Electrical Theory

Generator Theory
PJM State & Member Training Dept.

PJM2016

01/05/2016

Objectives
The student will be able to:
Describe the process of electromagnetic induction
Identify the major components of an AC generator
Apply the formula for rotational speed

Describe generator governor control

Discuss the characteristics that affect or limit generator performance
Describe MVAR and MW flow
Describe the synchronization process of a generator

PJM2016

01/05/2016

Basic Operating Principles

Electromagnetic Induction is the principle used by a generator to
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
For this to happen, three things are needed:
A magnetic field
A current-carrying conductor
A relative motion between the two

This is the fundamental operating principle of generators, motors,

transformers, inductors, and solenoids

PJM2016

01/05/2016

Basic Operating Principles

Generators use energy from the prime mover to turn the generators rotor
(moving portion) inside the generators stator (static portion)
Steam in a fossil or nuclear unit
Water flow in a hydroelectric unit

Fuel flow in a combustion turbine unit

Wind flow in a wind generator

A DC current flows through the field windings of the rotor creating a

magnetic field
As the rotor spins, it acts via electromagnetic induction to induce a voltage
in the armature windings of the stator
PJM2016

01/05/2016

Basic Operating Principles

Output voltage of the generator is controlled by changing the strength of
the magnetic field of the rotor
This is accomplished by controlling the amount of direct current (DC) or
excitation current that is supplied to the rotors field winding
The excitation current is supplied by the exciter
The stators output to the system is a three-phase alternating current (AC)
since the direction of the magnetic field changes in relation to the windings
as the rotor turns 360 degrees
One rotation is equal to a complete cycle of power
PJM2016

01/05/2016

Basic Operating Principles

Bismark Phasor Sim

PJM2016

01/05/2016

Basic Operating Principles

PJM2016

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

Rotating Magnetic Field

Series of Conductors

PJM2016

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

The basic function of the rotor is to produce a magnetic field of the size and
shape necessary to induce the desired output voltage in
the stator
The rotating field is required to produce a given number of lines of
magnetic flux which is obtained by: Ampere-turns
Ampere-turns is the product of the number of turns in the rotor winding
and the current that flows in the winding

PJM2016

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

Generator rotors are made of solid steel forgings with slots cut along the
length for the copper windings
Insulated winding bars are wedged into the slots and connected at each
end of the rotor and are arranged to act as one continuous wire to develop
the magnetic field

PJM2016

10

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

Two types of rotors:
Salient-pole
Used in low or moderate speed machines with separate field coils
Speeds from 100 to 1,200 rpm
Primarily for hydroelectric facilities

Cylindrical
Used in high-speed machines that utilize a slotted integral forging
Speeds 1,200 rpm and above
Primarily used for steam and combustion turbine facilities

PJM2016

11

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

Rotor design constraints include:
Temperature:
Ampere-turn requirements for the field increase with an increase in rating,
which entails a combined increase in heating in the coil

Mechanical force:
Ampere-turn requirements for the field increase with an increase in rating
causing a higher centrifugal load

Electrical insulation:
In older units, slot insulation is a primary thermal barrier, and as current
increases, becomes a greater obstacle

PJM2016

12

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

Advantage:
Air gap between the stator and rotor can
be adjusted so that the magnetic flux can
be sinusoidal including the waveform

Salient Pole Three Phase Synchronous Generator

Disadvantage:
Because of its weak structure it is not
suitable for high-speed generation
It is also expensive to fabricate
Requires damper windings to prevent
rotor oscillations during operations
Due to low speed, they are constructed
with a higher number of poles to achieve
system frequency
PJM2016

13

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

Advantage:
Cheaper than a salient-pole
Its symmetrical shape, is better
for high-speed application
Losses in the windings are reduced
Noise produced is less

Cylindrical Rotor Synchronous Generator

Disadvantage:
Air gap is uniform
Generated voltage is polygonal
giving way to the susceptibility
of harmonics

PJM2016

14

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Rotor

PJM2016

15

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

PJM2016

16

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

The stator is the stationary part of the generator that is comprised
of a series of stationary windings or poles(phases)
Basic function of the stator core is to provide a return path for the
lines of magnetic flux, and support the coils of the stator winding
The stator core is made of soft iron to provide the magnetic field
path with a high permeability

The iron is laminated to reduce eddy currents (opposing field) and

hysteresis (power losses)

PJM2016

17

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Stator

Two-Pole Generators:
In a two-pole generator, there are three armature winding
coils installed in the stator
North and south poles of the rotor are 180 apart

Four-Pole Generators:
In a four-pole generator, there are six armature winding coils
installed in the stator
North and south poles of the rotor are 90 apart

A generator which is connected to the grid has a constant speed

dictated by grid frequency
Bismark AC Generator Sim
PJM2016

18

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Exciter

PJM2016

19

01/05/2016

A.C. Generator Components: Exciter

The function of the excitation system is to provide direct current for
the generator rotor/field windings through slip rings to produce the
magnetic field
Maintains generator voltage, controls MVAR flow, and assists in
maintaining power system stability
During load changes or disturbances on the system, the exciter must
respond, sometimes rapidly, to maintain the proper voltage at the
generator terminals

PJM2016

20

01/05/2016

Generator Rotational Speed

Frequency is dependent on:
Number of field poles
Speed of the generator

f = (N)(P)/120, where
f = frequency (Hz)
N = rotor speed (rpm)
P = total number of poles
120 = Conversion from minutes to seconds and from poles to pole pairs
(60 seconds/1 minute) x (2 poles/pole pair)

PJM2016

21

01/05/2016

Generator Rotational Speed

Example: 2 Poles
60 Hz = (3600 RPM)(2 Poles)/120

PJM2016

22

01/05/2016

Generator Rotational Speed

Example: 4 Poles
60 Hz = (1800 RPM)(4 Poles)/120

PJM2016

23

01/05/2016

Generator Governor Control

Governors control generator shaft speed

Adjust generation for small changes in load

Operate by adjusting the input to the prime mover
Steam flow for fossil
Water flow for hydro
Fuel flow for combustion turbine

Amount of governor control varies according to plant design

Equivalent to a cars cruise control
PJM2016

24

01/05/2016

Generator Governor Control

The Watt centrifugal governor was the mechanical means for
governor control
Used weights that moved radially as rotational speed increased
that pneumatically operated a servo-motor

Electrohydraulic governing has replaced

the mechanical governor because of:
High response speed
Low deadband
Accuracy in speed and load control

PJM2016

25

01/05/2016

Generator Governor Control

PJM2016

26

01/05/2016

Generator Governor Control

Frequency Response

Load
Rate of frequency decline from points
A to C is slowed by load rejection

Generators
Generator governor action halts the
decline in frequency and causes the
knee of the excursion, and brings the
frequency back to point B from point C

It is important to note that frequency will not recover from point B to 60 Hz

until the deficient control area replaces the amount of lost generation
PJM2016

27

01/05/2016

Generator Governor Control: Droop

Adding a droop characteristic to a governor forces generators to
respond to frequency disturbances in proportion to their size
Droop settings enable many generators to operate in parallel while
all are on governor control and not compete with one another for
load changes

PJM2016

28

01/05/2016

Generator Governor Control: Droop

PJM2016

29

01/05/2016

Generator Governor Control: Droop

PJM2016

30

01/05/2016

Generator Governor Control: Deadband

Deadband
An additional feature displayed by governors
The amount of frequency change a governor must see before it
starts to respond
Really a natural feature of the earliest governors caused by
friction and gear lash (looseness or slop in the gear mechanism)
Serves a useful purpose by preventing governors from
continuously hunting as frequency varies ever so slightly

PJM2016

31

01/05/2016

Generator Characteristics
Generator limitation factors
Power capability of the prime mover
Heating of generator components (I2R losses)
Necessity to maintain a strong enough magnetic field to transfer power
from the rotor to the generator output

PJM2016

32

01/05/2016

Generator Characteristics
Heating of generator components
Heat generated within the armature and field windings is directly
related to the magnitude of current flowing through them
Generator losses:
Based on resistance of the field winding of the rotor
Based on resistance and inductive reactance of the armature windings of the
stator causing a voltage drop that subtracts from the output voltage

Heat dissipated by the generator is limited by the cooling system design

PJM2016

33

01/05/2016

Generator Characteristics
Magnetic field strength
Controlled by excitation voltage
If excitation voltage is lowered:
Voltage induced in A.C. windings is lowered
More VARS absorbed by generator from system
Undervoltage can cause overcurrent conditions in the stator and lead to
armature or stator heating

Capability curves provide Max/Min limits

PJM2016

34

01/05/2016

Capability Curve

PJM2016

35

01/05/2016

Nameplate Data
Main Generator Nameplate Characteristic Data
Rated Output

496,000 kVA

Rated Voltage

22,000 v

Rated Stator Current

13,017 amps

Rated Field Current

3,017 amps

Power Factor

0.9

Poles

Phases

Electrical Connection

Wye

Rated Speed

3,600 RPM

Rated Frequency

60 Hz

Rated Hydrogen Pressure

48 psig

Rated Hydrogen Purity

97%

PJM2016

36

01/05/2016

Generator Capability Curve

The steady-state capability of a generator as it is influenced by the power
factor is divided into three major components on the curve
Region A-B: Zero power factor lagging to rated power factor
Generator is over-excited
Field current is at rated value
Capability limitation is field overheating

Region B-C: Rated power factor lagging through unity to 0.95 power factor
leading
Capability limitation is dependent on the stator current
Maximum nameplate stator amperes should not be exceeded

PJM2016

37

01/05/2016

Generator Capability Curve

Region C-D: leading power factor operation
Excessive heating in the stator end-iron due to flux
leakage from the core
Capability limitation is end-iron heating
This is also an underexcitation region and capability is further reduced
by the voltage squared during reduced terminal voltage operation

PJM2016

38

01/05/2016

Generator MW Flow & Power Angle

Power Angle

PJM2016

39

01/05/2016

Generator MW Flow & Power Angle

Rotor Angle
On a transmission system is similar to rotor angle
Load or Torque angle

No Load
Field pole of rotor is in phase with stator armature windings
=0

Load Added
Rotor advances with respect to the stator
MWs flow out of the machine
Bismark Torque Angle Sim
PJM2016

40

01/05/2016

Generator Synchronization
Synchronization is the process of precisely coordinating or
matching two or more activities, devices, or processes in time
Synchronization, in the electric industry, is the process of
matching the speed, frequency, and voltage of a generator or
other source to a running network
Conditions must be met to prevent unwanted and excessive
energy flows when paralleling

PJM2016

41

01/05/2016

Generator Synchronization
The objective of synchronization is to match speed and phase
position so there is little or no transfer of energy when paralleling a
unit to a system or two systems
Voltage Magnitude (MVAR)
Frequency Magnitude (MW)
Phase Angle Deviation (MW)
Phase Sequence (Current)

PJM2016

42

01/05/2016

Generator Synchronization
Manual synchronizing is performed by plant or field operators by manually
adjusting frequency and voltage of the generator or area to be paralleled
and ultimately closing the circuit breaker to tie the incoming system to
the running system
For manual synchronization, meter panels are used to
provide information
Individual bus and generator frequency meters
Individual bus and generator AC voltmeters
Synchroscope
Two indicating lamps

PJM2016

43

01/05/2016

Generator Synchronization
Synchroscope is a multiple parameter information source
Indicates a frequency difference between the generator or area
and the running system (slip rate)
Indicates if the generator or area frequency is running slower
or faster than the running area

Indicating incandescent lamps demonstrate that the incoming

and running system are in phase

Bismark Synch Lab

PJM2016

44

01/05/2016

Generator Synchronizing

Voltage
Frequency
Phase Angle

PJM2016

45

01/05/2016

Summary
Defined electromagnetic induction and how mechanical energy is converted into
electrical energy
Explained the major components of an AC Generator

Applied the formula for generator rotational speed

Described generator governor control to include the droop and
deadband characteristics
Described generator characteristics that can limit the performance of
a generator
Described MVAR and MW flow
Described the process of synchronizing a generator to the system
PJM2016

46

01/05/2016

Questions?
PJM Client Management & Services
Telephone: (610) 666-8980
Toll Free Telephone: 866-400-8980
Website: www.pjm.com

The Member Community is PJMs self-service portal for members to search for answers to their questions
or to track and/or open cases with Client Management & Services

PJM2016

47

01/05/2016

Resources and References

Rustebakke, Homer M. (1983). Electric Utility Systems and Practices.
New York: John Wiley and Sons
Miller, Robert H., & Malinowski, James H. (1993). Power System Operation.
New York: McGraw-Hill Inc.

PJM2016

48

01/05/2016