ie who is painting)
The silently painting man is Brown. (ie who is silently painting)
Brown is painting his daughter.
I

Nomlnallzallon
17.23

We should not, however, exaggerate the difference between the preposit

ional phrase as adverbial and the prepositional phrase as postmodifier.
The second of these should rather be regarded as a special instance of the
first, depending for its interpretation on our ability to relate it to a
sentence in which it is adjunct. In the following, for instance,
(a) A quarrel broke out in the morning o\'er pay.
both the prepositional phrases are introduced as adjuncts. If we wish to
refer again to the quarrel, these adjuncts may now become postmodifiers:
(b) The quarrel in the morning ruined their friendship.
(c) The quarrel over pay was the reason for his resignation.
The relation of postmodifier to adjunct may be even clearer if, instead of
(a), (b), and (c), we take a sentence in which quarrel occurs as a verb:
17.24

We can now see that there is a one-far-one correspondence between the

verb quarrelled in (d) and the head of the subject noun phrase quarrel in
(a), (b), and (c); likewise between the adjuncts in (d) and the postmodifiers
in (b) and (c). It is when we have such a correspondence between clause
elements and noun-phrase constituents that we speak of such a noun
phrase as a nominalization. Further examples:

(9)

(10)
(11)
(12)
[13J
[14]
[15 ]

We come now to some relatively minor types of postmodification. These

are by (a) adverb phrases; (b) postposed adjectives (cf 7.8); and (c)
postposed 'mode' qualifiers. For example:
(a) The road back was dense with traffic.
(b) Something strange happened last night.
(c) Lobster Newburg is difficult to prepare.
In (a) we recognize some such phrases as 'The road which leads back (to
,
London) . from which all but the subject and an important adjunct have
been dropped. Similarly 'The way (which leads) in (to the auditorium)"
The people (who are sitting)just behind'.
In (b), we have in fact two sUbtypes. The first has been illustrated. The
indefinite pronouns such as allybody, someone can be followed but not
preceded by adjective modification. The pronouns concerned arc the OIlY-,
some, no- series (6.2Iff) plus one or two others (cl: what else, who lIext,
elc). But we are not free to postpose with indefinites all modifying items
that can be preposed with ordinary noun heads:

She refused to answer.

-- Her refusal to answer
He writes well.
-- (He is) a good writer
The reviewer severely criticized -- The reviewer 's se'ere
criticism 01 the book
the book.

In relation to (d), we might also have in place of (b) and (c) respectively 'Their
quarrellillg in rhe morning ruined . . .', Their quarrelling o'erpay was . . .'. On such
-ing clauses, see 15.10; but we recognize a gradience from concrete count nouns in
-ing, through what is Iraditionally called 'gerund', 10 Ihe purely participial form in

a finite verb phrase:

Some paintings of Brown's (ie some paintings that Brown owns)

Brown's paintings of his daughter (ie paintings owned by Brown,
depicting his daughter but painted by someone else)
Brown's paintings of his daughter (ie they depict his daughter and
were painted by him)
The painting of Brown is as skilful as that of Gainsborough.
(ie Brown's (a) technique of painting or (b) action of painting)
Brown's deft painting of his daughter is a delight to watch. (ie It is a
delight to watch while Brown deftly paints his daughter)
Brown's deftly painting his daughter is a delight to watch. ( "" [4b]
and (5) in meaning)
I dislike Brown's painting his daughter. (ie I dislike eilher (a) the fact
or (b) the way Brown does it)

[8)

Minor types of poslmodlflcatlon

(d) They quarrelled in the morning over pay.

NOTE

[I)

A party official is waiting.

[2J

Somebody timid

(4]
(5)

(7]

Somebody party is

waiting.

Even adjectives need generally to be 'permanent' and hence eligible

equally for attributive and predicative use ( 1 7.4); thus:

(3)

(6)

bur 1I0t

lA.

rather than

Somebody afraid

The other subtype in (b) consists chiefly of the sprinkling of noun-plus

adjective phrases (modelled on French) like blood royal, heir apparent.
These are of little importance in themselves, being infrequently used
(though our ability to form names like Hotel Majestic suggests that they
are more than mere fossils) and it is likely that the native speaker feels

Multiple modltlcallon

380 The noun phrase

them to be very similar to compound nouns. Nevertheless, beside this

subtypc, there is a similar hut much morc general phenomenon. When a
head is nonrestrictively modified by a coordinated string of adjectives, it is
common to postpose them:

By bringing (a) and (b) together, we can produce complexes such as:
The girl and boy in the corner (and) talking to Peter
(c) The head of a modifying phrase may itself be modified; thus

A man, timid and hesitant, approached the official.

The girl in the corner

though the potential mobility of the string allows it to be detached from

the noun phrase altogether (cl 1 7. 1 7). Even a restrictively modifying
adjective can be poslposed if it is itself modified (by an adverb capable of
being an adjunct, nol by the intensifier very: e/7.9):

By bringing (a), (b), and (c) together, we can form

The girl and boy in the corner nearest the door talking to Peler
But fastidious users of English would prefer to end with a relative clause
here ('. . . who are talking to Peter'), no doubt in response to an instinct
that prompts the introduction of explicitness at a point which is relatively
distant from the head.

(currently) available.

and

The girl talking to Peter

can be brought together as

The girl in the corner (and) talking to Peter
Without conjunction, there would usually be a hierarchy:
{[The girl (in the corner)] talking to Peter}
(b) A modification may be applicable to more than one head. Thus
The girl in the corner

17.26

Frequently, careful ordering of constituents in a noun phrase is essential

to communicate all (and only) one's intention. To take an obvious
example, the following pair differ in meaning and are not mere stylistic
variants:
The man in black talking to the girl
The man talking to the girl in black

The ears of the man in the deckchair

(a) A head may have more than one postmodification. Thus

The girl in the corner

Ambiguity and constraints on multiple modification

One of the chief reasons for preferring the of-phrase to the -s genitive is to
avoid discontinuity (with unwanted humour); thus:

Multiple modification
17.25

The corner nearest the door

The girl in the corner nearest the door

But this is particularly common where the modification is ora 'temporary'

nature ( 1 7.4). Thus beside The finest available car, we have Thefinest car

Another play a la Beekett has appeared, though 1 forget who wrote it.

and

may be brought together as

A man notoriously limid is unfit for this task. (cl: A man very timid)

With (c), we again encounter a French model: Lobster Newburg.

Though virtually confined to cuisine, it is moderately productive within
these limits, perhaps especially in AmE. In BrE one finds veal paprika and
many others, but there is some resistance to this type of postposition with
other than French lexical items, as in pate maison, sole bonne femme.
Though technically a prepositional phrase phenomenon, expressions
involving a la clearly belong here. It appears in culinary formations like
chicken a la king, and also (informally or facetiously) to designate style:

381

and

The boy in the corner

can be brought together by multiple-head rules which permit the

determiner to apply to both heads (cf 1 3.25):
The girl and boy in the corner

and not
*The man's ears in the deckchair
On the other hand, the group geniril'e construction enables us to postpose
the 's inflection and avoid sequential of-phrases:
The man in the deckchair's ears
Cf also a teacher of music's qualifications, the principal of the college's
appointment, a week or so 's rest, all hour alld a half's discussion.

A special type of mUltiple modification that requires careful ordering

occurs when the modifying clause becomes itself embedded in a clause.
Consider the following series:
Jane will write a poem for you.
Tom hopes (that) Jane will write a poem for you.
Y will read the poem (which) Tom hopes (that) Jane wiIJ wrilefor you.

382

The noun phr...

Premodmc..tlon

Cl also my friend Annat the year

In this last sentence, the relative pronoun (which) is object in the italicized
relative clause, When, however, a relative pronoun is subject, the
conjunction that must be omitted:
A poem will be written for you,
Tom hopes (that) a poem will be written for you,

Doctor lames Ke/ly. Lake Michigan.

NOTE

NOTE

the verb 'know'. Titles and

designations can be regarded as a special form of restrictive apposition:

fa] Appositives need

not be noun phrases; compare:

She is bigger than her brother. heavier, that is.

Sixthly and lastly, I reject the claim on ethical grounds.
He angered, nay infuriated, his audience.

hopes will
.
I will read the poem (whIch)
Tom .
. be wrmenfor you.
hopes that Wl"
.

ZOOO,

383

{b) References to words, books. etc, are often expressed in appositive fonn: 'the
word geese', 'the good ship Venus', 'the play Romeoand Jutiet'. This e plains why,
when the generic item is absent, concord is singular: 'geese is irregular'. 'Has
Romeo and Juliet ever been filmedT

Even wilh simpler examples and the most careful ordering, we may find clarity and
acceptable grammar difficult to attain in multiple modification. Beginning with

He liked the smiles of delight on all the faces.

a noun phrase based on this sentence and having smiles as its head may be
ambiguous in one ordering:
The smiles of delight on all the faces that he liked
(was it the smiles or the faces that he liked?), and grammatically awkward in
another.

Premodlllcallon
TypeS of premodltylng Item
17.28

Apposition
17.27

Two or more noun phrases are in apposition when they have identity of
reference. The appositives may be juxtaposed as in [I] or separated as in
[2], without formal expression oftheir relationship; or the apposition may
be indicated by a conjunction as in [3] and [4] or by forms such as Ihat is
and namely as in [5]. Particularly in [41 and [5], we see that apposition often
involves explanatory paraphrase.

Linguistics or the study of language attracts many students.

The outcome, that is her reeleclion, was a complete surprise.

(3)
[41
(5]

As we have already seen in earlier sections, apposition can also be

expressed by thatc1auses ( 1 7. 1 3), by non finite clauses ( 1 7 . 1 8), and by
prepositional phrases ( 1 7.20/).
In all the examples [1-5] above, the apposition has been nonrestrictivet
but the relation can also be restrictive (cl 17.3). Compare:
He was examined by lames Kelly, a doctor. [nonrestrictive]
He was examined by lames Kelly the doctor. [restrictive]

I visited his delightful cottage. (His cottage is delightful)

(b) PARTICIPLE

I visited his crumbling cottage. (His cottage is crumbling)

I visited his completed cottage. (His cottage has been completed)

[1]

His birthday present lay on the table, a book on ethics, the work
of his professor.
[21
My husband, and (my) coauthor is dissatisfied with the last

chapter.

(a) ADJECTIVE

(c) S GENITIVE

A professional singer, someone trained in Paris, had been

engaged for the concert.

Holding constant a lexical frame (his . . . cottage) and nonrestnctlve

function, we have the following range of premodifying items:

I visited his fisherman's cottage. ( Cf The cottage belonged to a

fisherman)
It should be noticed that if we had used a more normal genitive example

(his uncle's cottage) we would have changed the relationship of his.

(d)

NOUN

I visited his country cottage. (His cottage is in the country)

(e) ADVERBIAL
I visited his faraway cOllage. (His cottage is far away)
(I) SENTENCE
(?) I visited his pop-downjorlheweekend cottage. (Cf His cottage is

one that he can pop down to for the weekend)

364 The noun phrase

Premodiflcation

This last type is largely playful and informal. Somewhat more generally
used are noun phrases which can be interpreted either as having a sentence
as premodifier or as being object (usually of know) in an embedded noun
clause:

Her mind interests me very much.

But an item can be a premodifier and yet disallow very:
A roaring bull (*very roaring)

He asked ! don't know Hdwmany people.

And the converse can be true:

A premodifying adjective, especially when it is the first item after the

determiner, can itself be premodified in the same way as it can in
predicative position (7.32):

look, smile:

reaSSUring }
{
expression.
He greeted me with a very shoced

Some intensifiers tend, however, to be avoided with premodifying

adjectives. Thus the predicative phrase in His cottage which is so beautiful
would seem a little affected in premodification: His so beautiful co((age.
With indefinite determiners, so would be replaced by such (cf 7. 35 ):

surpnscd

The man himselr cannot have shock or surprise attributed permanently to

him, but a particular look can or course be permanently associated with
such a value. So too we may speak or a smilingface rather than of a smiling
person. It is thus necessary to realize that we are not here concerned with
particular participles so much as with their contextual meaning. A
wandering minstrel is onc habitually given to wandering, but ir we saw a
man wandering down the street, we could not ask:

A cottage which is so beautiful- Such a beautiful cottage

Or else so plus adjective would be placed before the determiner: So
beautiful a cottage.

There is resistance also to transferring clause negation to a structure of

premodification, and this is possible only in limited circumstances
(usually not plus intensifier or negative affix):

*Who is the wandering man?

,
very pleasant.
The dmner was not
unp1easanl.

NOTE

{ very pleasant } dlOner.

'
unp1easant

On adjectives that cannot be used in premodification, see 7.22. By contrast, there

are premodifying adjectives that cannot be related to clauses with a corresponding
predicative usage: cf7.l7jJ.
Premodlflcatlon by participles
-;ng participles

17.30

Everything here depends on the potentiality of the participle to indicate a

permanent or characteristic feature. To a lesser extent, gradability
(especially as indicated through intensification by very) is involved.
Consider:
She has a very interesting mind.
Here interesting is fully adjectival (7. Sf) despite the direct relation to the
verb interest :

This last example will illustrate the crucial significance of the 'perma
nence' characteristic; such participles can rreely premodify nouns such as

His really quite unbelievably delightful cottage

-- The not

reassuring
reassuring.
man.
The man was very shoced. ?He was a shoced
surpnsed.
surpnsed

Premodlllcatlon by adjectives
17.29

385

Again, someone who told good stories could be a (very) entertaining

person, but one could not say this of someone who happened, at the
moment of speaking. to be entertaining some rriends with a good story.
17.31

The indefinite article ravours the habitual or permanent, the definite

article the specific or temporary (cf 17.4). Thus
IThe approaching train is from Liverpool.
is strange (especially in BrE) but not
He was frightened by an approaching train.
where we are concerned perhaps with what is characteristic in 'approach
ing trains'. Similarly, ?The barking dog is my neighbour's, compared with
the quite normal ! was wakened by a barking dog. On the other hand, after
an indefinite head has been postmodified by an -ing clause, the -ing
participle can premodify the same head plus definite article:
A proposal offending many members . . . -tThe offending
proposal . . .
In addition, the definite article may be used generically (5.24) and hence
evoke the same generality and permanence as the indefinite:

386

The noun phr._

PremodlftClltlon

The beginning student should be given every encouragemenl.

But there are exceptions which suggest that the semantic and aspectual
factors are more complicated than here described. For example, although
a sum of money can go on being needed, onc does not normally say *the
needed money. Modified by adverbs, of course, the starred examples
become acceptable: a recently( -)sold car, elc.
Finally, some items in -ed are not participles at all but are directly
formed from nouns:

-ed participles

17.32

Much of what has been said of -ing participles applies to -ed participles
also, but there are additional complications. In the first place, an -ed
participle can be active or passive, but as with postmodification ( 1 7 . 1 5)
the active is rarely used in premodification. Contrast
The immigrant who has arrived

with

The arrived
immigrant

the vaulted roo, ajiuted pillar, a wooded hillside

f

But constraints occur (perhaps dictated merely by semantic redundancy),

such that there is no a powered engine, a haired child, a legged man,
though we have a diesel-powered engine, a red-haired child, a long-legged

The vanished treasure ('The treasure which has vanished') and A retired
teacher are exceptional, but exceptions are somewhat more general when

an active participle is adverbially modified:

man.

The newly-arrived immigrant

Our recently-departed friend

Premodlflcatlon by genitives

Within the passive, we must distinguish the statal from the actional or true
passive (3.25); a statal example:

17.34

Some complicated machinery - The machinery is complicated.

(The machinery was complicated by the designer)
Here belong also born and some uses of hidden married troubled
darkened, etc, but in premodification they must either have 'permanent'
reference or be adverbially modified: a married man, a newly-born child, a
carefully-hidden spy. The last example illustrates a noteworthy general
contrast between -ing and -ed participles. Beside the similarity in

postmodification between the following:

where these must predetermine the plural women's and the phrase must
mean 'the clothing of these French women' and not 'the French clothing
of these women' which would require the order These women's French
clothing. If the former ('the clothing of. . :), then an intermediate modifier
will be interpreted as referring to the head. Thus

This French women's clothing

the latter unlike the fonner resists premodification:

would mean 'this French clothing belonging to (or designed for) women'.
Ambiguous instances are, however, common: an old man 's bicycle
(contrast: a man's old bicycle) could mean 'the bicycle belonging to an old
man' or 'an old bicycle designed for a man' (or - in principle - even 'a
bicycle designed for an old man').

*A carefully-hiding spy . . .
Most -edparticiples are of the agential type and naturally only a few will
easily admit the pennanent reference that will pennit premodifying use.
We may contrast:
The wanted man was last seen in Cambridge. (The man goes on
being wanted by the police)
The found purse was returned to ilsowner. (The purse was found at
a particular moment)
But a losl purse is grammatical, because although a purse is no longer
regarded as 'found' after it has been retrieved, a purse will be regarded as
'lost' throughout the period of its disappearance. So too: the defeated
army, a broken vase, a damaged car, ilS relieved owner. But not: a sold car,
the mentioned article, a built house, a described robber.

A noun phrase like afisherman 's cottage is ambiguous: the cottage belongs
to a fishennan or belonged to a fisherman (or resembles the cottage of a
fisherman). As distinct from a delightful cottage or a completed cottage,
the determiner need not refer forward to the head: more usually, it refers
only to the genitive. If the latter, then any intennediate modifiers between
the determiner and the genitive must also refer only to the genitive. Thus
These French women's clothing

A spy, carefully hidden in the bUShes,

kept watch on the house.
A spy, carefully hiding in the bushes,

17.33

387

NOTE

On gcnitive modification in general. sec 5.49ff; on thc group genitive. see 17.26.

Premodlficatlon by nouns
17.35

Noun premodifiers are often so closely associated with the head as to be

regarded as compounded with it. In many cases, they appear to be in a
reduced-explicitness relation with prepositional postmodifiers:
The question of partition - The par'tition question
The door ofthe cupboard - The cupboard 'door
A village in Sussex
- A Sussex 'village

388

Pr.modlllcatlon

Th. noun phr...

But not all noun premodifiers have prepositionalphrase analogues:

indicates that his last book was brilliant without commitment to whether
any of his others were. In some instances, however, we do indeed have
multiple modifications in which no priority among modifiers need be
assumed; to these we may give separate prosodic emphasis or introduce
commas in writing:

Bernard Miles was both actor and producer -. The actorpro'ducer

Attention must be drawn to two important features in premodification by
nouns:
( 1 ) Plural nouns usually become singular, even those that otherwise
have no singular form (eI5.44):

His LAST BRiLLIANT B60K ('his last and brilliant book')

Or we may formally coordinate them. Thus there would be little difference
between

The leg of the trousers - The 'trouser leg

But while singularization is normal it is by no means universal (cl:
the arms race), especially with noun premodification that is not
hardening into a fixed phrase or compound: The committee on

Her forceful, lucid remarks

His handsome but scarred face

Her lucid (and) forceful

remarks.

His scarred but handsome face

With multiple head

17.37

Modification may apply to more than one head (cl 1 3.25):

The new table
.
The new chairs

The new table and chairs

The multiple head thus produced can now be subject to recursive or

coordinate modification:

The girl jn tire corner (spoke to me) _ . The corner girl . . .

"
The beautiful new table and chairs
The new table and chaIrsThe new (but) ugly table and chairs

We must insist again that this is not a properly of the lexical item (in this
instance, corner) but of the semantic relation; cl 17.4.

17.36

and

When coordinated modifiers relate to properties that are normally

thought to conflict, the coordinator will probably not be and:

promotions - The pro'motions committee.

(2) According to the relationship between the two nouns, the accent will
fall on the premodifier or the head; for example, An iroll 'rod but A
'war story. The conditions under which the latter stress pattern is
adopted are by no means wholly clear but they are also connected
with the conventionalizing of a sequence in the direction of
compounding.
A notable constraint against making postmodifying phrases into
premodifying nouns is the relative impermanence of the modification in
question. Thus while The table in the corner will readily yield The corner
table, we cannot do the same with

389

Multiple premoclltlcatlon

If we coordinated learned papers and books as in (He wrote) learned

papers and books, we would suggest that learned applies to both papers and
books. Ifit should not, we can either reorder (books and learnedpapers) or
introduce separate determiners (some learned papers and some books).

With single head

With modified modifier

The three types of multiple modification specified in 17.25 apply to

premodification also. More than one premodifier may be related to a
single head, with no grammatical limit on the number:
His brilliant book -. His last book -. His ( . . . ) book.
,..., His last brilliant ( . . .) book
This is, however, misleading in giving the impression that the multiple
modifiers constitute an unordered and coordinate string. It usually
follows a recursive process:
His book _His brilliant book ..... His [last (brilliant book)
We would here mean that, of several brilliant books, we are speaking only
of his last one; by contrast
His book ..... His last book - His [brilliant (last book)

17.38

We have already seen two types of modification with modified modifier:

f cottage ( 1 7.29)
His really quite unbelievably delightul
These French women's clothing ( 1 7.34)

In a third type, the noun premodifier can be itself premodified by either

adjective or a noun and, if the latter. this can in turn be similarly
premodified:

The small office furniture

"
The office rurntture
- The Iox 0..1J
n;,ce rurnt"turc
The property /{IX office furniture.
CThe house property tax office furniture

It should be noted, however, that if we were to introduce an adjective in

this last noun phrase. already clumsy and improbable, (i) it would have to

390

Pr.modlflutlon

Yh. noun phr...

come immediately after the determiner, and (ii) it would normally be

interpreted as relating directly to the head furniture rather than to house,
the only other possibility:

Next closest to the head is the noun premodifier, already exemplified

with London, city, and Unifed States in the foregoing examples. When two
nouns premodify, one which corresponds to the head as object 10 verb will
follow one relating to material or agency:

{detergent }{ container
cardboard
carton
{ciga'rette } IIg' ter '""'
my ,

The {pleasant [house property) tax) office] furniture}

This is not to say, however, that obscurity cannot exist or that noun
premodifiers can modify only the next following noun. Consider A new
giant size cardboard detergent carton, where size does not premodify
detergent but where the linear structure is rather:

gas

Other complexities In premodlflcatlon

17.41

A friendship between a boy and girl becomes A boy alld girlfriendship. A

committee dealing with appointments and promotions can readily be
described as The appointments andpromolionscomminee, while one whose
business is the allocation of finance can be The allocatioll of finance

NOTE

a carved Gothic doorway

a black dividing line

{;OUs }
mere
United States

a green carved idol

an old blue dress

a very young physics student

*[cerebral (palsied
children)]

a really very elderly trained nurse

a large enough lecture room

Next comes the large class that we may call 'general', except that between
'general' and colour (and usually all other modifiers to the right) comes
the diminutive unstressed use of lillle. Thus, not an old liule blue
ornament, bue
gracious
typical
beautiful
t
blue ornamen
.
. Ie
IItt
a peculiar
old carved GothiC doorway
handsome
hideous
splendid

{Old

Denominal and nominal

The item that must come next before the head is the type of denominal
adjective often meaning 'consisting of', 'involving', or 'relating to', and
this can be preceded by a wide range of premodifying items:
extravagant
pleasant
'c
. I I lie
!iocra
the
only
London

some interlocking Chinese designs

These are preceded by adjectives of age, together with the premodifiers

and post modifiers that these and other freely gradab\e adjectives may
have:

Coordination gives rise to numerous difficuhies in premodification. Beside the

relatively explicit children with impaired speech, we have the prcmodified form
speech-impaired children. But since speech and hearing arc so often jointly
impaired, we are involved in the need to have a corresponding premodification,
speech(-) and hearing(-) impaired children, clear enough in spoken English but
possibly requiring a clumsy double hyphenation to make it clear in writing.

Gothic church architecture

Preceding the participle, we have adjectives of colour:

Relative sequence of premodlflers

17.40

my ,gas ciga'relte lighter

and preceding this type is the participle:

A noun phrase in which there is noun premodification can be given the

denominal affix which puts it into the 'consisting of' class of adjectives
(7.26) while retaining the noun premodifier; hence, from party politics we
have (a) party political (broadcast).
Similarly. a noun phrase having a denominal adjective may itself take a
denominal affix to become a premodifier in a noun phrase. For example,
beside cerebral palsy ( = 'palsy' of the cerebrum), we have cerehral palsied
children which has the structure (cf 17.33):
alld not

carton

Classes or adjectives
Next before a noun modifier, the most important class of items is the
adjective of provenance of style:
a Russian trade delegation

commillee.

{[(cerebral palsy)ed] children}

{ container

- a cardboard detergent

not *my cigarette gas lighter

A (new {(giant size) [cardboard (detergent carton)]})

17.39

391

See Fig 17.41 which illustrates the relative positions of items in

premodification.
NOTE

poI"mcaI problem

....

There are many qualifications to the foregoing. The general' adjectives, for
example. are not placed randomly but comprise several subclasses. Wc would
prefer a small round table to ?a round small table; se'eral lhjck even slices to several

392

Dil(:ontlnuous modification 393

The noun phra..

e'en lhick slices; afierce shaggy dog to a shaggy fierce dog; a lall angr}' man to an
angry lall man; a brief hOSlile glance to a hoslile brief glance. Evaluative or

subjective adjectives frequently precede those that are relatively objective or

measurable; size often precedes shape; within size, height often precedes girth.
'General' adjectives are themselves preceded by semantically weak items like nice,
by nonpredicable items like mere, by quantifiers. numemls. determiners, and
associated closedsystem items (S.3D).
g('n('ral
/Nit,
miners
<h'

hectic

<h'

extravagant

'g'

colour parti
cip/I"

prOI"f'n
an('/'

London

crumbling

,
"'rn'

intricate

small

his

heavy

noun

grey

crumbling

Gothic

interlocking

Chinese

green

carved

old

dfnom
ina/

h('(ld

social

life

social

lire

\\"cr

church

to

church

tower
designs

jade

0"

idol
moral

responsibil.
ities

Fig

17.41

Examples of premodification sequence

Discontinuous modification
t 7.42

It is not uncommon for a noun phrase to be interrupted by other items of

clause structure. Note for instance the time adjunct between the head and
postmodifier in the following;
You'll meet a man tomorrow carrying a heal'Y parcel.
There are more striking examples:
I

had a nice glass of beer but in an ugly glass.

This is nOI as contradictory as it may seem, since it is only in the second

noun phrase that glass is premodified by an adjective; in the first, it is
better to regard glass of beer as a complex unit modified as a whole but
with glas. being less a concrete noun than a unit of measure. So too with a
weak cup of tea. and phrases of the form kind/sort of N which take
premodifiers plainly related to N rather than SOrl, both in semantics and in
concord:
A big awkward sort of carton
?These big awkward kind of carlons
17.43

Discontinuous modification more aptly applies to examples like the

following (c/7.9):

Comparable facilities /0 ours

f
Diferelll
production figures from those given earlier

The prepositional phrases here do not directly relate to the head (as they
do in roads 10 London, people from the I,il/age) but to the premodifying
adjective: 'facilities comparable to ours', 'figures different from those'.
Compare also The rail man that 1 saw with Theftrsl mun Ihal l suw ( = 'The
man that I saw first'); 'An allractil'e scheme ftllam:ially' ( = 'A scheme
which i s fillallcially allractive'); cf7.32.
Most discontinuities, however, are brought about by interpolating a
parenthesis or the finite verb of the sentence (where the noun phrase is
subject) between the head and the postmodifier; and the usual motive is to
correct a structural imbalance (cf I 8.27f) as in 'The story is told Ihat he wus
once a boxer', or to achieve a more immediate clarity as in:
The woman is by the DOOR, who sold me the TicKets and lold me the
play doesn't begin till THREE.
Bibliographical note
On poslmodification, see Bresnan and Grimshaw (1978); de Haan ( 1987);
Downing ( 1978); EIsness (1982); Olofsson (1981); Schachtcr (1973); Scars (1972);
Young (1980).
On prcmodific3tion, sce Bache ( 1978); Bolinger ( 1967a);lohansson ( 1980); Levi
( 1978).
On the relation between modifiers and heads, sce Seppanen (1978).
On the genitive and of-construction, sce Dahl (1971), lahr Sorheim (1980);
Lyons ( 1986); Wieser (1986).
On nominaiization, sce Chomsky (1972); Colen (1984); Kjellmer ( 1980):
Vendlcr (1968).
On apposition. see Austin (1980); Mcyer ( 1987).

18

She will de I cide 'next wtEK I

:1

Theme, focus, and information

processing

are uttered with sequentially increasing prominence, with the S conveying

least information, the V rather more, and the A conveying most, namely,
the information sought by the wh-element of the question 'When (shall we
know what Mary is going to do)?' A TONE UNIT (2. 15) is a stretch of speech
containing one intonation nucleus, and since each such nucleus serves to
highlight a piece of information, it follows that a tone unit is coextensive
with an INFORMATION UNIT.
But although an information unit highlights one item, this does not
mean that the rest of the unit is devoid of information. As in the present
example, the 'communicative dynamism' can range from very low
(corresponding to weak stress, as with the subject she), through medium
(corresponding to nonnuclear stress, as with the verb phrase, will decide),
to very strong stress (corresponding to intonation nucleus, as with the
adverbial, next week). And, again as in this example, it is common though by no means necessary - for the range of such communicative
dynamism to increase from low to high in accordance with the linear
progression of the information unit. To put it another (and better) way, it
is common to process the information in a message so as to achieve a
linear presentation from low to high information value. We shall refer to
this as the principle of ENDFOCUS.

Introduction
18.1

In the processing and receIVIng of information, whether written or

spoken, lexical choice and grammatical organization have an important
role. Consider these examples:
Will the new law help old people?
The road will ultimately be repaired.
I'll visit them occasionally.
The honeymoon couple returned to Edinburgh in bright
sunshine today.

[I]
(2)
(3)
[4]

In the following variants, the truth value is fundamentally unchanged, but

the presentation is very different:
In yOUf view, will the new law give old people the help they
need?
It will be some time before the road is repaired.
I don't think I can do more than pay them an occasional
visit.
It was bright sunny weather that welcomed the honeymoon
couple back to Edinburgh today.

( la)
(2al
(3a)
(4a)

It is not merely that the variants are_ more verbose. In each case, an
introduction ha!l- been- h puts the utterance in a communica
tive context, as in [la] and [3aJ, or which highlights an aspect of the
utterance that is communicatively effective, as in [2a] and the journalistic
[4a). Moreover, care has been taken in [la), (3a], and [4aJ to make the
ending an appropriate climax. Before we consider other modes of
information processing, we must look closely at the vital role of
intonation and othcr aspects of prosody.

Tone units and grammar

18.3

Every sentence has at least one tone/information unit, and it is usual for
such a unit to be coextensive with a grammatical unit. Sometimes this is
the sentence itself, as in the example we have been considering:
She will de I cide 'next wEEK I
But far morc commonly, the tone unit corresponds to a grammatical unit
within a sentence. This may be:
(a) An initially placed optional adjunct (e/8.1 5), other than c1osedc1ass
items:

1 After my illness 1 ' 1 went to FRANCE I

Contrast:
I Then I went to FRANCE I

Information and communicative dynamism

18.2

COMMUNICATIVE DYNAMISM refers to the variation in communicative value

as between different parts of an utterance. Consider the following as the

answer to the question 'When shall we know what Mary is going to do?'
The subject, verb, and adjunct in:

(b) An initially or finally placed disjunct or conjunct (e/ 8.40, 43),

especially when realized by a polysyllabic item:
More 1 6ver I the I chairman may not be wiLling I
It was dis I GRACErU" 1 FRANKly I
(c) An initially placed vocativc:

I 06ctor I . -m I very ANXious I

396

Them., focus, .nd Inform.tlon proceulng

Theme end focus

Contrast:

397

The italicized portion again presents the main point of the message and
the entirely new information, but the introduction is less obviously and
directly 'given'. Nonetheless, it serves as the necessary background, and
by contrast with the 'new' information, it is relatively 'given'. The subjecl
she and the futurity expressed by will are indeed entirely given, and in
replacing we and know by she and decide (with consequently increased
communicative dynamism; ef I 8.3), we oblige the receiver to infer that if.
as we might expect, we learn of her decision when it is made, the new
information - in the context ofthis specific given information -constitutes
an adequate answer to the question.

I'm I very ANXious 'Doctor I

(d) The subject, if this element is realized by a clause or a long noun
phrase, especially one with postmodification (,/ 1 7.5.ff):
I What we WANT I is I plenty of RAIN I
The I tall 'lady by the OOoR 1 1 spoke to JOHN I
Contrast:
I John 'spoke to Ihe 'tall 'lady by the OOoR I
(e) A fronted object or complement (ef 1 8 . 1 4f):
Her I wRITing I I 1 find uninTElligible I
(f) The coordinated clauses in a compound sentence, especially when
the clauses have different subjects:
She I WON the RACE I and he was de I LiGHTed I
They I WALKED I 'hey I SWAM I they I played GOLF I
Contrast coordinated predicates and predications ('/ 13. 19):
He I went out and 'slammed the DOoR I
I have I seen them and 'offered my HELP I
Given and new Informallon
IS.4

When we construct a message, it is a courtesy to the receiver. as well as a

convenience for ourselves, 10 provide the poinl of the message with
enough context for this point to be both clearly identified and unambi
guously understood, as well as being placed in a normal linguistic
framework. To relurn to the question al the beginning of 18.2:
When shall we know what Mary is going to do?
The answer might have been:
We'l! know next week.
Here the unitalicized portion replicates material from the question; so far
as the receiver is concerned, it is entirely GIVEN. But as well as providing
assurance that the answer is indeed attending to the question, it serves as a
convenient introduction to the actual point of the message, the NEW
information conveyed by next week. Of course, in this instance, Ihe
message would have been adequately comprehensible if it had been
confined to the new information alone:
Next week.
But in 18.2, the answer we considered was:
She will decide next week.

Theme and locus

IS.5

There is commonly a one-to-one relation between 'given' in contrast 10

'new' information on Ihe one hand, and 'theme' in contrast to 'focus' on
the other. THEME is the name we give to the initial part of any structure
when we consider it from an infonnational point of view. When it occurs
in its expected or 'unmarked' form (but cf 1 8 . 1 3), its direct relation to
given information can be seen informally as announcing that the starting
point of the message is established and agreed. In this sense, the definite
article is thematic in relation to a noun phrase such as the lecturer in
announcing that the identity has been established; but, comparably, in the
noun phrase the lecturer's "ame, it is the genitive premodifier the lecturer's
that is thematic. More usually, however, we apply the term 'theme' 10 the
first element of a clause, such as the subject in The lecturer's name wasn 'f
announced. Consider now these three examples as 'messages' in isolation:
The lecturer
The lecturer's name
The lecturer's name was" 'r announced.
We should note a significant prosodic similarity between the unitalicized
theme and the remainder of each structure. The theme's relative lack of
stress mimes its status as 'given' and therefore in no need of emphasis. By
contrast, the italicized portions are given greater prosodic prominence
and it would be on these that the intonation nucleus would be placed if
they were uttered as messages:
(Who led the discussion?) The 1 ukTurer I
(What did she want to know?) The ! Iecturer's NAME I
(Didn't she know who was lecturing?) The 1 lecturer's 'name wasn't
anNOUNCED I
In other words, the new information in each case is the 'focus' of the
message, and just as we saw in 18.4 that it seemed natural to place the new
information after providing a context of given infonnation. so we can

398

Theme, focus, .nd Informellon proce..lng

Marted focus

regard focus (identified prosodically) as most naturally and normally

occurring at the end of the infonnation unit.
NOTE

indicated by our marking, since the focus is at the same point in each case.
Only the parenthesized questions (more broadly put, our knowledge of
the context) provide the clue as to how much of the infonnation is
assumed as 'given' and how much is thus new.
When the nucleus occurs on a syllable earlier than that predicted by the
principle of end-focus. however, no such openness of interpretation is
possible:

[a] Since the new information often needs to be stated more fully than the given
(that is, with a longer, 'heavier' structure), it is nol unexpected that an
organization principle which may be called END-WEIGHT comes into operation
along with the principle of end-focus. The principle of end-weight can be scen
operating in the following examples:

(Have you decided whether you're going to the races?)

She visited him that very day.

She visited her best friend that very day.
She visited that very day an elderly and much beloved friend.

NEW

This is an instance of 'marked' focus. to which we turn in 18.7.

NOTE

Among those present were the Mayor and

(4a(

{MiS(IZ)

Martin
mis(lz) MARtin

(5(
(6(

In [6] the Mayor is accompanied by a woman having a different surname from his;
in (S] lhe woman - his wife or daughter, perhaps - has the same surname as the
Mayor and the speaker implies that the hearer knows already what this is.
It] In examples like the following (especially with respect to items of personal
wear), the final phrase is normally treated as given, being added only for informal
clarification:
She's buying a SCARF for herself.
Contrast:

Whole clause is 'new':

I

(2.)
(3.)

(b) The contrast in the following is worth remarking:

New infonnation can be anything from a syllable to a whole clausc. If the

nucleus falls on the last stressed syllable of the clause (according to the
unmarked end-focus principle), what is 'new' could, for example, be the
entire clause, or the last element (eg complement) of the clause, or the
predication of the clause. In the following sentence, we mark the extent of
the new information for three possible uses of the same sentence:

She's buying her mOlher a birthday present but she's also buying a SCARF for
hersELF.

[I)

(What's on today?) We're going to the RAces.

ral I n conversation, where the sentences [2-4] were replies to the corresponding
questions, it would be common of course for ellipsis (cl 1 2 . 1 6) to pennit more or
less only the new information to be uttered; cl 1 8 . 1 0 . For example, in place of(21,
P], [4], we could have:
Going to the RACes
To the RAces
We ARE

The relation between locus and new Information

NEW

[4)

Yes, we ARE going to the races.

In this last example, even had the speaker/writer preferred to put the focus on the
time adjunct and to locate it in the unmarked final position, the weight of the
object noun phrase makes it preferable to have the adjunct at i(c/8. 1 1). An even
better position might have been I: 'That ery day, she visited . . '
[bl ln contrast to 'given' and 'new', which are contextually established and to that
extent 'extralinguistic', 'theme' and 'focus' are linguistically defined, in terms of
position and prosody respectively. With 'theme' there is an attractive alternative
contrast, 'rheme', and the latter term (favoured by some linguists) will be used
from time to time, especially in its adjectival form, 'rhematic', since it provides a
convenient way of referring to degrees of communicative dynamism. Some
linguists use the distinction 'topic'/,comment' for our 'theme'/,focus' or 'theme'/
'rheme' (and sometimes for our 'given'/,Dew'). Others speak of given information
as 'old', 'shared', or 'presupposed' information.

18.6

399

Predication is 'new':
I

NEW

(What are wedoing today?) We're going to the RAces.

[2)

Marked focus

Final adverbial is 'new':

I

NEW

18.7
I

(Where are we going today?) We're going to the RAces.

[3)

The sentence as heard (and the same would of course apply to writing, cl
18.1) is neutral as to the three possible stretches of new infonnation

The principle of end-focus entails that we can confidently predict that a

reader will interpret blue as the focal item in the written sentence:
I am painting my living room blue.
In other words, we are confident that it would be read aloud as:

400

Theme, locua, _net Information proca'ng

I am I painting my 'living room BLUE I

and (5J. considerable reworking is required. Thus in place of [3J, we might have a
written version:

[ I]

The sentence has an increasing degree of communicative dynamism from

painting to blue. But as we have just seen in 1 8.6, all of the information in

The living room I am painting blue is

this sentence may be new, and when we reflect upon the sentence, we must
realize that in fact no part is necessarily more obvious or predictable than
another. This means that it is perfectly possible to make the sentence
informationally appropriate with the intonation nucleus (and hence the
information focus) elsewhere:
I am I painting my Living room 'blue I
I am I painting MY 'living room 'blue I
I am I PAI Nting my 'living room 'blue I
I I AM 'painting my 'living room 'blue I
I i am 'painting my 'living room 'blue I

I Are you 'painting your 'kitchen BLUE I

Equally, [3] might follow on from:
I John is 'painting his 'living room BLUE I

(3]

normally expected to fall on an open-class lexical item, exceptions can readily be

made where a closcd-class item requires special emphasis for contrastive or other
purposes (cl 1 8. 1 1 ). Even the articles may be thus focused:
Are you l talking about THE 'Mrs 'Reagan l Cor only someone elsc of the same
name)?
A: Did you sec the po'liceman concERNED I
B: Well I saw A po'liceman I (pronounced lel/)

Compare also:

It is when we move the focus from its predictable position as in [I] to

another position as in (2-6] that we speak of MARKED FOCUS.
The condition for marked focus arises when special emphasis is
required. Frequently such emphasis is needed for the purposes ofcontrast
or correction. Thus it would be easy to imagine [2] as following someone
else's remark:
or question:

m own.
mme.

[b) Examples (3). (5), and (6) above illustrate the fact that. although focus is

[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]

I am I painting my 'bathroom BLUE I

I YOU should worry I [ = This shouldn't worry yOU I ]

I 6w what does she want I
The feeling of exasperation is expressed with the marked focus and fronted
adverbial more strongly than in the otherwise equivalent:

I What does she want NOW I

18.8

In certain circumstances, it is quite normal to have the focus on a noun

phrase as subject ofa clause, in violation of the end-focus principle. This is
frequently because, with the subject concerned, the predicate is relatively
predictable and thus has lower communicative dynamism. It is significant
that the phenomenon in question is especially associated with intransitives,
where (if English structure permirted it freely) we might expect the element
order VS; c/ 1 8. 1 6. Compare:

Again, [4J might follow on from:

I've I changed my 'mind about PAPering I
So too, [5] might be a response to:
I Weren't you in'tending to 'paint your 'living room SLtm I
And (6] might follow on from:
I So 'John is 'painting your 'living room BLUE I
But contrast, in the sense of replacing one presumed item by another, is
not the only occasion for the special emphasis of marked focus. More
generally. it is a matter of adjusting the focus according 10 what is
presupposed in a particular context.
NOTE

[a) Since in reading we assign endfocus unless thecontcxt makes it unambiguously

clear that the focus should be elsewhere, other devices than prosody arc usefully
invoked where cnd-focus would produce a misreading. For example. the cleft
sentence structure; c/ 1 8 . 1 8ff But for some instances of marked focus. as in (3\, (4),

The I TELephone's 'ringing I

The I SUN is 'shining I
The I KETtle's 'boiling I
A I visitor called I
I Has your sIster 'come 'home I
Predictability is easy to see with the first two examples, but it is arguable
analogously that. in a domestic context, the most obvious thing to
announce about ketlles is that they are boiling; a visitor cannot visit
without 'calling' at one's house; and what more predictable for a caller,
interested in a person, than to ask whether she is at home?
But there arc other factors that may lead us to identify by focus a subject
and named individual (JOhll, The Preside,,' ) or else an entity or activity
that has great generality or whose existence is well known (A visitor, The
kellle). Second, the predicate denotes typically a very general or
commonly associated activity (especially one that presents a starkly
positive/negative choice), such as the act of appearing/disappearing; or it

"
,

402

Theme, focu., and Information proc...lng

If there were any danger that the hearer might take novel as emphatic (for
example in contrast to the review), the question would be put with marked
focus upon the preposition:

denotes demise or other misfortune, agam of a general nature. Some

examples:
Thel pRF.sident has 'died 1
My 1 alAT is 'torn 1
The 1 BAby's 'crying 1

contrast :
contrast :
contrast :

I Someone has DiED I

My j coat is FAWN I
Thel baby'ssMiLingl

I Who's the 'novel BY I

Consider an exchange like the following:

Emphasis may be given to an initial noun phrase (or indeed to any

nonfinal item) by interposing a parenthesis with its own tone unit:

A: So what did you SAY?

B: There was nothing 1'6 say.

I This in SHORT I is I why [ reFUSED I

It may seem vacuous to highlight the mere infinitive marker. But on the
one hand, say is given and would thus be an inappropriate bearer of a
nucleus; on the other hand, there is a positive reason for placing the
nucleus on the only part of this verb phrase which represents the modality.
Some further examples of marked focus:

The device is comparably valuable in writing, where this conjunct would

be separately punctuated and thus allow This to have more weight than it
otherwise would:
This, in short, is why I refused.
NOTE

So we I bought THis 'house I (instead of that one)

I Hand your 'ticket iN I (you're not allowed to keep if)

Although we have associated this phenomenon with noun phrases as subject, it

arises more broadly with noun phrases in construction with succeeding verb
phrases:

I Joan

has a PLANE to 'catch I

have
I various PR68lems to 'solve
We

(b) Secondly. we can have contrastive focus at precisely the point of

unmarked focus. In speech, such marked focus may be realized with
additional stress or wider range of nucleus (cl 2.15). In writing, the
comparable effect can often be conveyed only by expansion or a rather
elaborate paraphrase, but sometimes typographical devices arc invoked,
especially italics. In S H Perelman's Last Laugh ( 1 98 1 ), we find the
following piece of dialogue:

By contrast, where it is less congruent with or less predictably associated with the
noun phrase. it is the verb phrase that might be focused:
. . . texts to comPtJTerize

'Was that how you became a rustler?'

A rustler?' I repeated. 'Not a rustler, Miss Cronjager a wrestler.'

Similarly. within a noun phrase, if the head is more general and carries less
semantic weight and specificity than the premodifier, it is the latter that may
sometimes be focused:
She's a

1 8RiLiiant 'person I

(contrast : She's a I brilliant 06ctor

The word that requires marked contrastive focus for corrective purposes
comes at the point where unmarked focus would occur. Perelman
presumably expects the italics to represent greater prominence than on the
original nucleus:

I)

Again, where the noun-phrase object is of general reference. focus may be moved
forward on 10 the head of the verb phrase:

I always 'try to HELP a 'guy I

(contrast: You should I always 'try to 'help a poLicEman

You should

Was I that how you became a Rustler I

A 1 Rustler I . . . 1 Not a ROstler I . . . a " I wRF.stler 1

I)

Compare also noun phrases of mere expletive or evaluative force:

I've been CHEATed by the dirty scoundrel.

NOTE

Where marked focus is required on a preposition. it is sometimes possible to

achieve the required meaning with cnd-focus by using a paraphrase. Thus beside:

18.9

The instances of marked focus in 18.8 involved putting the focus earlier
than where it would occur in unmarked focus. But there are two further
types, (a) and (b), to be considered:
(a) First, the focus can be moved to a point subsequent or immediately
prior to its expected position. This is sometimes because the unmarked
focus is misleading, as it might be in:
1 Who's the Novel by 1

. apart from his LAziness

we may have

aPART from his 'laziness

or:

. . his 'laziness apART I

With the adverbial particle in phrasal verbs. the same result is achieved merely by
movement:

404

Theme, locus, end Inlorrrnation proc...ing

But I 1 06 think you're a 'good 'cook I [ie ; . . . even if you imagine I

don't'J

He's 1 bringing 'in the cAscs I

He's I bringing the 'cases iN I
This helps 10 explain why such particles are in final position when the object is a
personal pronoun (cl 16.4) or is a noun phrase of very general meaning:

With a risc or fall-rise as intonation nucleus, focus on auxiliaries

indicating past or future often draws contrastive attention to the tense or
aspect rather than to the positive/negative polarity:

She's I bringing it/the matter UP I

(cl-She's I bringing 'up the MAner I )

18,10

He 1 owns - or DID own 1 - a 1 Rolls-ROYCE 1

Wc've I sold OUT I but we I WILL be 'getting 'more

Just as marked focus frequently involves putting emphasis on an

unexpected part of a phrase, so also it may involve unexpected emphasis
on part of a word or name. Normally we put the main stress on a person's
family name and not the first name:

Similarly. the nucleus on auxiliaries such as may, ought /0, and could often
signals a contrast between the supposed real state of affairs, and a state of
affairs thought desirable or likely:

Dylan THOMas

The o l pinion 'polls MAY be 'right J lie 'but I suspect they're noC}

But marked focus may reverse this, sometimes in making a correction:

(By the poet Thomas, I meant)
DYLan 'Thomas - I not EDward Thomas

NOTE

Conversely, compound nouns with normal first-element stress can switch

to second-element stress with marked focus:

How I ARE you 'these 'days I

Wcll, how I ARE you 'now, 'Mr 'Brown I

I ! just 'wanted a 'couple of picTure hooks I and he I started 'showing

me some 'picture BOOKS I

If normally unstressed operators receive stress (especially nuclear stress), the effect
is often to add exclamatory emphasis 10 the whole sentence:

So also, in order to make a contrast, two words can be equally given

unusual accentuation:
They fought for DMocracy but they've ended up with AUTocracy.
She suddenly changed the subject from Migration to iMmigration.
Focus on the operator
18.11

One type of marked focus that deserves separate treatment is focusing on

the operator, which often has the particular function of signalling contrast
between positive and negative meaning:
(A: Why haven't you had a bath?) B: I I HAVE had a 'bath
(A: Look for your shoes.) B: I I AM looking for them J
She I PROMised I so she I MUST 'take him 'with her I
When the operator is positive, the meaning is 'Yes in contrast to No';
when the operator is negative, the meaning is contrastive in the opposite
direction:
So you I HAVEn't lost it l ['Vou thought you had'}
When the finite verb phrase is in the simple present or past tense, and so
would not otherwise have an auxiliary verb to function as operator, the
'dummy' operator do is introduced to bear the nuclear stress (cl 3. 1 1 ):
So you IDiD go to the 'concert this 'evening Hie 'I thought you might,
but , , .'J

In courtesy enquiries aboul health and wellbeing, where there are in effect no
informationbearing lexical items, focus on the operator carries no special
emphasis:

That WiLl.. be nice!

You Do look tired!

Divided focus
18.12

It sometimes happens that we want to put nuclear focus upon two items in
an information unit. An intonation pattern particularly associated with
this in BrE is the fall-plus-rise contour (cf2. 1 5). Compare the following:
He's 1 fairly CLEver 1
He's 1 FAIRly CLEver 1

[IJ
[2J

The implications differ in two ways. Semantically, [I} implies a positive

estimate, though cautiously worded, while [2] is relatively grudging and
disparaging, calling in question the estimate of cleverness. Informatio
nally, [ 1 ] is compatible with answering a general inquiry about the person
( , What do you think of Alec?'), while [2) implies that the question of his
cleverness has already been raised (' Alec is clever, isn't he?'). Where such
DIVIDED FOCUS is realized by fall-plus-rise, therefore, the item carrying the
rise is made subsidiary to the other focused item, accepts that it represents
information that is to some extent 'given', but (compatible with the rise)
calls its status in question.
Compare:
I William WORDsworth is my 'favourite P6ET I
This may be in reply to the question 'Who is your favourite poet?' or to a
contrary statement " understand that John Keats is your favourite poet'.

406

Theme, tocu., .nd Information proc

....ng

Frontlng

A: Are you I going to in'vite J6HN I

B: Oh I John I've al'ready inviTed

But frequently the second focus conveys little more than courtesy; thus it
is used with final vocatives and formulaic subjuncts (8.34):
I What's the TiME, J6HN I
NOTE

AtlTtNtion, PLEASE I

In B's response, John is a marked theme, and the term will be used for any
such fronted item, whether or not it carries (as such items commonly do) a
marked focus (c/further 18.14) .
The value of marked theme in information processing can be seen in
comparing the following, where [3-51 have SVC order but [6] has CSV:

In contrast to the fall-plus-risc, the rise-plus-fall contour is used to mark a divided

focus where the first ofthe (WO focused items is made subsidiary to the second. We
can thus contrast the two types of divided focus:

I went to FRANCE in 'nineteen EIGHTy

I went to FRANCE in 'nineteen EIGHTy

(3(
(4(

i John is LAZy 1 (but I think he will help me)

Allthough 'John is LAzy 1 (I think he will help me)
Allthough 'John is LAzy I . . .
I Lazy though John is 1 . . .

(3] suggests a context in which there is discussion of what I had done in 1980, this
part therefore being relatively given: (4] suggests one in which the discussion
concerns when I went to France. the rise again coinciding with the relatively given,
but this time preceding the relatively new instead of following it.

The two communicatively significant parts of an information unit, the

theme and the focus, are typically as distinct as they can be: one is the
point of initiation, and the other the point of completion. The theme of an
information unit, coming first, is more often 'given' information than any
other part of it. Yet the two can coincide; for instance, when, as. marked
focus, the nucleus falls on the subject of a statement:
(Who gave you that magazine?) I BiLL gave it to me I

[I]

NOTE

This is the extreme form of MARKED THEME, and we can compare [2] which
has an unmarked theme (he) with minimum prosodic prominence:
He I gave me a magaziNE I

(2J

" I Suddenly he U',FT' I

I sDDdenly 1 he I L'FT 1

Note that marked theme can be used to draw attention to contrasting pairs, and
this often involves separate tone units:

I THANKS 1

I vtRdi I is I splendid in his WAY I but I MOzart's operas P rcl gard as 'pure
perfECTion I

Even so, many such short units have an initial portion that can be used as
thematic preparation. A striking instance of this is found in the military
order, 'Attention!' The word is typically uttered with considerable drawl
on the first two syllables, and (ignoring the fact that the word ordinarily
has stress on the second syllable) with the final syllable given word stress
and the climactic nuclear focus:
at Iten-TloN 1
The theme carries considerable prosodic weight when it is an item that is
not (like subject or conjunction, for example) nonnally at initial position
in a clause (e/8.1 1). Consider the following exchange:

Common short adverbials in initial position are often given some thematic
marking:

I Then he LEFT 1
Longer and semantically weightier adverbials at I will be more heavily marked
themes or they may actually carry a nucleus:

Clearly, theme and focus must coincide in onc-word utterances,

whether these are questions, responses, or military commands. For
example:
I c6FFee I

[3J
[4J
[5J
[6J

In [3], lazy is new infonnation; there is no assumption on the speaker's

part that the listener knows. In [4], the fall-rise on lazy also implies that
the information is new; the rise part of the complex nucleus is conditioned
by the dependent status of the clause of which this is the focus. In [51,
however, the simple rise on lazy is compatible both with the dependence of
the clause concerned and the implication that the hearer already shares the
speaker's view of John. In [6], making lazy a marked theme again implies
the givenness of the information and additionally enables the speaker to
focus upon the operator (ej 1 8. 1 1 ) with consequent emphasis on its
positive polarity (c/3.1 1). A further example: 'Serious as-s become the
food shortage, worse news is to follow'; this embodies inversion pf subject
and verb (c[ 1 8. 16).

Marked theme
IS.13

407

Frontlng
18.14

Fronting is the term we apply to the achievement of marked theme by

moving into initial position an item which is otherwise unusual there. The
reason for fronting may be to echo thematically what has been
contextually given:

Frontlng

408 Theme, focus, and Information procenlng

still fewer could praise.

(You should take up swimming for relaxation)

I RelaxAtion you 'call it I

Traitor he has become and traitor we shall call him.

She might agree under pressure: willingly she never would.
They have promised to finish the work, and fini;h it

Alternatively, the item fronted may be the one contextually most

demanded:

they will.

I wiLson his NAME is I

An I utter FOOL she 'made me 'feel

NOTE

Even theclert sentence, itselra grammatical roeus device (cfI 8 . I Sfl can be subject
to rronting:
They hoped that Herbert Frostwould be elected and Frosl indeed it was that
topped the poll.

looked as though she had spent a sleepless night.

(Cf subject-verb and subject-operator inversion, 1 8. 1 6f.)

A rronted item, like a rronted wh-element (cf 1 1 .91), is sometimes an element

rrom a subordinate clause:
EI'erythillg - or nearly el'erylhing - that the Labour 1n00'emenl exists to stop
the Toriesfrom doing Labour will be asked to support the Cabinet in doing.

The whole orthe italicized part or this example is the object or a nonfinite clause,
itselr a prepositional object within an infinitive clause within the main clause.
[bJ Exceptionally, a pan rather than the whole ora clause clement may be rronted.
In the rollowing case, a prepositional phrase equivalent to a postmodifier or the
subject complement (but cf 17.22) acts as theme: 'Of (Ill the t'arly examples of
scie1li"e fiction. the rantastic stories or Jules Verne are the most remarkable.'

18.15

A more striking type of fronting is found in the heightened language of

rather mannered rhetoric, including thc strenuous colourfulness of
journalistic writing. It is frequently employed to point a parallelism
between two parts of a clause or between two related but contrasting pairs
of neighbouring clauses. The fronted parts may be prosodically marked as
marked theme or marked focus, the latter typically with divided focus ('/
18. 12), and they may be grammatically any of a wide range of units:
' , not many
HISJace

{admired,

were enamoured 0r,

} whI'!e

IliS
' Charaeter

In examples like the rollowing. common in journalism, the rronting or the

predication seems largely determined by the desire to give end-rocus to the subject.
at the same time using (as is normal) the early part or the sentence to 'set the scene':
Addressing the demons/ration was a quite elderly woman.
Shol by nalionalist guerrillas were two entirely innocent tourists.

Sitting at her desk in deep concentration was my sister Flora. She

fa]

[Predication]

Into the stifling smoke we plunged. [A S V]

Into the stifling smoke plunged the desperate mother. [A V S]

The determiners that, this, and these in the above examples suggest that
the marked theme in such cases most often expresses given information. It
is common to find -ing participle predications fronted in similar
information-processing circumstances:

NOTE

[0]
[C)
[A]

With predications and predication adjuncts in front position, we often

find subject-verb inversion (cfI8. 16) if the subject is other than a personal
pronoun:

Fronting is very common both in speech and in conventional written

material, often serving the function of so arranging clause order that end
focus falls on the most important part of the message as well as providing
direct linkage with what has preceded:
That much the jury had thoroughly appreciated.
Most of these problems a computer could take in its stride.
To this list may be added ten further items of importance.

409

Subject-verb Inversion
18.16

The clause patterns SVC and SVA (cl 10.1) have their obligatory third
element in large measure because the V is commonly of itself so lacking in
communicative dynamism:
s VC :

Her oval face was especially remarkable.

SVC: The sound of the bell grew faint.

SVA : His beloved body lies in a distant grave.

[ !]
[2]
[3]

In consequence, where information processing makes it desirable to front

the third element concerned, the result would tend to be bathetic or
misleading if normal SV order were preserved. In consequence, fronting
naturally carries with it the inversion that puts S in final position, and
indeed it is to achieve end-focus on the S that the fronting is generally
undertaken:
CVS: Especially remarkable was her oval face.
CVS: Faint grew the sound of the bell.
AVS: In a distant grave lies his beloved body.

[! a]
[2a]
[3a]

These particular examples have a rather mannered tone (poetic in the case
of [2a] and [3a]), but the phenomenon is common enough in ordinary
informal speech:

410

cl.n ..nlene..

Theme, focu., .nd Inform.llon proce..lng

Least of all is it in our interest to open negotiations now.

At no time must this door be left unlocked.
He refused to apologize. Nor would he offer any explanation.
Scarcely had he started speaking when heckling broke out.
(c/ He had scarcely started speaking when heckling broke OUL)

Here's the milkman.

And there at last was the book I'd been looking for.
Down came the rain.
In the instances with here/lhere + be, indeed, it is not simply a matter of
stylistic choice: there is a clear difference of mcaning from the alternatives
with SVA order. Although we must distinguish these from existential
there (cI I S. 3 1 ), there is in fact a close similarity. In contrast to AVS, the
SVA order invites us nol merely to put the nuclear focus upon the A but 10
see these adjuncts as referring to specific places. Compare:

(c) Thirdly, we have S-op inversion in comparative clauses when the S is

not a personal pronoun:
Oil costs less than would atomic energy. (clOil costs less than it did).
She looks forward, as does her secretary, to the completion of the
building.

{ Here's the milkman he's come at last.

The milkman is here at the door: shall I get two pints?
{There's the book I want - I've been looking for it all week.

(d) Finally. S-op inversion occurs in subordinate clauses of condition

and concession (cl 1 5 . 1 9 Note [c)), especially in rather formal usage:

The book is there - by the typewriter.

NOTE

Were we to withdraw our support, they would be justifiably

indignant.
Should you change your plans, please let me know.
Even had she left a will, it is unlikely that the college would have
benefited.

Subject-verb inversion (as distinct from subject-opcratorinversion; cfI8. 17) with

fronted object chiefly represents direct speech (including speech that is 'thought')
and usually the subject is not a personal pronoun:
'Please go away,' said one child. 'And don't come back,' pleaded another.
This is something of a literary convention. and in ordinary speech, VS would
usually be replaced by SV (cfI4.17). More important are CVS, AVS, where the C
or A make comparative reference to something that has preceded:
His answer was a disgrace and
immediately afterwards.

equally regrerroble

NOTE

was tVs departure

Contrast, with predication adjunct (cf8. 14):

Not without reason had Charles flown into a rage.
"" 'He hadn't flown into a rage without reason'

In addition to the inversion in questions, there are four common

circumstances in which the operator precedes the subject.
(a) First, we have elliptical clauses with initial so or the corresponding
negatives neither or llOr (cl 1 2 . 1 3):
John saw the accident and so did Mary.
[e/ . . and Mary did (so), too]
either did Mary.
John didn't see the accident and
. nor
l
.
and
Mary
didn't,
either]
[c
She was angry and so was I .
He won't go and neither should you.

Ifan initial negative item is the vehicle for only a local negation (cfI0.40), no S-op
inversion is possible. Thus, with the sentence adjunct (cf8.15) in:
Not without reason, Charles had flown into a rage.
='He had flown into a rage and it was not without reason'

Subject-operator Inversion
18.17

411

But inversion is less common with certain modal auxiliaries (notably may.
might, ought ), and alternative substitute expressions with normal order
are preferred:
She might be ill and he might (be) too.
(b) Secondly, we have S-op inversion where a phrase of negative form
or meaning is fronted (cl 10.35/):

Cleft sentences
18.18

In 18. 14, we looked at examples of where heightened prominence was

achieved with no other grammatical change involved beyond fronting.
For example:
His callousness I shall ignore.

[I)

We now turn to devices for giving prominence by more elaborate

grammatical means, involving the division of the sentence into two
clauses, each with its own verb:
It is his callousness that I shall ignore.
What I shall ignore is his callousness.
The thing I shall ignore is his callousness.
His callousness is something I shall ignore.

[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]

Cleft .entence.

412 Theme, focu., .nd Inform.don proce'ng

By reason or the division, these constructions have been called 'cleft

sentences', though we shall distinguish the CLEFT SENTENCE proper, as in
[2]. rrom the PSEUDO-CLEFT sentence represented most typically by [3}.
With the subject pronoun it as an empty theme, rollowed by the verb be,
the cleft sentence readily achieves rocus on the final item; in effect, end
rocus within an SVC clause:

Od

(b) Co as rocus: It's dark green that we've painted the kitchen.
There are severe restrictions (except informally in Irish English) on the use
of Cs in this runction, especially with the verb be and especially C, realized
by an adjective phrase:
?It's I'ery tall you are.
But, without these restrictions. Cs can be generally acceptable:
It was a doctor that he eventually became.
NOTE

la) If the initial focal item is a personal pronoun, it may informally be in the

objective case even though it is in fact a subject (of the Ihal-clause) and the usagc is
hence widely condemned:
It was ?hcr that gave the signal.

[b] Though the verb form in the first clause of a cleft sentence is usually simple
present or past, forms with modals are perfectly possible:

It may be his father that you're thinking of.

It would hw'e beel! at that time that she went to live near Mannheim.

this) and that could be

The flexibility or the cleft-sentence device can be seen in the ease with
which different parts can be highlighted. Consider the sentence:
John wore a white suit at the dance last night.
From this, rour cleft sentences can be derived. In the rollowing, we shall
assume that the aim in each case is lO make the second rocus subsidiary as
relatively 'given':
S as rocus:
It was I JOHN

{ } wore a 'white 'suit at the DANCE 'last 'night l

as rocus:

It was me he gave the book to.

Il was to me that he gave the book.

(No,) Ihat was the oOcTor I was speaking to.

Those are my I-U"T you're treading on.
fie was a real GENius that invented this.

18.19

Aposi'ion

Two other clause elements can marginally act as the initial focus or a clen
sentence:
(a) inrormally OJ (otherwise replaced by a prepositional phrase):

la) Subject pronouns other than it sometimes occur:

In the relative-clause version, the S could be replaced by another pronoun (such as

replaced by which. In cleft sentences, such alternatives are
not generally acceptable.

rocus:

It was at the I DANCE that 'John 'wore a 'while SUIT 'last 'night I
It was the I DANCE (that) 'John 'wore a 'white SUIT at 'last 'night I
(inrormal)

A : You should I criticize his clrLlousness I

B: I No, it is his CALlousness that I shall igl NORE
[callousness given, ignore new]
A: You should igl nore his diSHcmesty I
B: I No, it is his cALlousness that I shall igN6RE
[callousness new, ignore given]

It is thc dog that scared me.

A,inx as

It was I last NiGHT (that) 'John 'wore a 'white 'suit at the DANCE I

For this reason, while very common in spoken English, the construction is
particularly convenient in writing, since it provides unerring guidance to
the reader in silently assigning appropriate prosody. But the cleft sentence
does not oritselrindicate what the appropriate prosody is. Essentially, the
cleft sentence indicates divided rocus (cl 18. 1 2), and which or the two
rocused items is dominant (ie new) will depend on the context:

In each of these, we could find divided focus (cl t8.12), with a rising tone on
speaking, treading, and this.
[bl We need to remember that, especially in writing, an example like the following
is ambiguous between a cleft sentence and an SVCwhere C is a postmodified noun
phrase:

as focus:
It was a I white SUIT (that) 'John 'wore at the DANCE 'last 'night I

It is his CALlousness.

NOTE

413

Where the verb of the second clause is present, that of the first will be present:
It is novels that Miss Williams enjoys reading.
Whcre the second verb is past, the first can be past:
It was novels that Miss Williams enjoyed as a pastime.
But the first verb may be in the present where the persons concerned are still living
or the objects concerned still familiar in the participants' experience:
It is these very novels that Miss Wil1iams enjoyed reading as a pastime.
The cleft-sentence structure can be used in questions, exclamations, and
subordinate clauses; we have italicized the first focal item:

[cl

414

Po.tponement

Theme, tocu., end Information proceulng

The person who spoke [0 you must have been the manager.
Somebody whose writing I admire is JiJI.
The way you should go is via Cheltenham.

Was itfor Ihis that we suffered and toiled?

Whal a glorious bonfire it was you made!

The reason we deCided 10 return was

Pseudo-clelt sentences
18.20

NOTE

bee

) he was Ill.
(. C
I
ause IOlorma

The clen and pseudo-clen types can cooccur. For example:

Birmingham?

BrighLOn.

Did you mean

Cfalso the following (common informally) from Ivy Compton-Burnett: 'What

seems to me is, that wc ought to be . . . careful" (Men and Wives).

It's a good rest that you need most.

A good rest is what you need most.

Postponement
18.21

What you need most is a good rest.

Unlike the cleft sentence, it rather freely permits marked focus to fall on
the predication:
What he's done is (to) spoil the whole thing.

One important communicative difference between the two types of cleft

construction is that while the cleft sentence with i[ is often used to put the
main focus near the/roll l ofthe sentence, the pseudo-cleft is chiefly used to
postpone the focus to end position. In this respect it is often in competition
with the passive. In [11. focus is placed on the noun phrase rhe
manufacturers by means of the passive, and in [2] by means of a pseudo
cleft 'paraphrase':
The device was tested by the manufacturers.
The people who tested the device were the manufacturers.

Here we would expect an anticipatory (rising) focus on the do item, the

main focus coming at normal end-focus position. Thus: ' . . . OONE . . .
THiNG'. When the verb in the wh-clause has progressive aspect, the
complement matches it with an -ing clause:

[1 1
(2]

It should be noted that [2] presupposes that the hearer knows that testing
has taken place; with [1] this is not so.
Given the importance of end-focus (c/ 18.2), it is not surprising that
English has numerous resources to ensure the distribution of information
according 10 our wishes. There are, for example, lexical and grammatical
devices which reverse the order of roles:

What I'm doing is reaching him Japanese.

But in some respects, the pseudo-cleft sentence is more limited than the
cleft sentence proper. It is indeed only with what-clauses that we can make
a direct comparison (or choice) between the two constructions. Clauses
with where and when are sometimes acceptable, but mainly when the wh
clause is subject complement:

{An uncle, three cousins, and two brothers benefited/rom the will.
The will benefited an uncle, three cousins, and two brothers.
{ An unidentified blue liquid was in the bottle.
The bottle contained an unidentified blue liquid.
{ A red sports car was behind the bus.

Here is where the accident took place.

(tn) Autumn is when the countryside is most beautiful.
Clauses introduced by who, whose, why. and how do not easily enter into
the pseudo-cleft sentence construction at all, and to compensate for these
restrictions, there are numerous 'paraphrases' of the pseudo-deft
construction involving noun phrases of general reference in place of the
wh-item:

{ilim

What it was you asked for was a ticket to

The pseudocleft sentence is another device whereby, like the cleft

sentence proper, the construction can make explicit the division between
given and new parts of the communication. It is essentially an SVC
sentence with a nominal relative clause as subject or complement (c/
1 5.7/). It thus differs from the ordinary cleft sentence in being completely
accountable in terms of the categories of main clause and subordinate
clause discussed in Chapter 14. The following are virtually synonymous:

The pseudo-cleft sentence occurs more typically, however, with the wh

clause as subject, since it can thus present a climax in the complement:

415

The bus was infront o/ a red sports car.

NOTE

A special case of conversencss is the relation of reciprocity expressed by certain

tenns such as similar 10, differenl from, near (LO),/arfrom, opposile, married la,

416

Postponement

Theme, focus, and Information proceulng

where reversing the order of the participants preserves the essential meaning
without any other change in the construction:

NOTE

My house is opposite the hotel. The hotel is opposite my house.

A more complex relation of converseness is illustrated by:
The dealer sold the car to my friend.
My friend bought the carfrom the dealer.

18.23

Voice and postponement

With transitive clauses, the passive voice provides a convenient way of
postponing the agentive subject by turning it into the agent in a passive
construction (cf3.25). We thus reverse the active order of the agentive and
affected elements (cf I 0.9) where the agentive requires end-focus:
A:

/"

><

Type SVC:
Type SVA :
Type SV:
Type SVO:
Type SVOC:
Type SVp;!ss:
Type SVp;!ssC :

B: They are made by my sister-in-law.

A preference for end-focus (in this instance, coinciding with ed-weight)
can even override an aversion to passive constructions that are in
themselves rather awkward (cf I 6.8 Note):

A finite clause as subject is also readily avoided by switching from the

active to the passive voice:

{ That he was prepared to go to such lengths astonished me.

f

was astonished that he was prepared 10 go to such lengths.

While the V element cannot be focused in the cleft-sentence construction,

such focus can be achieved with a transitive verb by the use of the passive,
provided that the agent can be ignored as given. Compare:
But our I scientists 'finally sOLVED 'all 'these 'problems I
But I all 'these 'problems were 'finally sOLVED I
The passive can also ensure a smooth crescendo of communicative
dynamism with ditransitive verbs by making the indirect object thematic.
Compare:
They alwarded Marion the PRjZE I
Marion was alwarded the PRizE I

[IJ
[2J

The pattern of [2] is in fact far more usual than that of [l] (cf Notc [a]).
Examples in terms of the major clause types (10.1):

..

The regulations were taken advantage ofby all the tramps and down
and-outs in the country.

Postponement which involves the replacement of the postponed clement

by a substitute form is termed EXTRAPOSITJON. It operates almost
exclusively on subordinate nominal clauses. The most important type of
extraposition is that of a subject realized by a finite or nonfinite clause.
The subject is moved to the end of the sentence, and the normal subject
position is filled by the anticipatory pronoun it. The resulting sentence
thus contains two subjects, which we may identify as the POSTPONED
SUBJECT (the one which is notionally the subject of the sentence) and the
ANTICIPATORY SUBJECT (it). Thus in place of [I] we have [2]:
To hear him say that surprised me.
It surprised me to hear him say that.

Who makes these table mats?

.------.

wanted to buy sherry but there was none to be had.

Extraposltlon 01 a clausal subject

Compare also rent to/remfrom, lend (to)/borrow from, give (to)/receil'e from.

18.22

The passive of ha'e is rarely used. but when it occurs, the verb has an agentive
meaning usually absent from the active:
I

417

NOTE

It is a pleasure 10 teach her.

It was on the news that income tax is to be lo)\!ered.
It doesn't matter what you do.
lt surprised me to hear him say that.
It makes her happy to see others enjoying rhemsel)'es.
It is said that she wanted 10 go into politics.
It was considered impossible for anyone to escape.

[a] For certain constructions which have all the appearance of clausal extraposi
tion (/1 seems/appears/happened/chanced/etc), the corresponding nonextraposed
version does not occur. For example, there is no sentence * Thar el'erYlfling isfine
seems to correspond with It seems rhar elwYlhing isfine, nor do we find ThaI she
wamed to go into politics is said. In such cases, we may say that the extraposition is
obligatory. With be, this type of extraposition is used for expressions ofpossibility
and (especially) for reflective questions:
*

It may be that she no longer

trusts you.
Could it be that you left the keys in your office?
Other characteristics of the verbs entering into this category are presented in 18.25.
[b] Unlike finite clauses. -ing clauses occur very naturally in ordinary subject
position:
Teaching her to drive

turned out to be quite enjoyable.

Extraposed -ing clauses are uncommon outside informal speech. and they often
seem to be untidy afterthoughts:
It turned out to be quite enjoyable(,) teaching her to drive.

418

Extraposltlon of a clausal object

18.24

Postponement 419

Theme, focus, and Information Pf"OC..slng

When the object is an -ing clause in SVOC and SVOA clause types, it can
undergo extraposition; when it is a to-infinitive clause or a that-clause, it
must do so:

svoc

SVOA

,.
I

,...., You seem to have made a mistake.

It is known that he's a coward.

,..,. He's known to be a coward.
NOTE

You must find it exciting working here.

Cl: You must find working here exciting.
Working here is exciting.
made it my objective to settle the matter.
Cl *. made to settle the matter my prime objective.
To settle the matter was my prime objective.
But: I made settling the matter my prime objective.
*1 made it my prime objective settling the matter.
I owe it to you that the jury acquitted me.
Cl: *1 owe that the jury acquitted me to you.
Contrast : I owe my acquittal to you.
[with corresponding nominalizationJ
Something put it into his head that she was a spy.
Cl: *Something put that she was a spy into his head.
Something put the idea o/her being a spy into his head.

we have three further possibilities. First, with ordinary it extraposition:

It is difficult to pour cream out of this jug.
The two other possibilities are:
This [ jug is DiFficult to pour CREAM out of !
I Cream is DiFficult to pour out of this JUG I
The fonner implies difficulties with the jug (perhaps its spout is too narrow); the
latter implies difficulties with cream (perhaps it is too thick).
Postponement of object in SVOC and SVOA clauses

18.26

In a sentence of type SVC where the extraposed clause of 18.23 has an

object or prepositional complement, the noun phrase concerned can
sometimes be fronted to become the theme in place of it. For example:

(b) Shift from SVOdA to SVAOd:

I confessed to him all my worse defects.
We heard from his own lips the story of/IOW he had been stranded/or
days without food.

Compare also:

There is a similar construction with be sure, be certain, seem, appear, be

said, be known, etc, except that in these cases the corresponding
construction with anticipatory it requires a that-clause, and it is the subject
of the extraposed clause that is fronted:
It's certain that we'll forget the address.
'"'-' We're certain to forget the address.
It seems that you've made a mistake.

When the object is a long and complex phrase, final placement for end
focus or cnd-weight is possible in SVOC and SVOA clause types. This
does not involve an it-substitution.
(a) Shift from SVOdCo order to SVCoOd order:
They pronounced guilty every one 0/ the accused.
He had called an idiot the man on whosejudgment he nOw had to rely.

To teach Elizabeth is a pleasure.

,..,. h is a pleasure to teach Elizabeth. (c/ 18.23)
- Elizabeth is a pleasure to teach.
It's impossible to deal with Bill.
,...., Bill is impossible to deal with.
It's easy/difficult to beat them.
,..,. They're easy/difficult to beat.
It's fun (for us) to be with Margaret.
,..,. Margarel is fun (for us) to be with.

rm

To pour cream out orthisjug is difficult.

The construction type She's a pleasure to teach

18.25

A combination of the movement explained in 1 8 . 23ffpe its a valuable range of

sentence rorms for adjusting the development of communicative dynamism and
the assignment of end-focus as desired. Thus along with the canonical SVC
sentence:

She dragged (right) in(side) the two heavy boxes 01 chemicals.

NOTE

[a] The fact that we arc disturbing the normal order in such clauses is indicated bya

tendency to adopt a different intonation pattern. Thus the movement forward of

the C or A is usually accompanied by the assignment to it ofa marked (subsidiary)
rocus (c! 18. 12); compare:

She pulled to 'one SiDE the 'heavy cURtain

She pulled the 'heavy ' curtain to 'onc SiDE
NOTE

[b) I n ditransitive complemenlation

direct object:

(c! 16.3IfJ), the indirect object precedes the

.
. I
her 'brother a SIGnet
[I J
'nng
She I gave him
Thus whether or not the 0, is pronominalized, the implication is that it carries less
communicative dynamism (is relatively 'given') as compared with the Od. Where

420

Postponement

Theme, focus, and Information processlflil

the converse is troe, the 0, is replaced by a prepositional phrase and placed after
Od :
She I gave a 'signet ring to her "Ronler I
[2)
But there is a third possibility; the prepositional paraphrase of the 0, can itself
precede the Od:
She I gave to her BROTHer a siGnet 'ring I

The discovery by Lovell in 1 960 of the new star . . .

The discovery of the new star in 1960 by Lovel!
(?)Lovell's 1 960 new star discovery . . .
NOTE

[3)

Sometimes to achieve endfocus or cndweight, only part of an element is

postponed. The most commonly affected part is the postmodification of a
noun phrase (cfI7.42f), and the units most readily postponed are nominal
(in this ease appositive) clauses.

I showed
*'

A rumour circulated widely that he was secretly engaged to the

President's daughter. (Cj: 'A rumollr lhal he was secretly engaged
to Ihe President's dallghler circulated widely.')

All of liS were frightened except the captain.

The discontinuous noun phrase can be a complement or object:

What business is it ofyours? (Cf'It is no business of yours')
We heard Ihe story from his own lips ofhow he was slrandedfor days
without food.
I met a man this morning carrying an injured child.

But we may speak analogously of internal discontinuities: that is, where

there is movement of parts of a noun phrase to achieve endfocus, without
the intervention of material not forming part of the noun phrase as a
whole. In the nominalizations of [I] below, we see how the parts in
quotation marks corresponding to the original clause elements can be
moved to affect the internal communicative dynamism:
Lovell discovered the new star in 1960.
Lovell's discovery of the new star in 1960 . . .

SVOA [I]
'SVOA' [2]

lan the letter myself.

showed lan the letter himself
(But (1: ') showed lan himself the letter')

[b] With

some other cases of pronominal apposition, we may prefer to postpone

the second element to a position immediately following the operator rather than to
the end of the sentence. This is especially true with all, both, each (cI6.24). For
example:

However, other postmodifying clauses, and even phrases, can be so

postponed:

Discontinuity often results, too, from the postponement of postmodifying

phrases of exception (cf9. I S):

elc) may vary In

As the emphatic reflexive pronoun frequently bears nuclear stress, the postpone
ment is necessary if the sentence is to have end-focus. Such postponement is
possible, however, only if the noun phrase in apposition with the pronoun is the
subject:

Discontinuous noun phrases

The lime had come 10 decorate the hOllse for Christmas.

Thal /oaf was stale that you sold me.
A steering committee had been formed, consisting ofMessrs Ogawa,
Schultz, and Robinson.

(himself,

'VSAO' [3]
'VOAS' [4]
'SAOV' [5]

The driver himSELF told me.

-The driver told me himSELF.
Did you yourSELF paint the portrait'?
...., Did you paint the portrait yoursELF'?

The Od in [3] has the same rhematic force as in (11 bur the 0; has been replaced by a
form that raises its communicative dynamism above that of the 0; in (1 1 though
still below that of the paraphrase in [2].

18,27

[aJ In apposition, the emphatic reflexive pronoun

position:

421

The a(Msers

had all been carefully selected.

Other dlscontinultles
18,28

Some degree of discontinuity is the rule rather than the exception in

sentences containing comparative clauses, though where the comp
element (cf 1 5.36j) is a degree adverbial, examples without discontinuity
are fairly easy to find. Compare the following:
He has worked for the handicapped more Ihall any other
politician (has).
He has worked more for the handicapped ,han any other
politician (has).
She is earning higher wages than (are) (Hwage.
She is earning higher-than-average wages.

[I]
[ l a]

[2]
(2a]

Beside a norm with minimum discontinuity as in [3], however, the

correlative item can be moved to final position as in [3a] if this is
informationally desirable.
He is more skilled than his bro,her (is) in matters of fiNANCE. [3]
He is I more 'skilled in 'matters of FiNance I than his
[3a]
I BR6THer (is) I
Some adjectives that take complementation (cf 7.9, 16. 38ff) can
simultaneously function as premodifiers. Compare:

Existential ntenc..

422 TtI., focu., end Inlormetlon proce..lng

It is more usual to find such sentences augmented by an adjunct (c/8. I 3jJ):

from yours.
' d.ifferent
' resuIt IS
.
(a) ThIS
slmdar to hers.

" ls a { different result/rom yours.

(b) ThIS
" f
Stnll or resuIt

Mary sang for hours.

I Mary was SiNGing I

She works in the opposite room to this.

It is a timid dog with strangers.

They made an embarrassing protest to the authorities.

In such instances, revision is essential to make it clear which of the two possible
meanings is intended:
[1)

{ My friend cooked.
My friend did the cooking.
{ He ate.
He had a meal.
{ She replied (briefly),
She made a (brief) reply.
{They strolled.
They took a stroll.
{ Mary shrieked.

[2]

[b] Within adjective complementation and prepositional phrases, discontinuity is

possible, especially by the insertion of degree adverbials:
They were fond to some extent of Brecht 's eari}' Itork.
It was different in many respects from whol she had expected.
He worked hard, without for the most part any reward.
The commonest prepositional phrase discontinuities are of the type:
Which group shall

My I rriend would cOOK I

Such rephrasing is obviously context-dependent; it is not often, for

example, that a verb phrase might equally well be progressive or
nonprogressive. Other means have therefore had to be devised for
'stretching' the predicate into a multiword structure. One of the most
generally serviceable (though it tends to be rather informal in lone) is to
replace the intransitive verb by a transitive one of very general meaning,
and give it as eventive object a nominalization of the intransitive item (cl
10. 1 6, 17.23). The general verbs do, make, give, have, take are widely used
in this construction:

[al Similarity with prepositional phrases postmodifying a head can produce

ambiguity, as in:

They made a protest that was embarrassing to the authorities.

lie 'Their protest embarrassed the authorities']
They made a protest to the authorities that was embarrassing.
lie 'They protested to the authorities in a way that was
(generally) embarrassing']

My friend cooked enthusiastically.

Alternatively, we make intransitive verbs bipartite, an auxiliary serving as

a transition between theme and focus:

to hers.

In cases like (b), discontinuity is felt to be quite normal. So also:

NOTE

423

we put him in?

Mary gave a shriek.

Note also the interruption ofa verb phrase by the insertion of adverbials al AI: cf
8. 1 1 . In writing, it is often convenient to use an adverbial along with the emphatic
operator where prosodic prominence would have sufficed in speech:

So also solve .....find a SolUTion; agree - reach (or come to) an agreement;
f (or make) a 'lIgges1ioll;
apply -submit an applicorion; suggest - ofer
permit -grant (or give) permission; attend-pay attention, etc.

They did indecdfind a solution. -They I FOUND a solution I

Structural compensation
18.29

From the structure of most clauses, we develop the expectation that the V
element will be at a transition point between a thematic low communica
tive dynamism and a focal high:
I Jill will de'cide next WEEK I
The I boy 'broke the WiNdow I
My I friend be'came ANgry I
This has the effect of making the simplest realization ofthe SV clause type
sound oddly incomplete:
I Mary SANG I

My I rriend cOOKED I

Existential sentences
18.30

We have seen in 18. 4 that a sentence usually begins with reference to

'given' information and proceeds to provide 'new' information. But there
are many occasions when we must make statements whose content does
not fall neatly into these two categories:
III
A l car is 'blocking my wAy l
I Many 'students are in fi'nancial TROUBle I
[2]
I Quite a 'few 'species of 'animals are in 'danger of eXTiNCtion I [3]

424 Theme, locus, end IntormeHon proce..lng

subject (+ auxiliaries) + be+ predication

there ( + auxiliaries) + be+ subject + predication

These sentences may oblige the recipient to interpret a theme as entircly

new and unconnected with anything previously introduced. In such
circumstances, it is convenient to have devices for providing some kind of
dummy theme which will enable the originator to indicate the 'new' status
of a whole clause, including its subject. Thus in place of [1], [2], and [3], wc
might have:
There is
1 have

}{ a car blOCking }my

There are
We have
One finds

a CAR blocking

"

WAY

many STudents in financial TRouBle

}{quite
a 'few 'species of ANimals in
danger of eXTINCTtion

The subject of the original clause may be called the 'notional' subject of
the Ihere-sentence, so as to distinguish it from Ihere itself, which for most
purposes is the 'grammatical' subject (cJ 1 8.32). Examples of the seven
clause types with the existential correspondences are given below:
Type SVC

[I a]

Something must be wrong.

.-There must be something wrong.

[2.]

Type SVA

[3.]

Was anyone in the vicinity?

'"" Was there anyone in the vicinity?

In serving to bring the existence ofan entire proposition to the attcntion of

the hearer, the resultant constructions are known as 'cxistential
sentences', by far the commonest being the type introduced by unstressed
Ihere, accompanied by the simple prescnt or past of be.
NOTE

Type SV
No one was waiting.
,...., There was no one waiting.

[a] Many other constructions than those illustrated above are invoked to serve the
same purpose; for example, il with the proposition asextraposed subject (cIIS.23):

Type SVO

It is a fact that
many students are In
" financlal
" troublc.
1 t has to be sal"d that

Plenty of people are getting promotion.

-There are plenty of people getting promotion.

Alternatively again, the proposition can be made a clausal object:

Type SVOC

One finds that

We must recognize that many students are in financial trouble.
I have to say that

Two bulldozers have been knocking the place flat.

'"'"' There have been two bulldozers knocking the place flat.

Block language (cl 1 1 .22) often consists of verbless sentences that can be
regarded as existential:

Type SVOA

rb]

DANGER!
MEN AT WORK OVERHEAD

Something is causing my friend distress.

--Therc's something causing my friend distress.

'

Passive versions of the correspondences arc also to be noted:

Existential there

Type SV,""

Correspondence wilh basic clause patterns

18,31

girl is putting the kettle on.

- There's a girl putting the kettle on.

Type SVOO

Note that there arc two types of negative directives and slogans:
No way out"" 'There is . . .
No discrimination"" 'There mUSI be . . .

[ I]
[2]

There is a regular correspondence between existential sentences with

rhere + be and clauses of equivalent meaning as specified in terms of the
basic clause patterns (d 1 0 . 1 ), provided that the clausc concerned has

Type SVpasse
No children will be left hungry.
-- There'l! be no children left hungry.

an indefinite subjcct (but cJNotc [c]); and

a form of the verb be in its verb phrase.
Allowing for these two requirements, we may relate basic clauses to
existential fonns such that (2) corresponds to [I):

whole box was stolen.

'"" There was a whole box stolen.

NOTE

(aJ The notional subjcct can be postponed (cl IS.21) if it is required to have focal

prominence:

1
426 Theme, locus, and Inlormatlon processing

There was in the vicinity a helpful doctor.

There was a moment's silence.

Is there any other business? (as spoken from the chair at the end of a
meeting]

[bJ Especially in informal usage. there is an existential sentence with an -edclause

following the noun phrase:

Such sentences are perhaps to be explained as cases in which the final element is
omitted as understood:

There's a book gone from my desk.

[cl Existential sentences need not have an indefinite noun phrase as 'notional
subject'. In 8's reply below, a definite noun phrase conveys new information,
providing a specific (and hence definite) instance of something contextually given:

There was a moment's silence (in the room).

Existential sentences with relative clauses

A: Have we any loose cash in the house?

B: Well, there's the money in the box over there.

18.33

The status of existential /here as subject

18.32

The there of existential sentences differs from there as an introductory

adverb in lacking stress, in carrying none of the locative meaning of the
place adjunct there, and in behaving in most ways like the subject of the
clause, doubtless reflecting the structural dislocation from the basic clause
types:
(i) It follows the operator in yes-no and tag questions:

Two students would like to see you.

_ There are two students (that/who) would like to see you.
It is interesting that the relative pronoun can be omitted (especially in
informal usage) even when it is subject of the relative clause. This is
something not permissible according to the normal rule for relative clause
formation (c/1 7.8) and is a sign ofthe special status within the main clause
of the annex clause here, as in cleft sentences.
As with cleft sentences, too, we can have different tenses in the two parts
of the sentence. Compare:

Is there any more soup?

There haven't been any phone calls, hm'e there?

(ii) It can act as subject in infinitive and -ing clauses:
I don't want there to be any msunderstandings.
i
He was disappointed at there being so liule to do.
There having been trouble over this in the past, I want to treat the
matter cautiously.
NOTE

An additional type of existential sentence consists of there + be + noun

phrase + relative clause, and resembles the cleft sentence (c/ 1 8 . 1 8,
example [2]) in its rhetorical motivation. Such sentences can be related to
sentences oforthodox clause types without the two restrictions mentioned
in 18.31; the verb need not be a form of be, and although there must be an
indefinite element, it need nol be the subject:

Some planets were discovered by the ancients.

There are some planets that were discovered by the ancients.
The existential-with-relativc construction is particularly common as a
means of emphasizing a negative (c/ Notes below):

(al The absence oflocative meaning is indicated by the acceptability of existential

sentences where here cooccurs with introductory there:

I can do nothing about it.

There's nothing I can do about it.

There's a screwdriver here.

By contrast, adjunct there with inversion (cJI8.16), as in 'There's the girl', would
be contradictory with an added here:

NOTE

[aJ We can negate either part or both parts; compare:

There was a student who didn't pass the exam.
There wasn't a student who passed the exam.
There wasn't a student who didn't pass the exam.

-There's the screwdriver here! (But cJI " n-lERF.s the SCREwdriver I -I Right
"HERE ! >
[b] Especially informally, there is treated like a singular subject where the
'notional' subject is plural:

[= one failed)
("" all failedl
( "" all passed]

(bJ A further common existential sentencc pattern, Ihere + be + noun phrasc

+ to + infinitive clause, is problematic to the extent that it cannot be directly
related to the basic clause types of \0.1:

There's some letters here for you to read.

(c] Apart from sentences related to basic clause types in the manner described in
18.31, we have to consider various other types of sentence introduced by
existential there. Among them is the 'bare' existential (sometimes ealled
'ontological') sentence, which simply postulates the existence of some entity or
entities:

There was no one for us to talk to.

There's (always) plenty of housework to do.
(c) Note also the rather restricted use of -ng
i
clauses (cJ 15.10), as in:
There's no telling what Janet will do next.

,.

428

Theme, focus, and information procenlng

Existential sentences with verbs other than

18.34

Existential sentences

be

In the garden lay

The 'presentative' role of the existential sentence seems especially clear in

a rather less common, more literary type in which there is followed by a
verb other than be. For example:

taste?

The present construction requires that the verb be intransitive and of

fairly general presentative meaning: verbs of motion (arrive, enter, pass,
come, etc), of inception (emerge, spring up, etc), and of stance (live, remain,
stand, lie, etc); but cI 18.35. The normal basic sentence pattern concerned
is SVA :
A

shift occurred in public taste.

,.." There occurred a shift in public taste.

[I)

Since the place adverbial, In (he garden, provides in itself the condition
enabling us to position the subject after the verb (cl 1 8 . 1 6), there is no
grammatical requirement for [here to be present:
In the garden

{ was } a sundial.
stood

[2]

It should be noted that the range of verb-phrase forms with this type of
ordering is considerably wider than was specified in 18.34. Nor need the S
be indefinite. Compare:
Into the back of his stationary car had collided a massive
goods vehicle.

[4]

The have-existential device

18.36

There is a type of existential sentence in which the thematic position is not

occupied by a mere 'dummy' element but by a noun-phrase subject
preceding the verb hm'e (or, esp in BrE, have got ). Compare:
Two buttons are missing on my jacket.
"'" There are two buttons missing on my jacket.
- My jacket has two buttons missing.
_ I have two buttons mjssing on my jacket.

[I]
[2]
[3]
[4]

We are concerned here with the last two of these examples, and we can see
that the thematic noun phrase can vary sharply in its relation to the rest of
the sentence. Indeed, beyond saying that it has considerable involvement
in the existential proposition, we cannot specify what that involvement
will be. Thus in
[5]

there is a strong implication that the subject has an agentive role, whereas
In

Let us look now at an example that pairs a verb of stance with the usual
existential verb be:

{ was } a sundial.
In the garden there
stood

} (fast asleep).

The poner has a taxi ready (for you).

Existential sentences with Initial space adjuncts

18.35

a
s ather
(he old lady

Indeed, the variant with there as in [1] is much less likely in [3] or [41 than in
[2], and this seems to correlate with the less 'presentative' verb phrase in [3]
and the definiteness of the noun phrase in [41. We might summarize the
difference between [I] and [2] by saying that the latter, without there, is
motivated by the wish to achieve end-focus, while the there-construction
as in [11 has the more general 'presentative' function; c/ 18.34.

There rose in his imagination grand visions of a world empire.

There exist a number of similar medieval crosses in various parts of
the country.
There may come a time when the Western Nations will be less
fortunate.
Not long after this, there occurred quite a sudden shift in public
taste.
This construction, which may be related to other sentence forms by the
simple correspondence S + V (here + V + S (where S is usually indefi
nite), is equivalent in effect and style to subject-verb inversion after an
initial adverbial (cl 1 8 . 1 6, 18.35). Grammatically, rhere is a subject (cl
18.32) with operator inversion when the statement pattern is turned into a
question, eg: Will there come a rime . . .? Did {here occur a shift in public

{ f, ;

429

[3]

You have a taxi ready.

[6]

it is just as strongly implied that it has a recipient role. Calling it 'affected'

seems perhaps to state the involvement with a degree of generality that
satisfactorily accounts for most cases. Compare:

{ valuable watch was stolen (from/belonging to my friend). [7]

My Iriend had a valuable watch stolen.
[81
[9]
{There are several oak trees in the(ir) garden.
[10]
They have several oak trees in the(ir) garden.
[ 1 1]
{A brother of mine works in Chicago.
[ 12]
A

I have a brother working in Chicago.

Turning from the role to the identity of the thematic element, we see from
the examples throughout this section that it is often provided (if
optionally) in the corresponding nonexistential sentence: jacket in (I] in
relation to [3), my in (I] in relation to [4), you in [5] in relation to [61, my

430 Theme, foeti., .ncl lnformatlon proceulng

Relnforcemenl

friend in [7J in relation to (8), their in [9] in relation to [101, and mine in [1 1)

The second utterance in each case resembles prosodica\ly the operator

stressed items discussed in 1 8. 1 1 . But as we see with (4), the operators,
though emphasized, need not carry the nuclear force. More importantly,
they are not necessarily contrastive. It is not that any one has implied that
I am not sorry [I] or that Mary won't be pleased [3]. Rather, the speaker
(in a style that is sometimes felt to be rather gushing and extravagant) is
conveying a personal concern or (as in [4l)even reproach or petulance. It is
in this last connection that the will/would of 'insistence' (cf 4.27) is
regularly stressed:

in relation to ( 1 2).

NOTE

[a] In hal'existentials, the 'notional' subject (ie the subject of the corresponding

basic clause type) can freely be definite:

John's friend is helping him.
John has his friend helping him.

By contrast: 'There is a friend helping him' but 'There is John's friend helping
him'.
{b) Corresponding to there-sentences of the same character (cf 18.33), the
following illustrate have-sentences containing relative and nonfinite clauses:

He I W6ULD go and make a 'MEss of it I

{
{

(b) Noneorrelative so and sMch

There's something (that) I've been meaning to tcll you.

I've something (that) I've been meaning to tell you.
There is a guest Slaying with her.
She has a guest staying with her.

[cl

431

In familiar speech of a rather extravagant style, the determiner such and

the adverb so are stressed so as to give exclamatory force to a statement.
question, or directive. In this usage, there is no accompanying correlative
clause or phrase (cf 15.42):

Existential clauses can also be nonfinite or verbless; for example:

She was wearing 'such a lovely DREss I

I'm so afraid they'll get LOST I

There soon being a taxi available.

(His) Soon having a taxi available, Dr Lowe caught his train.
With a taxi soon available,

In consequence, so and such become equivalent to how and what In

exclamations (cf 1 1 .20):
They were so cross! -- How cross they were!

Emotive emphasis
18.37

Apart from the emphasis given by information focusing, the language

provides means of giving a unit purely emotive emphasis. They include
exclamations (cf 1 1 .20), the persuasive do in imperatives (cf 1 1 . 19),
interjections (cf 1 1 .22 Note [c]), expletives and intensifiers (cf7. l 8, 7.32ff,
8.35ff), including the general clause emphasizers such as actually, really,
and indeed. Here we mention two particularly common strategies.
Consider the difference between pairs like the following:

row

J ldid TilLL you I

18.38

Reinforcement is a feature of colloquial style whereby some item is

repeated for purposes of emphasis, focus, or thematic arrangement. Its
simplest form is merely the reiteration (with heavy stressing) ofa word or
phrase:
It's far, far too expensive.
I agree with every word you've said e\'ery single word.

(a) Emphatic operators

{ I'm I sORry I }
! l AM 'sorry I
{ You I look PALE this 'morning I }
Youl06 'look 'pale this 'morning I
M ary will be PLEASED I }
{ II Mary
wiLL be 'pleased I
{ I I you I }

Reinforcement

[1 J

In very loose and informal speech, a reinforcing or rccapitulatory

pronoun is sometimes inserted within a clause where it stands 'proxy' for
an initial noun phrase:

[2J

This ma" I was telling you about

[3J

The book I lent yOIl

me.

[4J

well, Ire used to live next door to

have you read it yet?

These two examples show a complete noun phrase being disjoined from
the grammar of the sentence, its role (as subject and object respectively)
grammatically performed by subsequent pronouns. But in being thus

,
432

Theme, focus, and Information proc...lng

rronted, as marked themes (cl 1 8 . 1 3), the disjoined noun phrases clearly
set out the 'point or departure' ror the utterance as a whole. This is a device
that may be a convenience alike to hearer (in receiving an early statement
ora complex item) and speaker (in not having to incorporate such an item
in the grammatical organization or his utterance).
In contrast to such rronting or items, an amplificatory phrase may be
inrormally added after the completion ora clause structure which contains
a corererential pronoun:
They 're all the same, these politicians.
I wouldn't trust him ror a moment, your brother-in-law.

Such utterances are usually spoken with divided rocus (cl 1 8 . 1 2), with a
rise on the 'tag' confirming its relatively 'given' status:
They're I all the SAME, these poliTicians I
The lag can be inserted parenthetically, and need not be final:
He's gOI a good ruture, your brother. ir he perseveres.
NOTE

lal An even more informal type of tag comprises a subject and operator:

That was a lark, tlmt lI'as!

He likes a drink now and then,
She's 11 good player. Ann (is).

ljm does.

In some dialects of English (especially Northern BrE), the operator my precedc

the subject:
She's a good player. is Ann.

[bJ Postposcd nonfinile clauses. of the kind discussed in 1 8.24, sometimes closely
resemble amplificatory tags; contrast:

It was lough getting the job finished on time.

. . . TiME 1 1
1 1 tough . .
It was tough, getting beaten in the last match.

I I TOUGH I / . . .

. . . MATCH I ]

(c] Expletives (in the broadest sense) provide a common mode of amplification in

extremely informal speech, servingasa rhctorical transition between theme and an

emotionally coloured focus:
' I told them to 'darned 'well Listen I
Expletives can also amplify the theme in It'll-questions: 'How on earth did you lose
.H .
,.

Bibliographical note
On information processing in relation to given and new, see Allerton (1980); Chafe
(1976); Dahl ( 1974); Halliday ( 1967--68); Kuno ( 1976b); Li ( 1976); Taglicht
(1984).

Reinforcement

433

On functional sentence perspective, see Danc ( 1974): Firbas ( 1 986); Kuno

(1972).
On communicative dynamism, see Firbas ( 1979).
On existential constructions, see Breivik ( 1983): Erdmann ( 1976); Jenkins
(1975); Lakolf (1987); Mil"'k (1979).
On inversion. see Jacobsson ( 1 986); Penhallurick (1984).
On extraposition and other aspects of ordering, sce Enkvist (1987); Erdmann
(1981); Hartvigson and Jakobscn ( 1 974); Rudanko (1982).
On grammar and style in relation to prosodic features. sce Andn! ( 1974): Bald
( 1979); Bolingcr ( 1972b): Brazil ( 1985): Chafe (1976): Crystal ( 1 969, 1980):
Enkvist ( 1 980); Faber (1987); HaUiday ( 1 967).
Other relevant studies include: 8iber ( 1988); Bolinger (1977); Burton-Roberts
( 1986a, b); lakoff ( 1 987): Lyons ( 1977); Mathcsius ( 1975): Schmerling ( 1976).

r
19

Place and time relators

Nonetheless, since this book is devoted to grammar, we must exclude all

aspects or text construction other than grammatical reatures and their
concomitant prosody and punctuation.
Parts or a text may cohere without rormal linkage (asynderic con
nection):

From sentence to text

I'm in a state or shock. Jack's mother has just died.

General
19.1

Alternatively, conjunctions or other rormal reatures may make the

connection explicit:

We apply the tenn 'text' to a stretch of language which makes coherent

sense in the context of its use. It may be spoken or written; it may be as
long as a book or as short as a cry for help. Linguistic form is important
but is not of itselfsufficient to give a stretch oflanguage the status ofa text.
For example, a road-sign reading

Jack's mother has just died and (so) I'm in a state of shock.
Frequently the rheme or a clause ( J 8.4f) is represented in what rollows by
a thematic pro-rorm; an example or such thematic connection:
I've just read your new book. It's very interesting.

Dangerous Corner

But prororms can also be used to show rhematic connection:

is an adequate text though comprising only a short noun phrase. It is

understood as an existential statement ( 1 8.30), paraphraseable as
something like 'There is a dangerous corner ncar by', with such block
language features ( 1 1.22) as zero article that are expected in notices of this
kind. By contrast, a sign at the roadside with the same grammatical
structure but reading

I've just read your new book. Have you seen mine?

Place and time relators

Critical Remark
is not an adequate text, because although we recognize the structure and
understand the words, the phrase can communicate nothing to us as we
drive by, and is thus meaningless.
In earlier chapters, as is normal in grammars, we have exemplified our
statements by way of printed sentences which have made an implicit
double demand on readers. First, we have assumed that the examples
would be read as if they were heard, mentally given by each reader
appropriate features of stress and intonation. Second, we have assumed
that readers would imagine for each example an appropriate context in
which it could have a plausible textual role.

435

19.3

Textual structure requires firm orientation in respect to place and timc.

Consider the following example:
Years ago, I lived for a time in the Far East, where my father worked
at a naval base. I've been back there oncc to look at our old home
but that was after the base had closed.
4---

B - -I>

-....I---.--
"'-.... - - - - ..
+ --- - -- - -- - - D

- - - - - ---- - -

19.2

In the prcsent chapter, we take the rormation or phrases, clauses, and

sentences ror granted, and we look at the way they are deployed in the
rormation or texts. This is of course rar rrom being a matter or grammar
alone. It is primarily by the choice or vocabulary that language connects
us with the world beyond language, as we saw in comparing the examples
'Dangerous Corner' and 'Critical Remark' in 1 9 . 1 . Moreover, lexical
choice is used constantly to shape the internal cohesion of texts. Note the
use orthe hypernymically related/amily, children, parents and/ruU, apple,
Granny Smiths in the rollowing:
I like my ramily to eat lots offruit, and Granny Smiths are especially
popular because this apple has a juicy crispness much enjoyed by
the children and their parents alike.

Fig 19.3

tn relation to the implicit here and now orthe speakcr and hearer, the text
refers to one other location in space and two other 'locations' in time.
Taking A in Fig 19.3 as 'here and now', we are impelled to imagine a
remote place where for some long unspecified span in the past (D), there
had existed a naval base. Within that period, for a shorter but also
unspecified span B, the speaker had lived there. Between A and the end of
D, a time C is mentioned and narratively represented as without duration.
It is noteworthy that the temporal and locational relations are clear

436

Place .nd time rel.ton

From .."'enee to ted

though no dates or precise places are given: the 'Far East' is/ar only from
(say) Britain and is east only in relation to somewhere that lies to the west
of it; the time is 'long ago' only in relation to 'now' - it was itself 'now'
when the speaker lived in the Far East.

NOTE

Certain spatial relations are firmly linked to grammatical expressions

which are heavily exploited in textual structure. Thus an opening question
or statement wiIJ normally involve reference to location in space (as well as
in time):

19.5

Ellipses and pro-forms

Where place relators operate in text structure, ellipsis is often involved (c/
12.19):

[I J
He examined the car. The/ront was slightly damaged.
The building was heavily guarded by police. The windows
.
on the top storey
were covered with boards.
[2J
at the top
The ellipted items in [I] and [2] are 0/ the car and 0/ the building
respectively. Often the ellipted items are not in the previous context, but
are understood from the situational context (either accompanying the
communication or established by the communication):

[I]
Where are you going tonight?
[2]
It's ages since I was o'er there.
On Tuesday evening, I was at the/ront door talking to a caller.
Suddenly we heard a crash and two cars collided just
opposite. We hurried across to see if we could help. One
driver was scrambling out, bleeding profusely, and my visitor
helped him m'er to the pavement. Then along came some
people, running up the street. I dashed back in and phoned for
help. When I went out again, the other driver was trying to
{3]
move her car down the road a little and in to the side.

In all three examples, spatial reference is essential, as well as orientation to

the participants' here (c/19.3): where in [I} entails a here from which to set
out; over there in [2] entails 'in contrast to here'. But let us look more
closely at the part played by spatial reference in [3}, both in respect to
orientation and to the structure of the narrative.
Even totally out ofcontext. the institutionalized phrase at the/ront door
would be understood as referring to the main entrance of someone's
home, whether this was a house or a small apartment. Likewise, just
opposite is at once understood asjust opposite to where the speaker and his
visitor were standing. A road is implied by the car crash and in this context
,
across means 'across the intervening space (of footpath and street) . The
back ill signifies a return across this intervening space and inlO the
speaker's home. The two instances of out are of sharply different
reference: the first refers implicitly to emergence from the car, the second
to re-emergence from the speaker's home (thUS correlating with the earlier
back in). The contrasting phrases up (the street) and down (the road) are
interesting in making spatial reference not necessarily in terms of relative
elevation (though this is not excluded). The immediate contrast is in terms
of orientation again: up indicating an approach towards the speaker (and
his home). down indicating the converse (c/ 9. 7). The cluster of spatial
references provides a continuous set of coordinates in relation to a base
(the speaker's home, though this is merely a pragmatic implication) as well
as a coherent account of the movements involved in the narrative.

In a text wherc it was known that a physical slope was involved, up/down (the
street) would be used with rcspect to this absolutc and objective physical fcature,

and it would outweigh personal oricntation. The lattcr could thcn be cxprcsscd by
alternative mcans: 'She went (away) up the street'; 'They came down thc street'.
Contrast also: 'They hurried up Fifth Avenuc' (ie away from 'downtown'
Manhattan); 'Thcy sauntered down Fifth Avenue' (ie towards downtown
Manhattan); 'They walked along Fifth Avenue' (ncutral as to direction).

Place relator.
19.4

437

The traffic lights eventually changed. She walked across quickly. [3]
Across here implies the road or some similar noun phrase (c/9.7, 19.4).
A few place adverbs do not involve ellipsis: here, there, elsewhere, the
relative where. and (in formal contexts) hence, thence, hither, and thither.

They are pro-forms:

The school laboratory reeked of ammonia. Here, during the

first week of the term, an unusual experiment had been
[4J
conducted.
All my friends have been to Paris at least once. I am going
[5J
there next summer for the first time.
Here in [4J is a substitute for in the school laboratory and there in {5] for 10
Paris.

NOTE

In sentences like Stand rhere and Here ir is, the pro-forms may refer dircctly 10 the
situational contexts without any linguistic mention of location, but with
orientation to the speaker:
I'm glad to welcome you here, espedally sincc at the last meeting
I could not be there.

19.6

Place relators often comprise two components. Most commonly these are
a dimension or direction indicator plus a location indicator (c/9.4). The
latter is usually an open-class noun (or proper noun), but its locational use
is often institutionalized, making the whole expression quasi-grammati
cal. Examples:

438

From ..nt.nc:e to leld

I've been working on this problem all year and I must find a
solution before January when I'm due to go abroad for a
month or so.

in town
off work
on board
on the way

at the window
on the ceiling
in the air
at the seaside

Nouns of more general meaning are still more firmly harnessed for
grammatical use:

Another common type of pairing is a distance indicator plus a dimension

indicator; for example:
(not) rar
further
farther

out
off
away
from

I've been working a long time.

I'm going abroad for a while.
She hasn't visited me for ages.

{In
to + noun phrase
higher(er) + up
+ down
low(er)
y
+
close
to + noun phrase
nearer

The partially antonymous home and abroad, ashore and on board are
exceptional in combining the dimension and location factors:
{ going
,
staymg
home for the evening, (reference to personal residence].

liVing
{ me
being abroad, I like to :
,
gomg
own country') for a year or so,

After

NOTE

[I]

} home ( := 'my

Temporal ordering
19.8

[2)

earlier,former, preceding, previous, prior

Locational connections in relation Lo coherence are not merely a nccessary feature

of individual texts. It is customary in newspapers to group the otherwise separate
news-item texts on a regional basis. So too in radio broadcasts. a place relator may
serve to give some kind ofcoherence to olherwise unrelated slories, For example:

For example:
He handed in a good essay. His previous essays (ie 'those done
earlier') were all poor.
ADVERBIALS

already, as yet, before, beforehand, earlier, first, formerly, hitherto

(formal), previously, so far, yet ; and phrases with proforms:
before that, before this. before now, before then, by now, by then,
until now, until then, up to now, up to then

The textual justification for iN is that a main focus on Canada would be misleading
since Canada is in some sense already 'given'.

For example:
I shall explain to you what happened, 8utfirst I must give you a cup
of tea.

Time relators
Like space, time has its lexically specific and labelled 'areas' and
'locations'. Along with open--class nouns, some of them - like places - are
treated as proper nouns: century, decade, year, 1989, January, week, day,
Thursday, evening, etc. Again like units of space, these nouns have an
institutionalized and hence quasigrammatical use. In addition to being
elements in clause structure, they lend themselves to the connections and
transitions of textual structure:

(i) Temporal ordering previous to a given time reference:

ADJECTIVES

They are worried that another strike could break out in the United States
similar 10 the onc that affected Canada's economy so seriously two years
ago.
iN cANada news is coming in of a plane accident near Toronto. The
aircraft, a privately owned fourscater . . .

19.7

[2J
[3)
[4)

I n addition, therefore, to c1osedc1ass items like afterwards, we take

account here of numerous openc1ass words which, though with clear
lexical meaning, are largely used in the constant process of keeping track
of the many and complex references that are necessary for coherent text.
Since time passes irrespective of location (which need not change),
temporal cues to periods, and to references before, after, within, and during
these periods, are more inherently essential than locational cues,
Once a time reference has been established, certain temporal adjectives
and adverbs may order subsequent information in relation lO the time
reference.

After being out for a couple of hours, I'm now

[I]

First is lo be interpreted here as 'before I explain to you what happened'.

19.9

(ii) Temporal ordering simultaneous with a given time reference:

ADJECTIVES

coexisting (formal), coinciding (formal), concurrent (formal),

contemporary, contemporaneous (formal), simultaneous

..

440

Tense, aspect, and narrative structure

From sentence to text

For example:

For example:
The death of the President was reported this afternoon on Cairo
radio. A simultaneous announcement was broadcast from
Baghdad.
Here simultaneous means 'simultaneous with the report of the death of the
President on Cairo radio'.

The manager went to a board meeting this morning. He was tlren due
to catch a train to London.

NOTE

ADVERBIALS
at this point, concurrently (formal), contemporaneously (formal),
here, in the interim (fonnal), meantime, meanwhile, in the
meantime, in the meanwhile, now, presently, simulfaneously. fhen,
throughout, and the relative when
For example:
Several of the conspirators have been arrested but their leader is as
yet unknown. Meanwhile the police are continuing their investi
gation into the political sympathies of the group.
Here meanwhile means 'from the time of the arrests up to the present'.

NOTE

(al The use of presently for time relationship (ii), with the meaning now, 'at
present'. is very common in AmE. In BrE, presently is more commonly
synonymous with soon.
(bJ An example of here as time indicator:

I've now been lecturing for over an hour. I'll stop here since you all look
tired.
19.10

(iii) Temporal ordering subsequent to a given time reference:

ADJECTIVFS
ensuing (formal), /oiJowing, later, next, subsequent (formal),
succeeding (formal). supervening <formal)
For example:
I left him at 10 p.m. and he was almost asleep. But at some later hour

he must have lit a cigarette.

Here laler might mean 1 I p.m. but equally 4 a.m., a time otherwise called
'the early hours of the morning'.

ADVERBIALS
after, afterwards, (a") ar once,jina"y, immediarely, last, later, next,
since, subsequently <formal), suddenly, then; and the phrases after
that, a/rer Ihis, on the morrow ['the day after']

441

The ordinals constitute a temporal series of adjcctivesfirsl, second, third . . . with

next as a substitute for any of the middle terms when moving up the series, and
final or last as a substitute for the tenn marking the end of the series. There is a
corresponding series of eonjuncts with first (also at first and, less commonly,
firstly) as the beginning of the set; secondly, etc; next, then, later, afterwards, as
interchangeable middle terms; and finally, lastly, or eventually as markers of the
end of the set (t;{ general ordinals, 5.10).

Tense, aspect, and narrative structure

19.11

As a further indication of the importance of time in language, all finite

clauses (and many nonllnite ones) carry a discrete indication of tense and
aspect. Although the contrasts involved are severely limited in compari
son with adverbial distinctions, they contribute to the textual cohesion
and progression. Compare the different implications in the second part of
what follows:
She told me all about the operation on her hip.
I t seemed to have been a success.
It seems to have been a success.

[ I]
[2]

In [I], in accordance with our expectations with respect to sequence of

tenses and backshift (c/14. l 8), the past ties the second part to the first, and
thus, like this, derives its authority from the woman concerned: 'It seemed
to her . . .'; that is, 'She was of the opinion that the operation had been
successful'. The possibility of repudiation is therefore open: 'Unfortuna
tely, this is not so'. In [2], by contrast, the present disjoins the second part
and may imply an orientation to the 'I' narrator: 'It seems to me . . .', " am
of the opinion .
Alternation of past and present in this way is a regular mode of
switching reference from the 'then' of the narrative reference to the 'now'
of both the narrator and the hearer or reader (some items like parenthetic
you see being confined to this 'now'):
As a child, I lived in Singapore. It's very hot there, you know,
and I never owned an overcoat. I remember being puzzled at
picture books showing European children wrapflCd up in
heavy coats and scarves. I believe I thought it all as exotic as
children here think about spacemen's clothing, you see.

[3]

Consider the instances of past tense in this text: lived, owned, thoughr. Not
merely are these verbs morphologically identical: the text actually
represents the past as being referentially identical. All the verbs refer back
to a stretch of time during which these things were true. C/ Fig 1 9. 1 1 .

442 From ..nl4tnee to t.rt

Tense, aspect, and narrative structure

+--- - - -- -- - Tben - - - - -- - - - -

John telephon the police ITz]. There had been a sudden violent
noise outside IT'] '

Now

----"
'2

__
_
_
_
_
__
_
_
_
_

lived
(never) owned
thought

_____ _ _

;s
know
remember. etc

Tense complexity in narrative

19.13

But past tenses need rerer neither to the same time nor to stretches ortime.
With verbs which connote discrete actions, a narrative string orpast tenses
will be interpreted as rererring to a sequence or events iconically
represented by the sequence or verbs. Consider ror example:
Do you want to hear about my adventures last Thursday? I got
up at six, had some coffee, kissed my wire goodbye, and set off
ror Rome. I took a taxi and then the underground, arrived at
Heathrow,startedto check in my case,pattedmy pocket and
found- no ticket, no passport. Picked up my case, caught the
underground, got another taxi, arrived at my rront door,
rushed in, and or course gave my poor wire the shock or her
Hre.
[I )

suddenly occurred to me to wonder what Chaucer

us to make orthe ract that Criseyde
whereas Troilus

{ expects }
expected

{: } been widowed,

{: } never even been in love. Surely

this is significant, yet I had never thought of it berore.

Chaucer's

the other
night

[I]

;';;i;;;;------ ;;;;;'------ ';;;;;;"3\7f ----- -

Now

time

\Z

_
_
_
_
_

More usually, however, texts comprise much greater timerererence

complexity than the examples in 1 9 . 1 lfshow. They will have a mixture of
state verbs and discreteaction verbs; the narrative will weave backwards
and rorwards, with a mixture or tenses and aspects, or finite and nonfinite
clauses, enabling the narrator to depart rrom the linear sequence or
historical order so as both to vary the presentation and to achieve
different (eg dramatic) effects:

I was reading Chaucer's Troilus the other night, and it

This calls ror a very different diagram, as shown in Fig 1 9. 1 2.

u ay
h_
:=========_
T_
",j
__

151

Note also the use of present perfect with simple present, as illustrated in the latter
part of 19.2.

F;g 19.11

19.12

443

_______

before

had never thought

Do

you

was reading

want
... ?

Chauccr expects

Fig 19.12

NOTE

la] While a sequence of past tenses implies sequential events if the lexical meaning
of the verb makes this plausible as in [2], a sequence of past verbs with progressive
aspect (cf4.1O) can imply simultaneity, as in (3]:
Rene raged with anger. Janet went out for the evening.
Rene was raging with anger. Janet was going out for the evening.

(2]
13]

There was a sudden violent noise outside ITI]. John telephoned the

141

Fig 19.13.
Here we have the additional complication ora narrative about a narrative
within a narrative (see Fig 1 9 . 1 3a). The account or the narrator's reading
and reflection is itselr or some complexity: within a period in the past, a
durative activity (reading) is represented as being interrupted by a sudden
thought. But the thought had significance not merely at the time of
thinking it nor merely during the rest or the reading period; it is
represented as being permanently significant. The appeal to the hearer
(,Surely . . . ') does not connote that is refers only to the now orthe speaker
and hearer; there is no room ror some such adverbial as at present :

Ib] Useofthe past perfect (cf4.9) can enable us to reverse the order ofsentences in a
text. Note the way in which 'Time One' IT'] precedes Tl in 14J, where Tz precedes
TI in [5]:
pohre IT'I.

Determiners, pro-forms, and ellipsis 445

444 From ..ntence to text

of an old-fashioned tone, it is common in colloquial spoken narrative,

especially at points of particular excitement. The time reference IS
unequivocally past. For example:

Surely this is at present significant.

The narrator is here using the present tense oftimeless reference (cf4.3). It
is the potentiality for such a use of the present that made us give the two
possibilities, 'Chaucer expects' and 'Chaucer expected'. The latter takes
the historical view: a comment on the poet as he wrote in the fourteenth
century. The former treats the Chaucer canon as timeless, permanently
existing.

The fictional
'Now'
(Troillls. Book I)
- A

--

It was on the Merritt Parkway just south of New Haven. I was

driving along, halfasleep, my mind miles away, and suddenly
there was a screeching of brakes and I catch sight ofa car that
had been overtaking me apparently. Well, he doesn't . ' He
pulls in behind me instead, and it's then that I notice a police
car parked on.the side.

NOTE

Fig 19.13b

Narrative introductions like 'They tell me that . . .' " hear/gather/undcrstand

that . . .' impose no constraints upon the tenses to follow.
Special uses of present and past

19.14

We have seen that the present tense can cooccur in textual structure with
two distinct types of time references: ordinary 'state present' and universal
'state present' ('timeless'; cf 4.3):
I think she had undergone an operation before I met her.
Troilus is totally fancy-free until he sees Criseyde.

( I]
(2]

A third type of present, 'habitual' (cl 4.3), is common in ordinary

narrative, and it can readily cooccur with past tenses:

I had forgotten that they dine very early and I arrived at an

awkward moment for both them and me.

He was suddenly afraid. What on earth was he to do now? How

could he have been so silly as not to tell Sheila he'd rorgollen
his keys?

But there is a further use of the present tense: the so-called 'historic
present' (14.4). As well as occurring in rather mannered and formal prose

16)

Determiners, pro-forms, and e llipsis

19.15

Let us consider the following independent sentences:

An argument over unilateral disarmament broke out between
them .
( I]
An argument over unilateral disarmament finally put an end
(2)
to their friendship.
If we wished to make these sentences into a textual whole, there would be
numerous possibilities, even keeping the first part unchanged:
. . . between them.

. . . between them.

. . . between them.
[3]

[5)

[b} As welt as being able to use the present tense to refer to the past. we can
conversely use the past to refer to a narrator's 'now', exploiting that rorm or
backshirt that is referred to as free direct and indirect speech (cl 1 4.22). Textual
cohesion and congruity of rererence are maintained by careful consistency or tense
and aspect usage. present replaced by past, past by past perfect, even in the
prolonged absence orreminders to the hearer/reader in the form orreporting vcrbs
('He reflected . . .', 'She said . . .'). For example:

------- B --------_

NOTE

In nonstandard speech, the reporting verb in narrative is often in the historic

present:
la]

'Where did you put my coal?' he says. 'I never touched it: J says.

An analogous choice exists in referring to the fictional narrative of

Chaucer's poem. In Fig 1 9. 1 3b. 'A' represents the (unknown) period
during which Criseyde has been a widow before the poem begins; 'B'
represents the longer period (in effect, Troilus's whole life) during which
Troilus has never been in love. It will be noticed that in Ihis commentary
we have adopted the 'timeless' view of the fiction ('When the poem begins,
Criseyde has been a widow for some time'). In the original example (I], the
past variant was also given, implying a retelling of the story ('When
Troilus first saw Criseyde, she had been a widow for some time').

(4]

{ }
The
ThIS
That

argument finally put an end to

.
I .
thelr fnen
dshp

{ }{
The
.
ThiS
That

.
dIS ute
controversy

{ }{ }
s
That

S
a er
affair

} finally p t .

finally put . . .

. . . between them - an argument that finally put .

. . . between them, which finally put . . .

(3]

(4]

(5]

(6]
(7]

r
446

Determiners, pro-forms, and ellipsis

From .entence to text

. . between them, and

{ 'hiS } finally put . . .

that

This should interest you, if you're still keen on boxing. The

world heavyweight championship is going to be held in
Chicago next Junc, so you should be able to watch it live.
Here is the news. A diplomat was kidnapped last night in
London . . . [radio announcement]
It never should have happened. He went out and left the
baby unattended.
My arguments are as/ollows . . .

. . between them, and it finally put . . .

(9]
. . between them and finally put an end to their friendship. (10]

Discourse reference: clausal

19.16

Cataphoric examples:

[8]

All these versions have two things in common. They abbreviate the second
part and they connect it with the first part.
In some ways the most straightforward is [6], where a simple and direct
shortening of the first subject phrase is used appositively; c/I 7.27. There is
something similar in (3], where reduction retains the original head-word of
the noun-phrase argument, but here the coreference with the prcceding
subject is indicated not by apposition but by the anaphoric determiners
the. this, or that ; c/5.3f In (4] and (5] coreference is again carried by deixis,
but in [4] the original noun phrase is not merely abbreviated but its head
word is replaced by a semantic paraphrase. In [5], on the other hand. the
head-word is replaced by a quasi-pronominal noun of very general
meaning. In (8], anaphoric dei xis again points to the coreference, as in [4]
and [5], but this time with the head-word replaced by zcro; the
demonstrative lhis or lhal is used pronominally; c/6. 1 9f In [9]. the vagucst
possible pronoun (it) is used, while in [71 a relative pronoun replaces the
earlier noun-phrase subject (cl 1 7 . 1 1 ). Finally, in [10], there is total
omission of the second subject (c/ 1 3. 1 9).
All eight or[3-IOj providc satisfactory coherence of the two parts. It is
perhaps closest in [10], but only at the cost of muting the parate
significance of the second part - in contrast to (3J and [4], for example,
which insist on our considering the beginning of the argument. on the onc
hand, as well as its result on the other hand.

Common signals for sentence or clause reference include:

anaphoric and cataphoric: here. it, this
anaphoric only: that, the/oregoing <formal)
cataphoric only: as/ollows, the/oJlowing, thus <formal)
Anaphoric examplcs:
Many years ago their wives quarrelled over some trivial mattcr,
now long forgotten. But one word led to another and the
quarrel developed into a permanent rupture between them.
That is why the two men never visit each other's houses.
(I)
Some students never improve. They get no advice and therefore
they keep repeating the same mistakes. It is a tcrrible shame. [2]
Students want to be shown connections between facts instead
of spending their time memorizing dates and formulas.
Rc(l.ecting Ihis, the university is moving away from large
survey courses and breaking down academic fences in order
to show .subjects relating to one another.
(3]

447

[4]
[5)
(6]
(7)

In some instances, we can replace the reference signal by a corresponding

that-clause. For example. that in [I] could be said to refer to a thar-clause
which corrcsponds to the immediately preceding clause:
. . That the quarrel devcloped into a permanent rupture
between them is why the two men . . .

[la]

In [2], on the other hand, il could be said to stand for the whole or the two
preceding sentences. In [5], here could refer forward to a following
discourse of indeterminate length, and this is usual with cataphoric
signals.

NOTE

[a) Abo,'' and below are used for discourse reference to refer to (wrilten) units of
varying length. but not necessarily to immediately neighbouring parts of the
discourse:

. . the arguments given below [perhaps referring to several sentences]

. . the question mentioned abol'e

The abol'('

but not

Ihe below can

be used as a noun phrase:

The abOl'e illustrates what we

mean by . . .

The nonrestrictive relative clause, with a previous clause or sentence as the

antecedent of introductory which (cl 17. 12), is sometimes made into a separate
orthographic sentence. Which is then an anaphoric signal equivalent to (and)

(bj

that :
She 's borrowed a history book. Which suggests her teacher

influence on her.

[c) In some (especially disapproving or ironic) contexts.

cataphorically:
THAT's what

is having some

thal

can be used

I like to SEE: a chap who enjoys his work.

Otherwise, that is used anaphorically.

[d) In informal spoken English. what can have cataphoric reference when it is the
direct object of know in a question, or guess in a directive. or tell in a statement:
(Do you) Know WHA:r?
Guess WIIAT.
.

} He won.t pay up.

(I'll) Tell you WHAT: I've forgotten the keys!

448

Delermlners, pro-forms, and ellipsis

From senlence 10 lext

more than an infonnal attention.rcquesting signal, a more severe form of

which includes a cataphoric here:

(e] ln legal English Ihe said, Ihe (a)forementioned, and Ihe aforesaid are uscd for
anaphoric reference, the last two both as a premodifier ('the aforementioned
provisions') and asa noun phrase. In the latter function, they would normally refer
to a previous noun phrase with personal reference.

A: By the way, Cynthia. It's awful of me, I know. But would

you be able to look after my dog while I'm away next
week?
B: (Now look) (Here), this is the third time you've left me
with your dog.

Formulaic utterance
19.17

While deictic reference and ellipted matter must, from a grammatical

viewpoint, be recoverable (cJ 12.2), discourse permits a good deal of
vagueness. This is especially common in informal conversation, not least
in the semi formulaic responses to expressions of thanks, apology,
inquiry, and the like. Consider how difficult it would be to specify the
precise references or the exact ellipses in the following responses:
A: Thank you very much.
B: Not at all.
Not a bit.
Don't mention it.
You're WELcome. (esp AmE)
A: I'm terribly sorry.
B: Not at all.
Not a bit.
It's nothing.

A: Would you mind my asking ir you've ever taken drugs,

Mr Hoover?
B: Absolutely NOT.
A: You wouldn't know a fortuneteller around here,
I suppose?
'
me .
B.
Try ME.

{TRY

She hoped he would not mention her unfortunate marriage.

It
COURTeous of him.
[8J
This would be very COURTeous of him in a WAY,
That
of course.
[8a]
In [8], the re'ference is to the predication including the negative ('His not
mentioning the marriage would be courteous'). In [8a], the reference
excludes the negative (,His mentioning the marriage would becourteous').
It is only the pragmatic implications of the hedging adverbial ill a way and
the concessive oJ course that leads us to this interpretation.

NOTE

An interesting use ofcataphoric il in textual structure is in the cleft sentencedevicc

(cf 18. 18ff):

A: J wonder if you'd mind coming and taking some dictation?

r
r
p AmE)
, Mrs Stewart.
[3J
B: OK
(informal)
Ri? HT
(esp BrE)
WILL uu

:
}

[7]

Within sentence sequences that are strictly alike from a grammatical point
of view, a discourse pronoun can have sharply different reference:

[I)

[2J

449

It was at 9.15 this morning that the government proclaimed a state

of emergency.
It was on their way rrom the airport that Gillian dropped the
bombshell. In carefully casual tones, she asked him ir he would
agree to a divorce.

(9]
(10]

In [9), it is unlikely that the narrator wishes to highlight the time adjunct: rather,
the textual deviee is pointing 10 the climax at the end of the sentence. In [10]. the
same applies, but with a double cataphora: Ihe bombshell which ends the first
sentence is climactically explained in the sentence that follows.

[4J

Discourse reference: noun phrases

[5J
[6J

In (5] the implication is that B knows one ('Try asking if I know one'); in
[61, B is saying that he himself can tell fortunes. In (4], only the context
could clarify whether B is saying that he 'absolutely (does) not (mind)" or
that it is 'absolutely not' true that he has taken drugs. In [3], the formulaic
response Will do! is a conventional way of saying 'I will do as you request',
and B has interpreted (correctly, of course) A's polite inquiry as a request.
In [ I ] and [2], the reference of it, in DOII't mention il, II's I1oth"'IK, is
doubtless anaphoric in some way. But in the first line o r [7], it is cataphoric
ir almost equally vague in its reference; the initial imperative by B is little

19.18

Certain determiners are used to signal that a noun phrase is referentially

equivalent to a previous noun phrase (cJ5.4f):
the

this-these

that-those

Such noun phrases may be discourse abstractions, and the heads may
either be identical as in ( I ] or nominalizations ( 1 7.23) that add lexical
variation as in [2J:
She set up a hypothesis that chemotherapy destroyed the will to
live as well as the unwanted cells. This hypothesis attracted
the attention o f . . .
[I]
Deconstructionism holds that knowledge about literature is

DetermIners, pro-forms, and ellipsis

450 From ..nfence to text

strictly unattainable . . . This doctrine is puzzling in several

respects.

expect it to be

[2)

aspirins. I'm not feeling

lots of ice-cream and chocolate. They haven't had

good a time for years.

For broader reference, both phrases might

be expanded 10 include a noun head:

[3J

[3a)

Note the different implications when Ihis, Ihal, and so are used as
intensifiers; this has present orientation, thal past orientation (both being
informal), while so is neutral both temporarily and stylistically. Compare:
thiS
Did you expect
al many people?

{: }

When such is used, the intention is often to indicate disapproval (which

may be sympathetic):

They were full of resentment because no onc came to visit them and also
because their roof was leaking. I helped them over the latter lie about the
roof] and promised to let some friends know about IIIe former lie the
complaint about neglect].

{:Zat }

. . . They haven't had such a good lime for years.

This doctrine of deconstructionism and the need to abandon the

old-fashioned quest . . . is puzzling in several respects.
[2b]

Use of theformer and Ihe la/ler is largely confined to (rather formal) noun-phrase
reference:

[2]

Such is used more commonly than so or that when (as in [3]) the adjective
accompanies a noun phrase. but such is followed by normal nounphrase
order:

The reference of this doctrine must therefore include. not merely the
specific abstract deconstructionism, but the speculated consequence which
the author went on to state. A fuller version might therefore read:

NOTE

{SItQ101 } bad today.

We took them to a circus, and Ihen to a zoo, and gave them

We must therefore abandon the oldfashioned quest to discover

[2a]
what a given author was trying to communicate.

In (3] and [3a], the reference is primarily to the complaints. [3aj lexically
indicating impatience rather than sympathy; in [3bJ the reference is rather
to the condition, with an implication of the speaker's sympathy.

[I]

I had a terrible headache yesterday and had to take some

It is not always certain, however, when such a reference is to a previous

noun phrase or is a nominalization of a wider, c1ausally expressed
proposition. The text from which [2] is quoted is a case in point. As
presented in the abbreviated form of [2], doctrine seems to refer back
unambiguously to deconstructionism and be a lexical variant of it. But in
the original, there are several lines where we have indicated the
curtailment, and these include the following:

We visited the Browns yesterday and heard their complaints

about the condition of the house they live in. I never heard
such a sorry tale.
[3]
[3a]
. . . such a rigmarole.
[3bJ
. . . of such wretchedness.

{SIlIQat } full.

451

Personal pronouns

19.20

As explained in 6.10, we has several possible noun-phrase references. In

discourse. we are concerned chiefly with the 'inclusive' we (as in the
present sentence), and with the 'exclusive' we as in:
Will you stay here while we go for a policeman?

[I )

In formal writing, and frequently indeed in the present book, we

'inclusive' and we 'exclusive' can cooccur. The former accompanies verbs
implying shared knowledge (understand, see, appreciate, etc), the laller
verbs of communication (say, state. write. etc). It would be possible to use
both in the same sentence, though this would usually be avoided:

We see now why we expressed reservations earlier.

[2)

In [21. the second we is exclusive, the first inclusive or even (as often)
indefinite and roughly equivalent to a more formal one or the reader.
The indefinite use of you and the you of direct 2nd person address (cl
6. 1 2) can also cooccur. I n [3J. the first you is indefinite. the second makes
direct address:

I helped them over the /a/ler ssue

i
and promised to let some friends know

about theformer problem.

19.19

So and that can have anaphoric reference when they are intensifiers
premodifying an adjective (that so used is informal and often criticized):
There were two thousand people in the theatre. I didn't

In fourteenthcentury England, you had a very poor chance

of being taught to read, you see.

{3]

Unlike the two uses of we. however, you is rather rare in fonnal writing
and the indefinite use is virtually excluded. The same applies to the

452

From .enlence 10 lext

The 1
tua1 role 01 adverbial.

indefinite use of they; in formal styles, they in [4] would refer only to the
council authorities, where informally it is more plausible with indefinite
reference:
I intend to ask the council authorities why they are digging
up the road again.

{4]

Mrs White was the victim of a confidence trick. Bill was

'ery dijferelllly.
[6)
cheated .
Ifl the same way.
Tom gets ten dollars a week for pocket money. Bob receives
[7)
a similar amount.
Mrs Hayakawa complained that the roof leaked and the
windows fined badly, so that the place was freezing cold. Her
(8)
husband complained likewi.e.
Jim behaved himself at the party. However, the other boy
(9)
had to be sent home.
(10)
Fred didn't like the car. He asked to see a difJerem one.

One cannot control one's temper easily if one is discussing a

matter over which one has feelings of guilt or great personal
involvement. (esp BrE)
{5]

In (5], wecould have in AmE: Olle . . . his . . . he . . . he . . . Other indefinite pronouns

such as anyone, e\'erybody can be followed by he in both AmE and BrE. but this is
vulnerable to the objection ofsccming to have a male orientation. while the use of
they to refer back to these indefinites is open to the objection of seeming
ungrammatical in the switch from singular to pl ural . It is therefore largely
confined to spoken (esp informal) usage.

NOTE

[7a)

Expressions involving respectil'e(/y). mUlIIol{/y). com'erse(/y). opposite

rare). etc. effect considerable neatness and economy in discourse:

[8a)
[9a)
[ lOa)
(-Iy

is

Brahms and Verdi wrote orchestral and operatic music, respectirely.

The chairman and the guest speaker expressed their mUlIIo! admiration.
Mary told Harry that she never wanted to sce him again. He reciprocated.
but with even greater billerness.
I thought that Oregon had a greater rainfall than British Columbia, but
Caroline says the opposite.

The textual role of adverbials

We can demonstrate the anaphoric reference by supplying the basis of

companson:

. more slowly than John (drove).

a more serious student than Mary (was).
. the best (oJ the ten boys) (in the group).
. no less well than Barbara (dances).

[6a)

John took four hours to reach London. Bill, on the other

hand, was driving more slowly.
[I J
Mary used to listen to records most of the time. Sally was a
more serious student.
[2]
(3)
There were ten boys in the group. Bob was by far the best.
(4)
Barbara dances beautifully. Jack dances no less well.
Gwen always hands in a wcllconstructed and intelligent paper.
I'm afraid Joan doesn't expend as much effort and time on
her papers.
[5)

.
.
..
.

. . very differently Jrom the way in which Mrs While

was (cheated) .
. . . in the same way as Mrs While (was (cheated)).
. . an amount similar to what Tom receives.
. . complained about the same things as Mrs Hoyakawa
(complained aboul).
. . the boy other tholl Jim . . .
. see one differentJrom the car he didll '{ like.

Signals of comparison and contrast play a frequent part in providing

textual coherence. Most can be regarded as involving ellipsis (cJ 12.14.ff).
The most obvious comparison signal is found in adjectives and adverbs,
whether in the innected forms or in the periphrastic forms with more.
most, as, less, least (cJ 7.39). If the basis of comparison (cJ 1 5.36) is not
made explicit in the clause, it must be inferred from the previous context:

We can display the basis of similarity or difference:

Comparison

19.21

. . as much effort and time on her papers as Gwen (expends

on her papers).
[Sa]

So too with expressions ofsimilarity or difference; these may involve the

use of equative and antithetic conjuncts (cJ 8.44). For example:

In place of the informal indefinite you, there is one, but it can be used only
sparingly without making a piece of writing (or even more so a spoken
utterance) sound intolerably pompous. This is perhaps especially
constraining in BrE. which lacks in general the facility (now in any case
frowned on for social reasons) of replacing one by he in second and
subsequent use:

NOTE

453

19.22

[I a)
[2a)
[3a)
[4a)

In 1 9 . 1 7 we saw in example [Sa] the communicative impact of the inserted

adverbials ill Cl way and oJcourse. While the basic functions of adverbials
are set out in Chapter S, we need here to emphasize their dual role in
textual structure: interpreting the text to the hearer/reader (eg in
encouraging a particular attitude), and expressing the relevant connection

454

From .entence to text

between one part ofa text and another. The former is achieved primarily
by subjuncts and disjuncts (c/ 8.32Jf. 8.40ff), the latter by conjuncls (cl
8.43}). Consider the following:

{months } old and ... he is very frisky.

My dog is fourteen
years

using this lapse of mine to prevent discussion of the serious issue

involved.

Other adverbials that can convey such implications i clude admittedly, cerlainly,
doubtless. undeniably, undoubtedly. Of these, doubtless is particularly barbed.
n

[I]

19.23

Given the appropriate general knowledge, the choice of months or years

will determine the aptness of adverbials that might be added at the
insertion sign: 01course or naturally on the one hand; yet, still, surprisingly
enough on the other. A further example.

A: That man speaks extremely good English.

[ ] Well,
.
B:
Mongoha.
he comes rrom a vl11age m
[2] Yet

. . . and he sleeps in the kitchen.

. . . He got married last week to a former girlfriend of mine.

{I

I n onc sense. the content of B's response is identical whether it begins as [I]
or [2]. It presents an additional fact about the man, and without the
adverbial, B's response would have only a thematic link with A's
statement. With either of the adverbials inserted, however, B is making a
significant comment not merely on the man but on the propensity of
villagers in Mongolia to speak good English. I f he begins with Well, he
implies that it is an established fact ( Well, 01 course.') that Mongolian
villages provide excellent bases for learning English. Ifhe begins with Yet,
he implies that the man's good command of English was despite his
Mongolian upbringing.

[2)

The second sentence of[21 might be preceded by Not surprisingly. but this
would seem appropriate only if we knew what an entomologist was, or if
we connected travelling salesmen or oil executives with experience of
mosquitoridden areas. Preceding the second sentence with All the same or
Nonetheless would obviously have very different impljcations.
But the postulated insertions in [I] and [21 would serve not only to nudge
the hearer in the direction of adopting a particular attitude or to let the
hearer know something of the speaker's attitude: they would also indicate
the nature of the connection between the two parts of each text: Without
the adverbials, each text is presented as offering two pieces ofinforrnation;
in this spirit, the second parts might have read respectively:

NOTE

[ l a]
[2a)

[a]

The use of well is itself contextdependent, however. It would be perfectly

plausible 10 use well in [11 as a very different transition ( Well. now!) so as to
connote 'Well, tell you something surprising: he actually comes from a village
in Mongolia'. Such an antithetic-concessive transition (c/S.44) is implicit in the
frequent note of reservation struck by the use of .,':ell. Consider a converse
exchange of remarks on the same subject:

I'll

A: That man is from Mongolia.

In other words, the connection is thematic only, in the sense of 19.2. With
the adverbials inserted, the second part of each text is shown to be (as the
original versions might chance to be interpreted as being) specifically
related to the preceding rherne, either as a natural consequence or as a
surprising paradox.

NOTE

Responses in dialogue often begin with an adverbial which indicates the

direction of transition between what has just been said and what is about
to be said. On transitional conjuncts, cf8.44. For example:

is an entomologist.
My nextdoor neighbour is a travelling salesman.
works for an oil company.
... He knows more about treating mosquito bites than
anyone I've ever met.

[3]

B:

{1:]1 :I:, } he speaks extremely good English.

Here, both [I a] and [2a] would connote 'Despite that . . . '. There is in fact no one
word adverbial to express the relationship of the original [I] at [ 1 we would have
to resort to a fully clausal expression, as in:

a];

So that explains why

Now 1 understand why

Since 01 course can hint at incongruity (concession: 'admittedly') instead of

expressing congruity, [I] might still be a wellformed text as:

} he speaks .

[b] Elliptical responses (cl 19.17) often contain an obligatory connective; for

My dog is fourteen years old and of course he is very frisky (still)

(, though I think he's beginning to show his age).
[Ib

example (where in
adverbial):

This use of 01 course commonly expresses superficial agreement with what has
preceded, while at the same lime hinlingal a more fundamental disagreement. For
example:

A:

The treasurer is of course absolutely right to draw attention to the

error in my presentation. On the other hand, I wonder whether he is not

intonation enables us to dispense with the use of an

{ Have a good weekend!

How nice to see you again!

B
,

[4]

You . ,
{
. AND v6u!
'

TOO.

(3J
(4J

456

From .entence to text

CoordlnaUon and subordination

hackneyed for a resounding climax), in conclusion, and many others.

A 'balance' strategy, like the chain, requires adverbial pointers both to
assist the sense of rhetorical balance and to ensure that the author's
presuppositions match those of the audience. Consider the following:

Adverbial. a8 structural Indicators

19.24

Basic relational structures depend rather heavily on adverbial pointers,

especially when any great degree of complexity is involved.
(a) General 10 particular: Any of the following would usefully assist the
relationship at the insert mark in [I}:
for example

thus

even

I am always thrilled at the prospect of having a midwinter

break in Switzerland . .t. The weather is often quite warm . . . [2]

indeed

Many of the audience became openly hostile. ... My uncle

wrote a Icnef to the management next day.

It might not be at all clear whether the second sentence of[2] contributed
to the pleasure (vision of deckchairs) or was a counterbalancing
unwelcome aspect (poor weather for skiing); i n other words, we have left
inadequate indication of compatibility. For the balance strategy, we need
to insert at the marked place some such indicator as gramed, admittedly,
true, of course, even so, etc. Most frequently, the balanced movement is
indicated by the items oll fhe olle hand, on the other (hand) , but there is
usually a goal resembling that of the 'stack' and so demanding a final
summative such as a1/ in 01/ (cf8.44).

[I}

(b) Progression: According as the pr?gression i loc tional, temporal,

,
or logical, adverbials both help to mdlcate
the direction and mark the
successive stages. For example:

First boil the rice in well-salted water; drain it immediately.

N xt, warm the lightly buttered base of a small pie-dish. You
may now put the rice in the dish. Then add the cheese, tomato,
.
and onion. The pie is at last ready to be put 10 the oven.
[2J

(c) CompatibililY: It is frequently important to mark the match or

mismatch between two parts ofa text. Consider the presence or absence of
(for example) so lOO in (3):
The ordinary saw is not easy to use.
years of careful practice.

.t.

A plane demands

Coordination and subordination

19.26

(3)

Similarly, a contrastive conjunct (cf8.44) such as on Ihe other hand in the

variant (3a1:
The ordinary saw is not easy to use. .t. A hammer is
something that any novice can handle.
19.25

[3a]

Different discourse strategies will likewise call for different adverbial

.
indicators. A 'step' technique is simplest, following as it de a proresslve
relation as in [2], 19.24. With a 'chain' mode, however, It I artlc ularly
.
helpful to point to the existence and direction of translll ns In the
structure. Thus (using adverbial linkage more densely than IS usual or
desirable):

,
[ I]

In a text of 'stack'\ike structure, the 'layers' may call for enumeration

(first, al the oulset, fundamentally : secondly, neXI, . . ; stiff m?re
,
.
importamly . . . ), but it is especially deslrable to d:aw the hearr s attention
.
to what is 10 be regarded as the most crucial POIOt: thus, off 'n alf nalfy,
.
last but by 110 means least (though this alliterative conJunct IS too
'

./i.

In 19.2 we pointed out that two utterances gave the impression of being
textually related, even when juxtaposed without any fonnal indicator of
connection. Asyndetic relation of this kind, moreover, raises the
expectation that the second utterance followed the first as an iconic
representation ofbcing sequential in time or consequential in reasoning
and often both, as in:
He ate too much for dinner. He was ill the next day.

Hamlet poignantly represents the indecisions tha plague us a l.

Admilledly. indecision is not the worst of our Ills. Indeed, m
some ways decisiveness can be more damaging. A l any rate,
many people have come to grief that way . . .

457

[I J

A simple coordination (cf 1 3 . 1 7) of the two not only links them more
finnly (since more formally); it can also enable us to show that a third
utterance in the sequence is less closely linked to the second than the
second is to the first; and, further, that the first and second form a sub
unity which as a whole has a relation to the third:
He ate too much for dinner and he was ill the next day. He
decided to be less greedy in future.

(2)

But since a result or conclusion seems in some sense more important than
the factors leading to the result or conclusion, it is natural to seek a
linguistic emblem of this hierarchical relation by subordinating one part
to the other instead of coordinating the one with the other:
Because he ate too much for dinner, he was ill the next day.

[3]

In {3], we have not merely made the first part of[l] the explicit reason for
the second (Because), we have grammatically expressed the connection by

458

Coordlnetlon and subordlnalton

From sentence to text

These terrorists have destroyed their credibility. They resisted

arrest and then they gave themselves up. They went on a
hunger strike and thcn they started taking food. Some of
them claim that they are all nationalists and some of them
[I]
claim that they are all opposed to nationalism.

making a totally new unit where the second part is the main clause of a
complex sentence in which the original first part is reduced to the role of
adjunct (e/ 8 . 1 3).
19.27

English has four monosyllabic connective items which semantically

belong together as constituting a symmtry of two related subsystems:

and:
but:
so:
for:

We note that the last three sentences in [I], each with clauses coordinatcd
by and, fonn a triad, a rhetorical pattern that seems to be widely attractive.
Coordination achieves the seemingly impossible task of giving three units
equal status and yet of making the third climactic; for example:

what precedes is congruent

what precedes is incongruent (c/ 13. 13)
what follows is a consequence
what follows is a reason (ie what precedes is a consequence)

She cleaned the room, (she) made a birthday cake, and (she)
finished preparing a lecture.

For example:
The rain has stopped, ami she's gone for a walk.
The rain hasn't stopped, but she's gone for a walk.
The rain has slopped, so she's gone for a walk.
She's gone for a walk,/or the rain has slopped.

She works ten hours a day in the clinic, she spends ages
helping him with his thesis, and he calls her lazy!

Because you're tired, because you're lonely, and because you're

depressed, I want to insist on your coming to stay with us for
a week or so.

He doesn't know whether his wife is unhappy because the

baby died or whether she's just no longer in love with him.
When you're lonely or when you're unhappy for other
reasons, listening to music can be a great consolation.

Most significantly (from the viewpoint of text cohesion), the symmetry is

imperfect in that/or is a much less frequently used connective than the
other three: textual structure is resistant to stating a consequence in
advance of the condition. In the event of this order being desirable, it is
more usual to make the condition structurally subordinate to (rather than
coordinate with) the consequence:
She's gone r
lor a waIk,

'

[7)

Even so, the prior condition would often be stated first:

Since the rain has stopped, she's gone for a walk.

[8)

Pairs and triads

19.28

One of the ways in which coordination is exploited in textual structure is

to assist the desire for parallelism and balance. For example:

[4J

Subordinate coordination, however, is especially associated with alterna

tives rather than accretions. For this reason, pairing is very common since
this gives the convenient impression ofa total or very general polarization:

[5)
[6)

The rain has stopped (and) so let's go for a walk.

.
beCaUSe
the ram has stopped.
Since
the rain having (at last) stopped.

[3]

The balanced units, whether in pairs or threes, may of course be

coordinated subordinate clauses:

In this respect, although we normally think of and and but as closely

related converses, the converse of bllt is in fact so:

[2]

But the climax of the third part may express a point which is strongly
counter-consequential and concessive:

[I)
[2)
[3)
[4)

This last is rather unnatural since the conjoins are so short. In any case, the
symmetry is imperfect in several respects. In [I], [2}, and [4], we have
conjunctions (c! -and blit, -and/or); in [3), we have a conjunct (cl' andso).
Moreover, and and bllt are distributionally distinct, and demanding in
some respects greater structural similarity between the coordinated parts.
Compare:
?-The rain has stopped and let's go for a walk.
The rain hasn't stopped bllt let's go for a walk.

459

[5]
[6]

Questions too can be linked to form a satisfyingly coherent sequence:

Did he jump or was he pushed?
Will lhey arrive on time, will they listen carefully, and will
they enjoy our performance?

NOTE

[7)
(8]

[a] Of course. in ordinary unambitious writing and in familiar speech, coordina

tion is used without striving for the balanced effects on which we have been
concentrating in this section. But the momentum and implications of sequence.
the relative cohesion of explicit coordination, and the contrasting entailments of
the chief coordinating conjunctions are inherent in even the least self-conscious
discourse.
[b] Informal conversation is characterized by an overtly uncompleted pairing.
especially through unfinished but-coordinations. These often occur where one
speaker is effectively inviting another participant to speak. It can give a pleasantly
apologetic and self-effacing tone:

460

From nfence to teKt

Now that I hOl'e seen the play myself, I agree that it is rather
weak.

A: My wife's nOI been feeling too well. She's scen the doctor, though.
and hc's told her it's nothing serious. But (er) (trails off into silence]
B: I'm sorry to hear about this.
(91

But it is not true for nominal -ing clauses:

A's speech might equally have ended: 'But I don't know . . .' or 'Sut don't let's talk
about our liule problems' or 'But how's the book going?' These all have in
common: . But: let's change the subject.'
[cl Only ul/d. or, and asyndcton can be used to form triads.

Finding you at home is a great surprise.

He didn't mind waiting for them in the rain.

In several of the examples provided in 19.28, coordination has been used

along with subordination. This is in fact textually representative.
Although from the viewpoint of grammar these two types of clause
relation are thought of as alternatives, and although coordination is a far
more frequently occurring fonn of cohesive device, it is normal to find
both types in any text of a few lines (or a few seconds) in extent. It is
particularly rare to find a text with subordination but without coordi
nation.
It is the flexible use of both devices that endows a text with variety of
expression on the one hand, and with a well-ordered presentation of
infonnation on the other. The combination also enables onc to achieve a
high degree of complexity within a single, unified whole. For example:
Although I know it's a bit late to call, seeing your light still on
and needing to get your advice if you'd be willing to help me,
I parked the car as soon as I could find a place and ventured
to come straight up without ringing the bell because, believe
me, I didn't want to add waking your baby to the other
inconveniences I'm causing you.

[ I]

Taking nonfinite as well as finite clauses into account, there are nearly
twenty clauses in this example, which, without any pretensions to
elegance, is grammatically well fonned as well as being textually coherent.
And while it is often thought that a single sentence of such complexity
belongs only to the most formal styles of written English, the example [I] is
in fact only slightly edited from the transcribed form of an actual spoken
utterance in informal conversation. Again, it is sometimes put as a
generalization that nonfinite clauses are characteristic of formal texts.
finite clauses of less fonnal ones. There is some truth in this so far as -ing
adverbial clauses are concerned, especially those with subject, and
especially passive clauses with subject:

The rain having (at last) stopped, she's gone for a walk.
(2)
The play now having been reviewed, no onc can ignore it.
(31
Having now seen the play myself, I agree that it is rather weak. (4)
Contrast:

Since the rain has Slopped, she's gone for a walk.

Now that the play has been reviewed, no one can ignore it.

[2a]
[3aJ

[5J
[6J

In fact [51 and [6] are decidedly less formal than:

That I (sl/ould) find you at home is a great surprise.

He didn't mind that he waited {was waiting, had [0 wait} for
them in the raill.

Contrasting coordination and subordination

19.29

[4aJ

NOTE

[5a1
[6a]

With to-infinitive clauses. the finite verb correspondences (to the extent that they
exist) are almost always more formal in tonc. For example:
To close the doors. just press the green button.
In order that you may close the doors. merely press

(7]
the green button. [7a]

Again. there are verbless clauses that can occur in the most natural and informal
usage:
Whell ill doubt. you should consult a doctor.
Though dec:idedly scared, I kept my voice steady.
He hadn't much money. ifany.

Prosody and punctuation

19.30

Consider the written sequence:

I

smiled at the supervisor and she greeted me.

[I J

It would be possible to utter this with two markedly different prosodic

realizations, reflecting different interpretations and different bases of
linkage:
. . . and she GREETed me
. . . and SHl: greeted ME

[laJ
[I bJ

I n [I a], there is lexical contrast between the two parts; a verbal greeting is
indicated: something actually heard in contrast to the silent smile in the
first part of the text. In [I b]. greeted is merely a lexical variant of smiled:
the smile was a greeting and there was some kind of greeting in response.
This is prosodically indicated by greeted having no into national promi
nence; it is 'given' informationally (cf 1 8.4), whereas in [ l a] greeted is
contrastive and ;new', as is indicated by the intonational nucleus. In [I b]
what is new is neither the participants nor the verbal action but only the
reciprocation; the roles are reversed and hence the subject and object
pronouns are intonationally highlighted. But the endings of both [I a] and

"

462

From ..ntenea to I.xt

[ I b] are equally dependent in their different ways on the preceding parts to

which they are linked.
While there is a direct relation between speech and writing, as also
(broadly) between prosodic features of speech and the punctuation
devices of writing. the former must be given precedence in each case. In
fact, as we see from {I] above, it is impossible to understand a written text
until we assign to it a prosody silently or aloud.
Since such prosodic features as stress, rhythm, and intonation have to
do with infonnation processing (cf2.1 3ff, IS.3jJ), it follows that prosody
is a vitally important factor in textual coherence.

given a specially long curve to an intonation nucleus (usually a fall). Or a

pause may be introduced immediately before a lexical item which the
speaker feels may be unfamiliar or which he wishes to be heard clearly:
The library has hundreds of extremely valuable books
including several [pause] incuNABula.

By contrast he may tactfully increase the tempo over parts ofhis discourse
that he expects will be particularly familiar or which he modestly wishes to
be treated as rather unimportant. As with B in [3} of 19.3 I, a speaker will
use a fall-rise to hint at reservation and uncertainty, so that a contrast
would be heard with the all'embracing summative conjunct (efS.44) in:

The Independence of prosody

19.31

On the wH6LE my childhood was a happy one.

On the WHOLE my childhood was a happy one.

The central place of prosodic features is emphasized throughout this

book, and in the present chapter they are best illustrated along with the
grammatical features they accompany. But we should note that prosodic
variables are to some extent quite independent of the particular words
used - and indeed no actual words need be used.
Il is a characteristic of even the most one-sided conversation that the
speaker expects a response, though this may be realized only prosodically,
without institutional 'words':

9.32

Irrespective of response-dependence (and in radio discourse, no response

is usually possible), a speaker prosodically empathizes with the hearer in
numerous ways. Pauses are helpfully introduced after completing a
significant infonnation unit; this indicates the end of what may be called a
prosodic 'paragraph', and such a tennination will be marked by being

(2)
(3)

In [2] we have a confident statement, in [3] it is hedged with some doubt. A

rising tone will especially be heard, however, to indicate clearly that
something is to follow: a main clause, a furthcr itcm in a list, and the like. It
will also be used in direct appeals for the listener's cooperation and
understanding, in such cases the rise being rather narrow in range and
each appeal having lower prominence than the surrounding text. For
example:

A: So I told him that it was none of his business and that I

would do as I pleased.
(I)
B: I M I
A: After all, it's not as if I still owed him money.
B: I M I

A: I repaid him that money I borrowed - well, nearly all of it,

so I'm no longer under any obligation to him.
B: l i l

In [ I), B is assuring A with his faJling tone (ef2. I S) that he follows (and
perhaps agrees with) what A is saying. In [2], however, the rising tone
indicates surprise or a question or some form of challenge; it is apparently
enough to divert A from his thread of discourse to tell B about the loan
repayment. In [3], S's fall-rise indicates understanding, but with only
qualified assent, and A's next utterance might well go further into the
morality of the position as he sees it. All three of B's contributions are
textually important and in some circumstances their absence would bring
the discourse to a halt: A would be puzzled, or he might be offended, at B's
silence. On the telephone, he would have interrupted himself to ask 'Are
you still thereT or 'Can you hear me all right?'

[I]

I had no idea whcre she had gone, you SEE - and I could
hardly wait there all night, M

[4]

One final general point may be made. We saw in 19.31 that prosodic
features could be used without actual words. In a similar way, prosody
enables us to dispense with words that would be necessary for clarity in a
written version of the same text. The two following utterances are
obviously very different:
And so it's just possible that shc's ill.
And so she may be actually ill.

(5)
(6)

A single string of fewer words could convcy the difference by assigning

different prosody:
And so she MAY be ill
And so she may be iLL

(5a)

(6a)

Punctuation
The paragraph

19.33

Although in this book we repeatedly emphasize the primacy of speech

over writing, and of prosody over punctuation, we have to recognize that
many types of text take shape first on paper and have their normal
realization in graphic form. Punctuation thus has a greater interest for the
study of texts than for linguistics as a whole, where it can be generally

464

From ..ntence to text

The part played by que.tlon.

looked upon as a rather inadequate substitute for the range of

phonologically realized prosodic features at our disposal.
In considering the grammatical system of English, we think in terms of
such units as sentence, clause, and phrase. From a textual viewpoint,
however, such distinctions are not particularly relevant: the difference
between sentence and clause, for example. What is more significant is that
there are textual units that cannot be recognized at all in grammar, and
only the smallest of them can be recognized prosodicaliy as units. Written
texts may be in volumes, parts, chapters, sections: and few are so short as
not to comprise more than one paragraph (itself a unit only uncertainly
matched in prosodic terms).
A paragraph has on the one hand a relatively strong sense of internal
coherence, and on the other a relatively loose linkage with the textual
material before and after it. Consider the following fragment of text:

In [I], the normal and expected form, it seems to be suggested that Miriam
and Waiter are a couple who regularly appear together. This is not so in
[2-4], where the punctuation may carry various implications according to
the largereontexl. In [2), the two persons are being listed; in [3], the sight of
Waiter in addition to Miriam is given special and dramatic significance; in
(4], Waiter seems to be mentioned as an afterthought. But the suggested
motivations for [3] and (4) might be expressed by either of the punctuation
forms according to (he taste of the writer or his belief in their
communicative impact on the reader. Since punctuation is subject to fairly
rigorous convention, many writers hesitate to show individuality,
originality, or rhetorical effects by this means. Instead they will select
grammatical constructions and carefully selected lexical items which they
hope may achieve effects that in speech would be without difficulty
indicated by prosodic features. Punctuation choices are made (along with
grammatical and lexical ones) in the hope ofproviding the reader with the
cues necessary for assigning the prosody that the writer would himself
have used in uttering the tcxt aloud.
But as readers we have an obligation too. In listening to a spoken text,
we automatically respond to the prosodic features that help to mould its
structure. When wc read, we have to create those prosodic features from
the visual print. Stumbling as we read is a common experience: the further
context then tells us of an earlier misinterpretation and we have to go back
and reread a portion of the text, redistributing our imagined internal
stresses and nuclei. Sometimes the fault is in the ineptness of the writer,
but often it lies in our lack of sympathetic alertness 10 the textual structure
in front of us.

. . and that was how I came to have some weeks observing the
behaviour of their eight-year-old son. He broke eggs on the
carpet. He twisted his kitten's tail till it mewed in anguish. He put
garbage in his parents' bed and burned holes in his sister's clothes.
(i) He was extraordinarily [adjective). (ii) His parents intended to
send him to a special school . . .
According to the adjective we supply at the bracketed segment, either (i)
or (ii) could be a fitting place to begin a new paragraph.
If the adjective is wicked, naughty, ill-behm'ed, we might well start a new
paragraph at (ii). The preceding part would have had a stack-like
structure and the sentence 'He was extraordinarily ill-behaved' would
fittingly round it off with a rather self-evident conclusion.
If, on the other hand, the adjective is intelligent, gifted, musical, or some
other item not suggested by the account of his behaviour, then (i) would be
a filling - one might say essential - point at which to begin a new
paragraph. This would reveal a totally different aspect of the boy, and the
text might go on to describe the special school at which his intelligence or
other positive gifts could be suitably developed.
The senlence

19.34

In an analogous way, the decision to divide a paragraph into orthographic

sentences depends on how the writer wishes these smaller sections of the
text to be seen in relation to each other: intimately linked as though
naturally indissociable (no punctuation); closely associated but separate
(comma or semicolon, according to degree); relatively separate (pointed
as independent sentences). Compare the different implications of the
following:
I saw Miriam and Waiter.
I saw Miriam, and Waiter.
I saw Miriam - and Waiter!
I saw Miriam. And Waiter.

[I]
[2]
[3]
[4]

465

The part played by questions

19.35

There is a sense in which it is true to say 'I can't tell you anything till you've
asked me something'. In other words, what we choose to talk about
depends crucially on what we think our hearer does not know but wants to
know. Even conversations in which a participant keenly wishes to talk and
inform (rather than listen and be informed) will frequently begin with a
question. For example, as a conversation-initial gambit:
Have you heard about Mr Malloy?

[I)

The questioner will be alert to the reply in two quite separate respects:
whether his companion has heard about Mr Malloy, and whether he
seems to want to hear. Only if the questioner is satisfied on both counts,
will he launch forth - and even so, without prompting by questions in the
course of his account (,What was the weather like?' 'When did you hear
this?' 'Why didn't Rita Malloy . . .?'), the speaker would soon falter,

466

From Hntence to text

fearing that he has lost his companion's interest or not knowing which
aspects of the narrative to develop and which to ignore.
In the absence of questions from a companion, a speaker may insert
them for himself and in written materials, the author has no option. The
motive is partly information processing (cl 19.40f), that is, providing a
focus closely similar to that attained by the pseudo-cleft (cl 18.20).
Compare:
What was he doing? He was trying to change a fuse.
What was he doing but trying to change a fuse.
What he was doing was trying to change a fuse.

NOTE

Unlike questions seeking infonnation, these can be coordinated

(especially in AmE) with statements and combine a request with an
expression of intention:

(2)
[2.)
[2b)

Why don't I go on ahead and you (can) come when you're ready?
Why don't you get a taxi and I'll be out in a minute?

But in part the inserted question is to enliven and dramatize a narrative by

supplying a query which the speaker thinks must be in his companion's
mind - or which he thinks ought to be:

In the conventional language of formal meetings, procedure is often

couched in elaborately interrogative structures, each widely recognized as
a formula disguising a statement:

And that son of hers continues to be a big worry. And how do I

know? She was in tears the other day- with a photo of him in
her hand. She didn't think I saw the photo but I did.
[3]

But may we not ask ourselves whether this is an appropriate time to

raise taxes? [= ' I am opposed to raising taxes now']
I wonder if we might now turn to the next item. [= 'The present
discussion is closed']
Am I alone in thinking the motion is out of order?

faJ A question in discourse is often directed less to the hearer than to the speaker,

though in seeming to reflect the speaker's selfquestioning as to how he should

proceed, it equally directs the hearer's mind both to this point and to the
tentativeness and spontaneity with which it is being made. For eltample:
The horses seemed strangely disturbed as we groomed them . that
morning. How shall I put it? It was as though they were aware that
Mary and I had quarrelled.
[4)

(b) Questions in dialogue may be uttered merely to elicit matter that was
imperfectly heard or understood:

WHAT'S that! < . ,

lD_ormaI)
...
')
.'JURry.
1 beg your PARdon?

Que8tion8 88 directives
19.36

Would you mind if I closed the window?

Would you excuse me a moment? I must find a telephone.
Do you think you could lock the door when you leave?
Why don't you come and have dinner with me tonight?

Questions, direct and indirect, have an important role in discourse as

polite equivalents of requests. On entering someone's room, a visitor will
begin with such a question even if he is a fairly close friend:
Is this an awkward moment to see you about something?
Am I disturbing you?
Got a second? (informal)
I wonder if I could talk to you for a minute.
These opening gambits would preface discourse itself. But question forms
may equally preface physical action by the speaker or seek it from the
hearer:

Rhetorical que8t1ons
19.37

The rhetorical question has in common with the formulaic questions

discussed in 19.36 the fact that the answer is a foregone conclusion:
She said she had been too ill to come to work that day, and
certainly she sounded pretty groggy on the phone. Anyway,
who was I to argue? [ = '1 wasn't in a position to doubt her
word')
[I)
The prisoners were grumbling about their cold cells and poor
food. Who could blame them? I = 'No one could blame
them')
(2)
As we see from these examples, the rhetorical question is by no means
confined to the highly wrought prose of formal speeches of persuasion
that we may think of in connection with 'rhetoric'. Indeed, the tag
question so common in the most informal speech is strictly similar to the
rhetorical question in its communicative effect, since it essentially seeks
confirmation of what the speaker has explicitly assumed (by the preceding
declarative) to be agreed truth:
It's a glorious day, isn't it?
Joan Sutherland was the best coloratura singer of her
generation, wasn't she?

[3]
[41

Compare:
When have we had a better coloratura singer than Joan
Sutherland?

[4.)

468

NOTE

From Hnl.nce '0 leld

,.rtlelp.n' Involvement

Such a use or tags occurs in very inrormal speech (especially BrE and chiefly
nonstandard) where the hearer cannot possibly be expected to know the answer or
to take it rorgranted, but where the speaker seeks by such use orthe question rorm
to imply that the answer ought to be selr-evident. These tags have a railing tone on
the operator:

We notice, however, that in the use of the adverbial 0/cOllrse the speaker!
writer is appealing to the addressee's shared knowledge. Nor would it be
unusual in such a text for the author to make explicit his relation to the
information conveyed:

Well, 1 couldn't hear the phone, could I? It's in the next room and the
door was shut. Besides, I was rast asleep, wasn't I? But I can't expect
(5)
you to think or things rrom my angle. can I?

Julian, lgarher, is going to Detroit next week. In fact, ifhe likes

[5a1
it and finds a job, he tells me he may decide . . .
Even in a signed letter, some amplification of identity may be necessary if
the writer feels it necessary to specify his role:
As a Camden resident and also as a qualified accountant, I
write to inform you of an error in the recently published
expenditure figures of your Council . . .
[6]

Participant involvement
19.38

469

Whether this is made explicit or not, every text is addressed by someone

('I') to someone else ('you'). In many cases, the relation of both

On the telephone, identification of both speaker and addressee usually

prefaces discourse:

participants is quite explicit:

I tell you it's true!

Hello. Is that Peter? Marjorie here. What? Oh sorry! -Marjorie

Wong, your wife's assistant. Is Valeric there?
[71
Hello. Am I speaking to the Controller? This is the Works
Department. Wc are having to cut off your electricity supply
for an hour or so . . .
[8]

[I]

But equally both can be merely implicit:

Good luck! [= 'I wish you good luck'1

[2[

In very formal communications, where the precise identity of the

addressee is unknown and where the originator is making thecommunica
tion on behalf of an organization, the participants may be referred to in
the 3rd person:
The management regret(s) any inconvenience to clients during

repair work to the premises.

NOTE

I wonder if J can ask you -as a friend rather than as my doctor-ifyou

think J ought to give up smoking. I know that you discourage your
children - but is this as a mother or as a doctor or because you know it
affects your husband's breathing?

[31

In a similar tone and often for similar reasons, mention of onc or both of
the participants is avoided altogether:
The mallagemefll regrets any inconvenience during repair

work to the premises.

Any inconvenience to clients is regretted during . . .
Any inconvenience is regretted during . . .

[3a)
[3b]
[3c]

In some texts, both participants are referred to simultaneously by means

of the inclusive we (c/6.10, 19.20):
So now we know why there was no traffic coming towards liS on
this road. Well, since the road is obviously blocked, we'll
[4]
have to turn back and find a side road somewhere.
In much discourse. neither the addressee nor the authority for
information seems necessary:
Julian is going to Detroit next week. In fact, if he likes it and
finds a job, he may decide to stay there. His wife, of course,
comes from that part of Michigan.
[5]

The addressee may equally need to have his role specified in the particularcontext:
may be rriend. wire. mother. doctor, neighbour, according to who is in
communication and on what occasion:

you

(9J

Speaker/hearer contact
19.39

But in addition to establishing identity of participants and to indicating

authority for content, textual structure tends to be punctuated by periodic
references to both participants. The hearer is addressed by name, not for
clarity but out of courtesy and friendliness. The speaker may repeatedly
refer 10 himself, often successfully giving thereby an impression of
courtesy and modesty rather than of egocentricity:
I'd like you to know . . . I think . . . I hear . . . I seem to
remember . . . it occurs to me . . . I mean . . .

[I)

A communication from a body or organization may selfrefer similarly:

Your union officials suggest . . . we acknowledge . . . wc
claim . . . we hope . . .

[2)

Dinct allusions and appeals to the addressee are especially characteristic

of speech, informally with interspersed comment clauses, you see, you
know, get it?, do YOII/ollow me?, yes?, righl?; more formally, as you well

470

Inform.flan procelng

From ..ntence to text

Oh, you can't use that argument, lady.

Man is also used to acquaintances (esp in AmE), but more familiarly than the
foregoing use of lady_
[bJ Just as a speaker involves the addressee with insertions like right?, you know, so
the addressee reassures the speaker with similar short comments: Oh I see, Yes I

know, as you may know, if I make myself clear (to you), ifyou will pardon
the allusion.
Addressee involvement obviously serves two related functions, often
distinguished by intonation. On the one hand, the speaker wants
assurance that the addressee is following the communication in all its
detail and allusion; in this spirit, the involvement is essentially interroga
tive (cf 19.35) and the inserted items have a rising nucleus:
I'm writing my own software, you SEE.

know, Right.
[cl The inserts

for involvement and authority sometimes occur with prosodic

prominencc. There is, for example, a triumphant or retributive you see, as in the
following (uttered with a wide range of pilCh, in contrast to that normal in
comment clauses):

[3)

On the other hand, the inserts may be assurances to the addressee that he is
not being underestimated and that it is highly probable that he knows the
facts already. In this case, they have a falling nucleus or are uttered with
low prominence carrying no nucleus at all:

I she has reMARried you know I

NOTE

So J

la] A younger woman is sometimes addressed by men as Miss, but this is widely
regarded as nonstandard or felt 10 be demeaning to the person addressed. In
nonstandard use, Lady, Mister, and Missus occur freely in men's speech; and lady
also has an ironic use which is not uneducated but informal (and addressed to a
woman who is not a stranger):

was RiGHT I you "sJ.: I

Compare also:
She has reMARried

[4)

Individuals differ in the extent to which they intersperse tenns of

address in discourse. In letters, they are used almost solely in the initial
salutation: Dear Mrs Robinson, Dear Fred; but between intimates, items
like darling commonly accompany sentences throughout, as they would
do in the corresponding speech. Letters to strangers can freely begin Dear
Sir (less freely Dear Madam), and in formal style they may end I remain,
Sir, Yoursfaithfully. A general letter may begin Gentlemen (rather than
?Dear Gemlemen), or Dear Sirs, or Ladies and Gentlemen.
In speech, it is normal to address a group as Ladies and Ge'l{lemen; a
group of men as Gentlemen (or, in military and analogous usage, as Me",
though this would hardly be textinitial). At a formally constituted
meeting, it is equally normal for individuals to be addressed as Sir, to or
from the chair, less comfortably as Madam. But in chance encounters with
strangers, severe constraints are felt over terms of address, especially in
BrE. A request such as I wonder ifyou could direct me to Pin Srreet? would
in AmE (and especially in Southern AmE), be accompanied very widely
by Sir or Ma'am, irrespective of the speaker's sex or an adult addressee's
age. In SrE, Sir would be rather rare, and would be used chiefly by
younger men addressing older men; it would almost never be used by
women. Madam, though the only fully acceptable form of address to a
woman, is felt to be inappropriate in most informal circumstances
(though it is used in addressing customers, clients, etc). In general, women
can use neither Sir nor Madam except where the speaker is in a
recognizably serving role, though women students will occasionally
address a male teacher as Sir.

471

{: I:: }

Here, the first variant is little more than a conventional reluctance 10 seem
dogmatic, but the second is meant to express serious reservations about Ihe truth
of what has preceded. Note also:
He tries, but YOU KN6w. there are real problems. 1 = ' 1 scarcely need 10
remind you']

Information processing
19,40

It is appropriate to treat this aspect of grammatical organization last,

since, being more centrally significant than any other, information
processing has already to no small degree been seen as the motivation
behind other specific features of grammar discussed elsewhere. It is
paramount in the use of coordination and subordination (cfI9.26ff), and
it was specifically mentioned in the treatment of questions (cf 19.35).
Consider a sequence like the following:
Our economic troubles continue to resist solution. We have
tried subsidizing our weaker industries. We have experi
mented with import controls. We have on occasion resorted
to the drastic device of devaluation. To no avail. HolV tliell
are we 10 proceed? The answer lies in higher productivity and
better products.

[I]

The italicized question is pivotal in this text. IL contains the conjunct then
with anaphoric reference: the remedies already tried, which have been of
'no avail', are put behind us. The question both points forward (and this is
lexically matched by 'The answer' which follows) and prepares us for a
climactic alternative strategy. A similar anticipation of the information
focus would have been:

q
Information proc...lng

472 From sentence to text

. . To no avail. The way forward is to seek higher . . .

[la]

19.41

The essence of such anticipation is to indicate in general terms what is to

follow (we are going to 'proceed', there is a 'way forward') and hence both
to prepare the hearer/reader and to arouse his interest. Note the
comparable funtion of the italicized where-clause in the next example:
Robert Adam was in many respects typical of British architects
of the eighteenth century. Like Inigo lones and Lord
Burlington, he drew eagerly on the inspiration both of the
Renaissance and of Antiquity. He shared the enthusiasm of
his contemporaries for collecting classical marbles. He was
far from being alone in undertaking venturesome travel in
the Mediterranean and in gazing with wonder at vase
fragments and at sundrenched monuments. He was quintes
sentiallya member of the Neo-c1assical movement. Where he
stands apart is in his refusal to regard Antiquity as inviolable.
It was an inspiration for new work, not a model for imitation. [2]

Mrs A will probably read the last phrase as having the nonnal end-focus
( 18.5):
. the I problem has something to do with YOU I
[la]
But Mr B's words are in fact a paraphrase of a remark in Mrs A's own
letter: they are 'given' information; all that is new is the positive (assertion)
in place of Mrs A's original negative (denial). Thus B has meant it lO be
read as:
. . . the I problem HAS something to do with you I
[I b]
The required shirt away from the normal (but here unwanted) end-focus
could have been achieved in the first place by some such device as
emphatic do or an inserted subjunct (or both), thus drawing attention 10
the new polarity:

. a member of the Neo-c1assical movement. But he refused to

[2aJ
regard . . .

. . . the problem does (indeed) have something to do with you. (2]

This would have made the point for an alert reader, though the
exceptional feature would have been expressed rather tamely. The fact
that we had come to an exception could have been more insistently
expressed for the less alert reader by a further alternative:
. . . a member of the Neo-c1assical movement. But there is one
respect in which he stands apart: he refused to regard . . . [2b]
The writer, might, however, have arrived at a compromise between [2b]
and [2], as follows:

NOTE

. . a member of the Neo-classical movement. But he stands

[2cJ
apart in his refusal to regard .

Informationally, 12c) is a subtle improvement over [2bJ in seeming to assume (by

the nominalization, his refusal ) a significant item of shared knowledge. The writer
credits his reader with being aware that Adam had this degree of creative
independence. In fact, the original version 12) shows the writer going onc better
than this. He not merely achieves the objective of warning the reader that we have
come to one respect in which Adam 'stands apart'; use of the pseudo-cleft ( 18.20)
enables him also to imply that the reader was well-informed enough to know that
there was such a standing apart (as well as that Adam did not 'regard Antiquity as
inviolable'), and that in consequence we have now simply arrived at the point of
restating it. In presenting what may well be new information as though it were
given (cf I 8.4), the writer treats his reader with flauering respect as well as enabling
himself to make the main point with great force and economy.

The highlighting of the main infonnation is associated with intonation

nucleus, but in writing we have to plan carefully if we are to guide our
reader so as to assign the focus in the way we intend.
Imagine an argument conducted by correspondence, where Mrs A has
written to say that she denies any responsibility for a certain problem.
After a week or so, she gets a reply from Mr B:
Let me set out the case as I see it and try to show you that the
[1]
problem has something to do with you.

The major part of the paragraph is illustrative of the claim that Adam was
typical of his time. The writer has one piece of counter-evidence, and he
could have expressed this by the mere use of adversative but:

473

which M rs A would promptly have read with the required prosody:

.
. . . thel problem does
. inDEED have somelhmg
DOES
.
to d 0 With you. I

[2aJ

Information and sequence

19.42

Much of what we have been saying in this book about the processing of
information concerns sequence. The order of presentation is clearly vital,
whether we are concerned with premodifying adjectives, a group of noun
phrases, a pair of independent clauses, a sequence comprising a matrix
clause and a subordinate clause, or of course the elements within a single
clause. We have choices such as:

{ an intricate and arduous task

an arduous and intricate task
{ the cold night and the difficult journey
the difficult journey and the cold night
{They cheered and they sang.
They sang and they cheered.
{ I saw the broken window when I arrived home.

When I arrived home, I saw the broken window.

[I aJ
[I bJ
[2aJ
[2bJ
[3aJ
[3bJ
[4aJ
[4bJ

.,
474

Inform.llon proc...lng

From ..m.nce to text

OUT memories of past crises were being added to our

uncertainties for the future.

To our uncertainties for the future were being added our
memories of past crises.

[Sa)
[5b)

More is involved here than sequence, of course. As well as deciding on a

pair (or longer set) of units. we have to decide on the actual choice of
lexical items. Are they to be near-synonyms or are they to be in sharp
contrast? In either case, should they prosodically resemble each other (eg
by alliterating, having the same number of syllables, the same stress
pattern; eg: arduous and intricate), or should they differ in these respects
(eg: rough and illrricare)? Formal similarity often conveys a sense both of
euphony and of a harmony between substance and meaning; formal
dissimilarity, on the other hand, can convey a sense of richness and
variety. Considerations of euphony enter also into the question of
sequencing, but for the most part, both in the selection of items and in
their placement, we are concerned with 'the right words in the right place'.
Whatever is placed first will seem relatively introductory and 'scene
setting'. Clearly, preparing our hearer or reader for what is to follow is of
the greatest importance if the following part is to have the proper impact.
The converse of this is that whatever is placed last will be expected to be
relatively consequential. of greater importance, and possibly climactic. So
in choosing between [I a] and [ I b], our decision may depend on whether we
wish to convey that the task was arduous because it was intricate; intricate
and abol'e all arduous; arduous in being intricate; arduous andfurrher
more intricate. In choosing between [3a] and [3b]. we may wish to imply
one or other chronological sequence: that they did one thing before the
other. But if the two actions are but different aspects of the same
celebratory behaviour, we have decisions to make on similar principles to
those concerning us in [la) and [I b). [2a) and [2b). With [4a) and [4b).
however, the order will probably be contextually determined: one or
other, the arrival or the seeing, will be relatively 'given' (that is, the hearer/
reader will already have been told or been led to expect that the subject
went home or that a window had been broken), and whichever is in
consequence the relatively 'new' item will be placed in final position if a
feeble anticlimactic 'tail' is to be avoided. So again with [Sa] and [5b]: the
former will be preferred if the preceding part of the text has been dealing
with 'past crises' and tne intention is to go on to some discussion of the
future; if the converse holds, [5b] will be selected.
NOTE

Some matters of sequence are determined by courtesy, convention, or idiom. In

formal circumstances, women are named in address before men. and the speaker is
mentioned last:
Ladies and gentlemen! It gives me great pleasure . .
Harry and I were dismayed.

475

In 3rd person mention, however, sequence can freely depend upon the speaker's
decision:
Joan and Peter
Peler and Joan

WI' 11

.
be coming
..

I saw lots Of .YS and girls.

glrls and boys.
On the other hand, we have a conventional mention of males first in (the) men and
women, he and she, Mr and Atrs (lones). Numerous other sequences are
idiomatically fixed (as in gil'e and lake, pots andpailS, knife andlork, (Do ),ou take)
milk and sugar?) Doubtless these have become fixed historically in response to the
operation of prosodic or semantic pressures, but there are also principles like
'Short before long' and 'General setting before specific objcct'. CIon binomials,
1 3.26 Note.

Bibliographical note
For general treatments and theoretical discussion of discourse and textual
structure, sce Bcaugrande and DressIer (1981); Brown and Yule (1983); Cole and
Morgan (1975); D'AngcJo (1 975); Dijk (1977, 1987); Gricc ( 1 975); Halliday
(I978); Halliday and Hasan ( 1976): Hocy (1983): Nash ( 1980); Quirk (1986):
Stubbs (1983): Winter (1982): Winterowd ( 1975).
On specific aspects of discourse, sce Altenberg ( 1986); Biber ( 1986, 1988);
Bublitz ( 1980, 1988); Crystal (1980); Edmondson (1981); Fleischmann ( 1 985);
Motsch (1987); Norriek (1987); Schenkein ( 1978); Svartvik (1980); Wierzbicka
( 1986).
Other relevant studies include: Brazil (1985): Chafe ( 1976); Condon ( 1986);
Firbas ( 1979): Hawkins ( 1978); Kempson ( 1977); Li ( 1976); Mann and Thompson
( 1986); Quirk and Stein (1990): Schiffrin (1981); Sinclair ( 1 980): Stenstrom ( 1984);
Ye, (1975).

nq
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a_article (indefinite)

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a-words 7.3

as 9.3n; 15.29[. 36f; 17.10; 19.21

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accusative--ocase

attraction_ concord

active/passive 3.25/; 18.22

attribute 10.9: 16.12, 25

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address......ocative

attributive .....adjeetive

753-799

adjective 2.6;7.1-26.32,38 -45: 16.38-4 1 ; [7.29

aux..... auxiliary

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16.[3,

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see

also

adverbial
adverb 2.6; 7.2/. 20, 27, 31-40, 44[: 8.10

backshifting 14.18

and other word classes 7.2f, 28-30

backward span ....duration

particle 16.2-4. 7, 9

bare existential 18.32n

phrase 2.4; 8.10, 33

adverbial 2.3: 8 passim: 10. 1-4, 6f; 15. 13-35;
19.22-25

bare infinitive..... infinitive

basis _comparison
be 3.13: IS.[8-20, 30--33

affected role 1O.9f

being, verbs of 4 . 1 1

agent

benefactive_object (indirect)

adverbial 8.28

binomials 13.26n

animate/inanimate 9.13

block language 1 1 .22

agentive role 3.25/: 9.13: 10.9; 18.35

bodily sensation, verbs of 4. 1 1

agreement_concord

both 5.8; 6.24

BrE--- British English

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Papers/rom Ihe Tenth Regional Meeting of the

0/1 5.8; 6.24

Swedish, Stockholm Studies in English 39,

Chicago Linguistif Society, 787-801 , Univer

AmE_American English

British English 1.10

Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksel1

sity of Chicago

American English 1 . 1 0

but 9.15; 15.25; see also coordination

Tollie, G. ( 1 980) 'Affixal and Non-Affixal Nega

Zwicky. A. M . and G. K. Pullum ( 1 983) Clitici7..a

tion in English - Two Systems in (Almost)

tion vs. Inflection: English n't", Language 59,

an_article (indefinite)

Complementary Distribution'. SlUdia Linguis

502-513

analysis, multiple 1O.7n; 16.5

calling... vocative

anaphora 5.14: 6.S/. 19: [2.2. 18: 19.16. 19

can 3.1 [f, 16; 4.22; 10.41

tica 34, 101-123

amplifier 7. 1 8; 8.37
C ....complement
.

and--oapposition: concord: coordination

Canadian English 1 . 1 0

animals_gender

cardinal numerals 6.28n

animate--oagent, gender

careful-fonnal

antecedent 12.3: see also anaphora. cataphora

Caribbean English 1 . 1 1

anticipatory subject _it

case 5.4S-55; 6.6f

antithetic conjunct 8.44

cataphora 5.14; 6.8[. 19; 12.2. 18: 19.16f

/lny 5.6; 6.25-27: 10.37

catenative l l Sn

apostrophe--ocontraction; genitive

causative 10.lOn; 16.27-29

"""
486

Index

Index

cause: 8.6; 15.26

context 19.1/

dynamic 2.8: 4.2. 1 1 ; 7.23

cause and purpose 9.12

contingency 7.15; 8.6; 15.15n

dynamism, communicative 18.2

goal 8.2, 1 7/; 9.4/

gradability 7.1
gradience 10.7n: 13.3

causer. external 10.10

continuous _aspect

central _pronoun

contraction 3. 1 1 n, 1 3- 16

(position) 8 . 1 1

grammar [.2-5

circumstance 15.26

contrast 8.44; 15.24; 19.24/

each 5.5; 6.22-4, 27/

grammatical_acceptable

citation 1 7.26n

coordination 1 3 . 1- 10: 19.26-29

echo question 1 [ . 1 4

grammatical words 2.6

clause 2.4; 10. 1-4; 14.1/

coordinator_conjunction

-ed

group genitive-genitive

participle 3.2/. 9, 20; [4.4: 15.34/; 16.30;

appended 12.23

copula 10.3: 16.12/

coordinate 13.18

coreference 12.3: 19.15

effect_cause

habitual 4.3

elements 2.3; 8.1. 13; 105-18

correlative 8.45; 1 3 . [ 4/; 14.8; 15.29n. 30, 42

effected Object 10.15

have 3. 14: 18.36

1 7 . 1 5 , 32/

elliptical 12.20--2 3

could 3.1 I/. 16: 4.22, 30-32, 34; 10.41; 14.21

either 5.5; 6.25-27; 13.14

Hiberno-English 1 . 1 1

finite 14.3; 16.17-22. 33-35. 39: 17.5-13

countability 5 . 1/. 17. 2 1 . 35-44

element 2.3; 8 . 1 . 13; 10.1, 4-7

historic present 4.4; 19.14

nonfinite 14.3-5; 1 5 .34/: 16.23. 27-30. 36/.

courtesy subjuncl 8.34

cllipsis 12. 14-23: 19.5, 1 5- 1 7

human_gender

current attribute 10.9; 1 6 . 1 2 , 2 5

emotive adjective 14.14; 16.39/

hype'rcorrect 1 . 5

emphasis 18.6-13

hypernym 19.2

40/: 17.14-18
subordinate 14.1/
verbless 14.3. 6: 15.12. 34/
cleft sentence 18.18/
pseudo- 18.20

emotive 18.36f

dangling participle 15.34

dare

cmphasizer 7.[8: 8.36

3.17

dative_case

hypothetical meaning 3.24: 4.31: 14.12/; 16.20,

2J

enclitic 10.33

closed class 2.6

dl,:clarative sentence 1 1 . 1

end-focus 18.5/

closed condition_condition

deferred preposition 9.2; 1 1 .9; 17.8

end position 8. 1 1

imperative 3.3; 1 1 . 1 ; 1 5- 19

code .....operator

defining _ restrktive/nonrestrictive meaning

cnd-weight 18.5n

inanimate ....gender
.

cognate object 10.15

definite-article

enumerative conjunct 8.44

inclusive K'e 6.10: [9.20

cognition. verbs of 4 . 1 1 ; 1 0. 1 1 : 14.18n: 16.18

degree 8.9

cpistemk 4.21 n

indefinite ....article;
.
pronoun

coherence/cohesion 19.2

dcictic 6.20

evenlive role 10.13, 1 6

independent_clause

collective noun 5.43-45; 10.21

deletion_ellipsis

el"ery 5.5: 6.22[. 25

indicative 3 . 1 9

colloquiaI_ informal

demonstrative 5.4; 6.19/: 1 9 . 1 5[. 1 8

exccption 9.15: 15.25

indirect object_object

colour adjectives 7.26; 13.26; 1 7.41

denial 10.39n

exclamation 7.16; 1 1. 1 . 12, 20: 15.6

indirect speech 1 4. 1 7-22

combinatory coordination 13.22. 25

denominal adjective 7.21, 26; 17.40/

exclusive

command_directive

deontic 4.21n

existential 18.30-36

comment [8.5n

dependent ....clause
.

experiencer 10. 1 1

comment clause 15.32

descriptive genitive_case

explicitness 17.5

inflection 3.2,

common case.....case

destination-goal

extraposition 18.23/

informal 1 . 1 5

extrinsic 4.21

11"1'

6.10; 19.20

common gender-gender

determiner 5.3-34: 19.15, 1 8

communication. verbs of 4.4; 8.41

devcrbal noun 17.23

communicative dynamism 18.2

dialect 1.7

familiar-informal

comp-element-romparative clauses

dialogue 19.31f

/1'11.' 5.10; 6.26/

I (position) 8. 1 1

inferential conjunct 8.44

infinitive 3.3, 20/: 8 . l l n ; [4.4/: 15.9, 1 1, 34. 41/;
16.23. 27j. 36/; 1 7 . 1 6 - 1 8
9; 5.48; 6.2/. 6/; 7.1, 39-44

information processing 1 8 passim; 19.40--42

-ing participle 3.3/. 20: 14.4; 15.34/; 16.23. 29. 4 1 :
17.14, J(J/
inherent_adjective

comparative clauses 15.36-42: 17.10

dimension 9.4

final position 8. 1 1 : 18.2-5

initial position 8. 1 1

comparison clauses 15.29; 19.21

direct object-object

finite 3.3. 19: Jee also clause

initiator 7.29

comparison of adjective and adverbs 7.39-44

direct speech 14. 1 7-22

focus 1 8.5- 1 2

instrumental 8.4,28: 9.13: 10.10

compatibility 19.24

direction 8.16-18: 9.5

focusing subjunct 8.38/

intellectual state-cognition

complement 2.3; 10.5. 10: 16.12.25

directive 1 1 . 1 . 15-19; 19.36

for

intensification 7.18.

prepositional 9 . 1
complementation o f adjectives 16.38-41

discontinuous

487

construction 7.8n,

9:

18.27/

complementation of verbs 16.2-37

discourse 8.43/; 1 1 passim: 19 passim

complex transitive 16.24-30. 37

17.42f:

13.3; see also conjunction. preposition

formulaic subjunctive 3.24: 1 1 .21

fractions 6.28n

32-35;

8.37:

see

also

emphasis
intention 4.27

frequency 8.23/

interjection 1 1 .22n

disjunct 8.40--42: 18.3: 19.22-25

fronting 18.14/

interrogative 1 1 . 1 : ,fet' also pronoun; question

concession 8.6.30. 44; 9.15; 15.21

distance 8 . 1 6 - 1 8

function words 2.6

intonation 2.15; 18.3-14; [9.30-32

concord 5.45; 10.19-28

ditransitive 10.3: 16.31-37

future 4 . 1 3-20

intransitive 10.3: 16. 1 1

concrete noun 5 . 1

do 3.15; 1 1 . 19; 12.6-8, 12f: 18.36

condition 8.6, 41: 1 5 . 1 7-20

double genitive 5.55

gapping 1 3.29

conditional-concessive clause 15.22/

double negative 1O.37n. 4 I n

gender 5.45-47; 6.4

Irish English 1 . 1 [

conducive question 1 1 .4-7. 1 2/

downtoner 7.[8: 8.37

generic 5.22-24

irregular comparison 7.41. 44

irregular plurals 5.37-42

intrinsic 4.21

conjoinet) _coordination

dual gender 5.45/

genitive 5.48-55; 6.6. 16: 17.26,34

eonjuncl 8.43--45; 19.24/

dual number 5.35n; 6.21

gerund 15. IOn; 17.23n

conjunction 2.6; 1 3.1 -16; 14.7-9

dummy operator 3. t I

gel 3.25n: 10.2

conlent disjunct 8.42

duration 4.10-12; 8.3, 2 I/; 9.lOf

given/new 18.4

inversion 3. 1 1 ; 1 1.3: 10; 18.14-17

irregular verbs 3.2. 9/

il 6.9; 10.14; 18.18. 23/; 19.17
item subjunct 8.35

488

Index

Index

Lallans $cots 1 . 1 1
language names 5.33/; 7.12
fet(s) 1 1 . 1 7/
bical connection 19.2
like 15.29

limiting ..... restrictive/nonrestrictive meaning

linking verb.....copula
listing conjunct 8.44
fillle 5.10; 6.26/
locative 9.4-7; 10.13, 1 5
M (position) 8 . 1 1
main....clause
mandative subjunctive 3.24
manner 8.4, 27; 9.14n; 15.29
marked/unmarked 2.7; 7.45; 1O.19n

mass ....coumability
matrix ....clause
may 3.1 If, [6; 4.23. 34; 10041
means 8.4, 28; 9 . 1 3
measure 6.26/; 7.45; 8.16. 21/; 9.10/; 10.7n
medial position 8. 1 1
medium \ . 1 4
mental statc .....cognition
metalinguistic comment 8.41
middle verb 10.7n
might 3. 1 1[ 16: 4.23, 29, 3 1[ 34; 10.41; 14.21
modal ....auxiliary
modalit 4.21: 8.7. 36
modificatron 6. 1 1 : 7.7-9, 17-21. 26. 32-36; 9.16;
1 7 fHlS..Sim
momentary verbs 4. 1 1 . 35
monotransitive 10.3; 16. 14-23
motion 9.7
multiple analysis 10.7n; [6.5
multiple modification 17.25f, 36-43
multiplier 5.9
multi-word verb [6.2-10
mUSf 3. 1 1/ 16; 4.24f, 26, 29. 34; 10.41; 14.2[
namcs 5.25-34
narrow orientation subjunct 8.35-39
necessity 4.21. 24f. 34
need 3.17; 4.25
negation 2.10; 10.33-41; 1 1 .5. 18; [4.23
neither 5.5; 6.25-27; 13.14/
new/given 18.4
New Zealand English 1 . 1 1
nominal expression 12.5: 13.25n; see also noun
nominal clause [ 5.2-12
nominal relative clause 15.7/
nominalization 17.23
nominative .....case
nonassertive.....assertive
noncount ..... countability

nonfinite 3.3. 19/; 4.35; see a/so clause

nonrestrictive .....restrictive
nonstandard 1.8
lIor....concord;
..
coordination
lIol_negation
noun 2.6: 5.1. 25-55
clause.....nominal clause

phrase 1 7 passim; see also nominal expression

-n t .....negation
nucleus 2.15
number 3.3, 13; 5.35-44: 6.5; 10. 19-26.28
numeral 6.28n
a .....object

object 2.3; 10.3. 5. 7. 9. 15-17; 1 6. 14-20. 22-37

objective..... case
obligation 4.21. 24-26. 34
obligalOry elemenl 8.13: 10.1. 3-7
o/and the genitive....gcnitive
omission ..... ellipsis
one 6.[2, 22/, 28; 12.5
onset 2.15
open class 2.6
open condition ....condition
.
operator 2.10: 3. 1 1
opinion. verbs expressing 14.23
optative 3.24; 1 1 .21
or.....apposition: concord: coordination
order....extraposition: fronting; inversion:
position
ordinal numerals 6.28n
ought 3.17; 4.26, 29. 34: 10.41; 14.21
pairs and triads 13.27n: 19.28
paragrapn [9.33
parenthetic 15.32
part of speech .....word class
participant relations 19.38/
participant rolcs 10.8-18
participial adjective 7.5-6; 1 7.30-33
participle__ed; -ing
particle [6.2
partitive 5.2: 6.25-28
passage 9.7
passive 3.25/: 18.22
past-tense
patient .....affC(;ted
pendant participle 1 5.34
perception, verbs of 4 . 1 1 : 16.28/
perfect.....aspect
performative verbs 4.3
permanent vs temporary 1704
permission 4.21-23. 29. 32,34
person 3.3. 13; 6.3: see also concord: gendcr
personal pronoun_pronoun

phrasal prepositional verb 16.2,9

phrasal verb 16.2-4. 7. 16
phrase 2.4
pitch 2.15
piaet' 7.36: 8.16-18: 9.5/; 15.16: 19.3-6: see also
space
place names 5.32-34
pluperfect 4.9
plural ..... number
polysyndetic coordination 1 3 . 1
position, meaning 7.36f: 8.16: 9.5/
position of adjectives 7.7-9, 1 7-22
in sequence 7.26: 1 7.40/
position of modifying adverbs 7.32-36
position of adverbials 8.1 1
in sequence 8.18. 26. 3 [
positioner subject 10.12
possessive..... pronoun; genitive
possibility 4.21-23. 29/. 32. 34
postdetcrminer 5.10
postmodifieat ion _ modi fication
postponement 18.2 1-28
predeterminer 5.7-9
predicate 2.2: 12.7f, 12, 20; 13.19/
predication 2.10: 8.14: 12.7[ 12. 20: 13.19t
18.15. 20
prediction 4.21. 27-30. 34
preference 15.31
premodification ..... modification
preposition 2.6: 9 passim
prepositional phrase 8.10: 9 pa.f.fim
prepositional verb 16.2. 5-8, 16, 32, 34
prescriptivism [ . 5
present ..... tense
primary verb 3. 1 , 1 3-1 5
principal parts of verb 3.9/
private and public verbs 16.18
process adverbials 8.4. 27/
process verbs 4. 1 1
pro-forms 2.9; 6 po.uim: 12. 1-1 3: 19.5. 15. 20
progressive ..... aspect
pronoun 2.6: 6 passim: 19.15, 20
central 6.2
indefinite 6.21-28
interrogative 6.18
possessive 6.16
reflexive 6.13-15
relative 6.17; 17.5-9
see also demonstrative: determiner
prop..... it
proper nouns 5 . 1 . 25-34
proportional clause 15.30
prosody 2. 1 2-15; 18.3- 13: 19.30-32. 41
provenance adjectives 7.24
proximity.....concord

489

pseudo-cleft 18.20
pseudo-coordinalion 13.31
public and private verbs 16.18
punctual verbs 4. 1 1
punctuation 19.30, 33f
purpose 8.6. 30; 9.12: 15.27
putative meaning 1 5.27f
putative should 14.14
quality/quantity 5.2; 6.25-28
quasi-coordination 13.32
question 2.10: 1 1 . 1-14: 14.20:
19.35-37

1 5.<if;

16.22;

reaction signal 7.29; 8.34n, 36n: 19.23,28

reason 8.6. 30: 9.12: 15.26
Received Pronunciation 1 . 12
recipient role 9.12: 10.9, 1 1
reciprocal pronoun use 6.28n
recoverability 12.2, 16-18: 14.5J; 15.3<if: 17.1416; 19.5. 1 5f, 21
reflexive ...... prono.un
regional English 1.7
reinforcement 18.38
relative clause 1 7 . 1 - 1 7
relative pronoun 6.17: 17.5-9
repetition 13.31; 18.38
replacive conjunct 8.44
reported speech 14. 17-22
reporting clause 14.17
respect 8.5, 29; 9.15
restrictive item 7.19: 8.7. 38/
restrictive/nonrestricti"e meaning 7.17n:

17.3,

5-1l
result 8.6; 16.28
resultant rolc 10.15
resulting attribute 10.9; 16.12
retrospective verbs 16.23
rheme 18.5n
rhetorical conditional clause 15.20
rhetorical question 1 1 . 13: 19.37
rhythm 2. [ 4
root modality 4.2[n
rules of grammar 1 .3-5
S.....subject

scope...... negation
Scots English 1 . 1 1
segregatory coordination 1 3.22- 25
semi-auxiliary 3.18
sentence 2.2: see also clause
sentential relative clause 15.33: 17.12
sequence ..... position
.fha// 3 . 1 1[ 16: 4.28-30. 34: 10.41
.thoufd 3.1 If, 16; 4.26, 29f, 33J; 10.41; 14.14, 21

490

.1
j

Index

similarity clause 15.29

temporary vs permanent 17.4

singular-+number

tense 4.1, 3--6, 13-20, 29-30; 19.1 1-14; see also

social variation 1.8

so 7.28, 39; 8.44; 1 2.7- 13; 13.7, 25n; IS.27/. 30,
370.42; 19.19.27

time
the.... article (definite)
theme 18.5

source 8.2, 1 6/; 9.4f

time 7.36/: 8.3, 19-26, 35; 9.9- 1 1 ; 10.13; [ 5 . 1 4[;

space 8.2, 16-18; 9.4-7; 10.6. 15; see also place

text 19.1

some 5.6, 6.25-27; 10.37

South African English 1 . 1 1

16.13: 19.7-14; sei! also tense

tone unit 2.15; 18.3

span ....duration
.

topic/comment IS.5n

specific reference 5.1 1-21

transferred negation 14.23

splil infinitive 8. 1 1 n

transition verbs 4. 1 1

slance verbs 4. 1 1

transitional eonjuncls S.44

Standard English 1 .8-12

transitive 10.3; 16. 14-37

statal passive 3.250

triads 19.28

slale.....aspect tense
stalive 2.8: 4.2. [ I : 7.23

unattached participle 15.34

stimulus preposition 9 . 1 3

uncountab[e .....countability

stranding.....deferred

universal .....pronoun (indefinite)

stress 2 . 1 3

unmarked .... marked

structural compensation 18.29

unreal_condition

structure word$ 2.6

usedlO 3.17

style disjunct 8.401

suasive verbs 16.19

V .... verb

subjcct 2.3: 1 0.7, 9- 14

varieties of English 1 . 6 - 1 5

subjective ....case
.

verb 2.6: 3 . 1 -3, 9f, 1 9-22: 10.2/

subjunct 8.32-39

verbless.... clause

subjunctive 3.23/; 14.1]

viewpoint subjunct 8.33

subordination 14.1-10: 19.26-29

vocative 10.3 1[: 18.3; 19.39

Sllbordinalor.....conjunCIion

voice 3.25/: 18.22

substitution .....pro-form

volition 4.21. 27-29, 32, 34

..

,
,

!
,

such 5.7n; 1 5.42; 17.10

summalive conjunct 8.44

we 6.10; 19.20

superlative 7.39-44

wide orientation subjunct 8.33/

superordinate 14.1

will 1 1 1[ 16: 4.14, 18, 2 1 , 27,29[ 32, 34; 10.41

supplementive clause 15.35

word classes 2.6

syndetic coordination 13. 1

....ould 1 1 1/, 16; 4.21, 27, 29-34; 10.41; 14.21

tag 1 1 .6: 18.38

zero .... article: nominal clause; relative clause

temporal ..... time

.,

wo