What Science Reveals About Fetal Pain

2016 Edition

Arina O. Grossu
A growing body of science reveals an undisputable fact: unborn babies can feel pain by 20
weeks post-fertilization,1 and most likely even earlier. As the medical community continues to
increase its understanding of fetal pain, there have also been increasing legislative efforts to
protect the unborn child from cruel suffering.
Pain (nociception) is an aversive response to a physically harmful or destructive stimulus. The
National Institutes of Health define pain as a basic bodily sensation that is induced by a
noxious stimulus, is received by naked nerve endings, is characterized by physical discomfort
(as pricking, throbbing, or aching), and typically leads to evasive action.2
Unborn babies 20 weeks post-fertilization not only have the anatomy to process pain but also
the neurobiology to transmit painful sensations to the brain and perceive pain. Dr. Jean A.
Wright, testifying at a Congressional subcommittee hearing summarized it best:
After 20 weeks of gestation [18 weeks post-fertilization], an unborn child has all the
prerequisite anatomy, physiology, hormones, neurotransmitters, and electrical current
to close the loop and create the conditions needed to perceive painThe development
of the perception of pain begins at the sixth week of life. By 20 weeks [18 weeks postfertilization], and perhaps even earlier, all the essential components of anatomy,
physiology, and neurobiology exist to transmit painful sensations from the skin to the
spinal cord and to the brain.3
There is no question, biologically speaking, about whether an unborn child can feel pain by 20
weeks post-fertilization. By 18 weeks post-fertilization, nerves link pain receptors to the brains
thalamus (the pain processing center). By 18 weeks post-fertilization, the cerebral cortex (the
region of the brain associated with higher mental functions) has acquired a full complement of
neurons, meaning all of the neurons are present, though not all the connections in the cortex are
fully developed until later. EEG activity, a recording of electrical activity in the brain, appears
for the first time at 18 weeks post-fertilization, showing the integrity of the circuitries of the
cortex and the thalamus. 4
Some scientists take an agnostic position on whether the unborn child consciously experiences
pain by 20 weeks post-fertilization and they argue this based on a theory that a mature cerebral
cortex is necessary for the conscious perception of pain. However, a mature cerebral cortex is
not necessary in order for the unborn child to feel pain, as evidenced by scientific studies and
observations that both children and adults who are born with no or minimal cerebral cortex, do
in fact still perceive pain.
FAMILY RESEARCH COUNCIL
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September 2016
Issue Analysis IS15A01

The instruction of medical textbooks and accepted common medical practice is to administer
fetal anesthesia before an in-utero surgery on the unborn child around 20 weeks postfertilization. The common practice is based on the science of fetal development and the
observation that unborn children who are not given anesthesia elicit a hormonal stress response
to painful stimuli, which is alleviated by the effects of anesthesia as it is in adults.
A 2015 study in Trends in Anesthesia & Critical Care also advises that pain relievers (analgesia) be
administered to the mother and child following an in-utero surgery. The post-operative
suffering from pain leads to fetal and maternal stress by causing uterine contractions.
Appropriate treatment of postoperative pain is to give pain relievers in order to avoid
triggering premature contractions and premature birth.
A January 2015 anesthesia clinical review book contained a chapter on fetal intervention and
stated, The fetus is able to mount a physicochemical stress response to pain starting around 18
weeks of gestation. It becomes capable of experiencing pain between 20 and 30 weeks of
gestation [18 and 28 weeks post-fertilization].5
Legislation that addresses fetal pain must be based on the indisputable biology, scientific data,
and physical evidence of fetal pain and not on political, religious, theoretical, or philosophical
ideas about self-consciousness or self-awareness. The bottom line is that an unborn child can
and does feel pain by 20 weeks post-fertilization. Fetal pain mechanisms are in place at that
time.
Polling shows that the majority of Americans agree on setting abortion bans, such as the PainCapable Unborn Child Protection Act, to protect the almost 13,000 American pain-capable
unborn children who die from late abortion each year.6
Definitions
Some basic biological definitions must be addressed in order to understand the neurological
and brain development that takes place in the unborn child.

Cerebral Cortex: The cerebral cortex, which includes the neocortex, is the cerebrums
(brain) thin outer layer of neural tissue in humans and other mammals. It serves as the
center of higher mental functions for humans, such as thought, perception, and memory,
advanced motor function, language, and problem solving. It starts developing at 6
weeks and has a full complement of neurons by 18 weeks post-fertilization.7

A macaque monkey cerebral cortex is shown in the dark purple outline.8

Thalamus: The thalamus is located above the brain stem between the cerebral cortex and
the midbrain with nerve connections to both. The thalamus, which translates neural
impulses going from the spinal cord to the cortex into appropriate sensations (including
pain), develops between 8 and 16 weeks post-fertilization.9 The Oxford Dictionary
defines its function as relaying sensory information and acting as a center for pain
perception.10

(Thinkstock)

Subcortical Plate (Subplate zone): A temporary waiting compartment for afferent nerve
fibers, which carry nerve impulses (including painful nerve impulses) to the cortex.
Thalamic nerve fibers reach subplate zone by 18 to 20 weeks post fertilization.11 One
study noted that the first axons appear in the cortical plate by 18 to 20 weeks postfertilization.12

The Development of the Nervous System and the Brain in the Unborn Child
The unborn child has a well-developed nervous system by 20 weeks post-fertilization.
Neurological and anatomical structures needed to perceive pain are in place well before that
developmental time. Various embryology textbooks, scientific testimonies, and studies shed
light on the biology of fetal brain and nervous system development, the unborn childs reaction
to painful stimuli, and the unborn childs capacity to perceive pain. The following are some of
the findings.13
The Development of the Nervous System
The basic organization of the nervous system is established by 28 days (four weeks)
post-fertilization.14
The earliest neurons are formed at 4 weeks post-fertilization in the neocortex.15
The earliest function of the neocortex as a network begins in the seventh week postfertilization.16
The first essential requirement for nociception is the presence of sensory receptors,
which develop first in the perioral area [around the mouth] at around 7 weeks gestation
[5 weeks post-fertilization]. From here, they develop in the rest of the face and in the
palmar surfaces of the hands and soles of the feet from 11 weeks [9 weeks postfertilization]. By 20 weeks [18 weeks post-fertilization], they are present throughout all
of the skin and mucosal surfaces.17
Sensory receptors develop in the perioral area at approximately 7 weeks gestation [5
weeks post-fertilization] and are diffusely located throughout the body by 14 weeks [12
weeks post-fertilization].18
Pain receptors appear around the mouth 4 to 5 weeks post-fertilization, followed by the
development of nerve fibers, which carry stimuli to the brain. Around 6 weeks postfertilization, the unborn child first responds to touch. By 18 weeks post-fertilization, pain
receptors have appeared throughout the body.19
Immature skin nociceptors are probably present by 10 weeks [8 weeks postfertilization] and definitely present by 17 weeks [15 weeks post-fertilization].20
The Development of the Thalamus and Subcortical Plate
Nerves connect pain receptors to the brains thalamus and subcortical plate by no later than
20 weeks post-fertilization. By 20 weeks post-fertilization at most, neural connections
needed for pain perception appear and painful stimuli arrive to the brain.

The connection between the spinal cord and the thalamus (an obligatory station
through which nearly all sensory information must pass before reaching the cortex)
starts to develop from 14 weeks onwards and is finished at 20 weeks.21

"In humans, painful stimuli can arrive to the brain at 2022 weeks of gestation [18-20
weeks post-fertilization]...The neural connections between peripheral receptors, the
thalamus, and the cortical subplate the basis for pain perception appear at about 2022
weeks from conception [18-20 weeks post-fertilization].22
Connections to the thalamus begin at 14 weeks [12 weeks post-fertilization] and are
completed by 20 weeks [18 weeks post-fertilization], and thalamocortical connections
are present from 13 weeks [11 weeks post-fertilization] and are more developed by 26 to
30 weeks [24 to 28 weeks post-fertilization].23
Most incoming pathways, including nociceptive ones, are routed through the thalamus
and, as stated above, penetrate the subplate zone from about 17 weeks These
monoamine fibres start to invade the subplate zone at 13 weeks and reach the cortex at
about 16 weeks.24
Thalamic afferents begin to reach the somatosensory subplate at 18 weeks [post
fertilization]These afferents appear morphologically mature enough to synapse with
subplate neurons.25
Peripheral nerve receptors develop between 7 and 20 weeks gestation [5 and 18 weeks
post-fertilization] Spinothalamic fibres (responsible for transmission of pain) develop
between 16 and 20 weeks gestation [14 to 18 weeks post-fertilization], and
thalamocortical fibres between 17 and 24 weeks gestation [15 and 22 weeks postfertilization].26
Peripheral receptors develop from the 5th week post-fertilization. By 18 weeks postfertilization, these receptors are present in the whole body. From 11 weeks postfertilization the afferent system of the spinal cord starts developing. Connections
between the spinal cord and the thalamus start to develop from 12 weeks postfertilization and are complete by 18 weeks post-fertilization. Connections between the
thalamus and the cortex are present from 15 weeks post-fertilization and completely
developed at 24-28 weeks post-fertilization. From 14 weeks post-fertilization pain
transmission from a peripheral receptor to the cortex is possible and completely
developed by 24 weeks post-fertilization.27

The Unborn Childs Reaction to Painful Stimuli

In the unborn child, application of painful stimuli is associated with a childs withdrawal from
the source of pain and significant increases in stress hormones resulting in a stress response and
elevated heart rate. An unborn child will avoid tissue injury from pain-causing stimuli during
an invasive procedure.
An unborn baby between 20 and 30 weeks post-fertilization will feel pain more intensely than
even a newborn or adult because during this age the unborn baby has more pain receptors per
square inch of skin than at any other time, and the mechanisms (a separate set of nerves in a
feedback loop) that inhibit pain have not been established.
First Reaction to Painful Stimuli
Sometime between 5.5 and 8 weeks post-fertilization, an unborn baby will withdraw from
painful stimuli:
The earliest reactions to painful stimuli motor reflexes can be detected at 7.5 weeks of
gestation [5.5 weeks post-fertilization].28
5

As early as 8 weeks gestation [6 weeks post-fertilization], the fetus exhibits reflex

movement during invasive procedures via spinal reflex pathway.29
The neural circuits responsible for the first basic response to pain are established by 8
weeks post-fertilization. This is the earliest point at which the fetus experiences pain and
can respond by withdrawing from painful stimuli.30

Hormonal Stress Response

Numerous studies show that an unborn baby will react with a hormonal stress response to a
painful stimulus before 20 weeks post-fertilization:
Invasive fetal procedures clearly elicit a stress response31
Human fetal endocrine responses to stress have been demonstrated from as early as 18
weeks gestation [16 weeks post-fertilization].32
A significant body of evidence has grown to suggest the importance of mitigating the
fetal stress response to enhance fetal outcome and possibly limit preterm labor. It is clear
that the fetus is capable of mounting a physiochemical stress response to noxious stimuli
as early as 18 weeks gestation.33
Fetuses have been observed to exhibit hormonal stress responses to painful stimuli
from as early as 16 weeks of gestation [14 weeks post-fertilization].34
Another stage of advancing neural development takes place at 18 weeks, when it has
been demonstrated that the fetus will launch a hormonal stress response to direct
noxious stimulation.35
Fetal stress in response to painful stimuli is shown by increased cortisol and
-endorphin concentrations, and vigorous movements and breathing efforts This
independent stress response in the fetus occurs from 18 weeks gestation [16 weeks postfertilization].36
Fetuses at 20 weeks post fertilization have an increase in stress hormones in response to
painful experiences.37
Multiple studies show that the human fetus from 18-20 weeks elaborates pituitaryadrenal, sympatho-adrenal, and circulatory stress responses to physical insults.38
Fetuses undergoing intrauterine invasive procedures, definitely illustrative of pain
signaling, were reported to show coordinated responses signaling the avoidance of
tissue injury.39
Studies of brain activation using near-infrared spectroscopy in preterm neonates
responding to a painful stimulus to the heel have shown increased signals over the
contralateral cortex which implies a specific pattern of response to pain rather than a
non-specific activation seen with autonomic arousal.40
Other interventions may require that a needle be inserted into the fetus, which may
elicit a noxious stimulus and possibly even cause pain. Open procedures can produce
significant noxious stimuli.41
Perception and processing of pain is controversial, but noxious stimuli will elicit a
physiologic response in the human fetus, as evidenced by increases in cortisol,
-endorphin, and decreases in the pulsatility index of the fetal middle cerebral artery.42
Premature Babies and Pain
Premature babies not only show pain-related behaviors, but the younger they are, the stronger
their response to pain will be:

Premature infants, delivered as early as 23 weeks show clear pain-related behaviors.43

Of note, the earlier infants are delivered, the stronger their response to pain.44

Why Babies at 20 Weeks Post-Fertilization Will Feel More Pain than Adults
Pain is sensed more acutely by babies 20-30 weeks post-fertilization because the pain receptors
are present and close to the surface, but the mechanisms that inhibit pain do not develop until
32-34 weeks post-fertilization or after birth:
Between 20 and 30 weeks post-fertilization, an unborn child has more pain receptors per
square inch of skin than at any other time in his or her life, with only a very thin layer of
skin for protection, leaving nerve fibers closer to the surface.45
Mechanisms that inhibit or moderate the experience of pain do not begin to develop
until 32 to 34 weeks post-fertilization. Any pain the unborn child experiences before
these pain inhibitors are in place is likely more intense than the pain an older infant or
adult experiences when subjected to similar types of injury.46
Without the descending inhibitory pathways that develop after birth a pre-born baby is
capable of perceiving unmitigated, intense suffering when it is crushed or torn, as is
commonly experienced in an abortion procedure.47
Descending inhibitory pathways such as the dorsolateral funiculus that would
modulate pain develop postnatally. This would suggest that neonates and preterm
infants may have a more hyperresponsiveness to pain than older infants who have the
ability to modulate pain via a more mature nervous system.48
One journal review summarized it as follows: the serotonin-mediated descending inhibitory
system of pain only develops after birth; clearly then, fetuses feel more pain that [sic]
neonates49
Use of Anesthesia for Fetal Surgery in Current Medical Practice
It is common practice for doctors to administer fetal anesthesia before performing in-utero
surgeries. First, the mother is generally given anesthesia for the operation, which then goes
through her system and anesthetizes the baby. In addition, the baby may also directly be given
anesthesia.
When administered, fetal anesthesia decreases stress hormones when compared to their level
when painful stimuli are applied without anesthesia. Observations of fetal behavior and
physiology have resulted in a clear consensus among professional anesthesiologists for the
use of anesthesia in prenatal surgery.50
A review article on Anesthesia for fetal surgery in a journal on anesthesiology summarizes,
The current consensus is to provide fetal analgesia/anesthesia in a judicious and proper
manner during painful interventions that trigger noxious fetal responses. The study
recommends that even for minimally invasive procedures, local anesthesia and sedation
analgesia should be administered in order to help with fetal immobility, avoid fetal trauma,
and the adverse consequences of fetal nociception in cases in which the fetus is operated on.51

Fetal Anesthesia and Current Medical Practice

These studies reveal information about current medical practice regarding in-utero surgeries
and the effects of anesthesia on the unborn child:
Despite ongoing debate regarding fetal capacity for pain perception, fetal anesthesia
and analgesia are warranted for fetal surgical procedures.52
It has also been shown that fetuses feel pain from week 18. This has given rise to the
practice of using fetal anesthesia for surgery or invasive diagnostic procedures in
utero.53
Therefore, it has been suggested that pain relief has to be provided during in utero
interventions on the fetus from mid-gestation (20 weeks) on.54
As with any procedure, the provision of analgesia depends on the likely severity of
pain associated with the intervention. However, analgesia is recommended for:
(i) endoscopic, intrauterine surgery on placenta, cord, and membranes; (ii) late
termination of pregnancy; (iii) direct surgical trauma to the fetus.55
The administration of anesthesia directly to the fetus is critical in open fetal surgery
procedures. Fetal pain response with bradycardia [slow heart rate] should make us
consider that the fetus is not adequately anesthetized.56
Given the state of current knowledge, it is impossible to know exactly when the fetus
first becomes capable of experiencing pain, although most agree that the gestational age
range in which this occurs is between 20 and 30 weeks. It so happens that this range
coincides with the gestational ages during which most fetal interventions occur. For
these reasons, most practitioners provide fetal anesthesia or analgesia of some sort
during both open and minimally invasive procedures.57
Strategies must be in place for failed procedures or fetal distress.58
Pain Relievers Decrease the Hormonal Stress Levels
Pain-relievers, once administered to the unborn baby, lessen the stress response and decrease
hormone levels:
As early as 18 weeks, stress hormones are released by the unborn child injected by a
needle, just as they are released when adults feel pain. Hormone levels in those babies
decrease as pain-relievers are supplied.59
Studies of neonates who received deep anesthesia with sufentanil had significantly
reduced stress responses, complications, and mortality rates to surgery compared to
neonates who received lighter anesthesia.60
Fisk and others have shown that fetuses can mount a stress and physiologic response to
invasive procedures. Significant rises in cortisol and -endorphin as well as
redistribution of blood flow to the brain have been demonstrated in fetuses undergoing
needle insertion into the hepatic vein. The stress response can be attenuated by
administering fentanyl to the fetus.61
Anaesthetized patients do not show increases in stress hormones during surgery.62
Pain Relievers Prevent Premature Contractions and Premature Births, Post-Operation
The patients postoperative suffering from pain also leads to fetal and maternal stress
by causing uterine contractions. Thus, appropriate treatment of postoperative pain
should be provided using intravenous or epidural patient-controlled analgesia.63

The Unborn Child as a Patient

The unborn child is medically considered a patient in cases where the parent or parents want to
preserve the childs life and, as a result, he or she is given fetal anesthesia before an in-utero
surgery. The unborn child, who in this case the doctors aim to save, may be the same age as one
who could legally be killed by abortion and who has the same capacity for perceiving pain. The
following studies use language reflecting the humanity of the unborn child and her status as a
patient in discussing treatment protocols for in-utero surgery:

Fetal therapy is the logical culmination of progress in fetal diagnosis. In other words,
the fetus is now a patient.64
Fetal surgery pushes the limits of knowledge and therapy beyond conventional
paradigms by treating the developing fetus as a patient.65

A Functioning Cerebral Cortex is Not Necessary to Feel Pain, Only the Thalamus
Some scientists argue that a functioning cerebral cortex is necessary to perceive pain. However,
substantial recent evidence shows that children born missing all or most of the cerebral cortex,
conditions known as anencephaly and hydranencephaly, do in fact perceive pain. Furthermore,
in adults, stimulation or removal of the cerebral cortex does not alter pain perception, while
stimulation or removal of the thalamus does. If activity of the cortex is not a necessary criterion
for pain perception in children or adults, neither should it be one for unborn babies.

According to some physicians, the earlier development of the thalamus and lower
brain stem is sufficient for pain perception. Based on evidence obtained by observing
anencephalic and hydranencephalic infants who have no or minimal cortex
development, these experts assert that pain perception does not depend upon
established connections from the thalamus to the cortex and can exist after the thalamus
establishes its connection with the sensory network.66
Despite total or near-total absence of the cortex, these children [with hydranencephaly]
clearly possess discriminative awareness. They distinguish familiar from unfamiliar
people and environments and are capable of social interaction, visual orienting, musical
preferences, appropriate affective responses, and associative learning Multiple lines of
evidence thus corroborate that the key mechanism of consciousness or conscious sensory
perception are not dependent on cortical activity. Consistent with this evidence, the
responses to noxious stimulation of children with hydranencephaly are purposeful,
coordinated, and similar to those of intact children.67
My impression from this first-hand exposure to children with hydranencephaly
confirmsThese children are not only awake and often alert, but show responsiveness
to their surroundings in the form of emotions or orienting reactions to environmental
events They express pleasure by smiling and laughter, and aversion by fussing,
arching of the back and crying (in many gradations), their faces being animated by these
emotional states.68
As such, it would seem these children [with hydranencephaly] demonstrate that
anatomic development or functional activity of the cortex may not be required for
conscious sensory perception. They may, and do in fact, respond to painful or

pleasurable stimuli in what may easily be argued to be a conscious, coordinated manner,

similar to intact children.69
Indeed, there is evidence that hydranencephanic children respond to painful and
pleasurable stimuli in a coordinated manner similar to other children.70
Clinical data show that ablation or stimulation of the thalamus alone [emphasis added]
is sufficient to alter pain perception in adults.71
In keeping with this evidence, we should consider that if cortical activity is not a
prerequisite for pain perception in adults, then by analogy neither would it be a
necessary criterion for fetuses.72

Fetal Structures of Pain Perception Differ From Adult Structures

Fetal structures of pain perception are not the same as adult structures of pain perception, and
as such they should not be directly compared. The unborn childs ability to feel pain depends
on complex pain processing mechanisms and neural pathways that change with each stage of
development.

Clinical and animal research shows that the fetus or neonate is not a little adult, that
the structures used for pain processing in early development are unique and different
from those of adults, and that many of these fetal structures and mechanisms are not
maintained beyond specific periods of early development. The immature pain system
thus uses the neural elements available during each stage of development to carry out its
signaling role.73
[P]ain perception during fetal and neonatal development does not necessarily involve the same
structures involved in pain processing as those in adults, meaning that the lack of development of
certain connections is not sufficient to support the argument that fetuses cannot feel pain until
late gestation. Some say even that the structures used for pain processing in the fetus are
completely different from those used by adults and that many of these structures are not
maintained beyond specific periods of early development [italics added].74
Newborn infants show strong pain behaviour [sic], but the study of the development of
nociceptive pathways shows that their pain involves functional signaling pathways that
are not found in the mature nervous system in healthy individuals.75

Observation of Fetal Facial Expressions Using 4-D Ultrasound Technology

A 2013 study used 4-D ultrasound scans to measure facial movements in healthy unborn
children 22 to 34 weeks post-fertilization.76 Its aim was to examine whether complex fetal facial
movements formed recognizable facial expressions of pain and distress. The unborn children
showed various facial movements that expressed pain and/or distress, although the studys
authors shied away from attributing facial expressions of pain with the actual perception of pain.
It is impossible for any person to know what any other human being experiences, but using
scientific observation and our common human experience we can attribute similar reactions to
pain to a genuine perception of pain.
Although 10 and 18 week post-fertilization scans of these unborn children were also taken, a
shortcoming of this study is that the authors did not publish information encompassing the
earlier gestational scans. They should consider releasing all of the scans and others should

10

consider further studying fetal facial movements in 4-D scans of unborn children 20 weeks postfertilization and younger. Nevertheless, this study does provide an observable and
scientifically-measurable visual tool of the pain an unborn child is able to feel.

Photograph of an unborn child at 30 weeks post-fertilization: (a) Showing

an example of neutral face, and (b) a pain/distress facial expression with
complex combinations of facial movements (Public Library of Science One, 2013).
Another study published in September 2014 observed fetal facial expressions at 22 to 26 weeks
post-fertilization. 77 This study found:
After 14 weeks post-fertilization, muscles involved in fetal facial expressions have fully
formed.
Mouthing movement was the most common facial expression at 1832 weeks postfertilization.
Yawning was most frequent at 22 weeks post-fertilization.
The frequency of sucking remained unchanged between 18 and 32 weeks postfertilization.
Data from the present study and previous investigations showed that the frequency of
smiling increased with advancing gestational age between 18 and 32 weeks postfertilization.
Both of these studies bring to mind the humanity of the unborn child whose facial muscles have
fully formed after 14 weeks post-fertilization and is already capable of using them to make
complex facial expressions, including ones that indicate pain or distress.
Babies Can Now Survive Outside the Womb at 20 Weeks Post-Fertilization With Active
Treatment
Due to developments in technology, babies who are considered extremely preterm can now
survive outside the womb as early as 20 weeks post-fertilization, if treated, a May 2015 New

11

England Journal of Medicine study revealed. The study looked at nearly 5,000 extremely
premature babies born between 22 and 27 weeks. Of the 357 babies born at 22 weeks gestation
(20 weeks post-fertilization), 79 were actively treated. Eighteen of the 79 babies who were
actively treated survived (23%).
Of the 755 babies born at 23 weeks gestation (21 weeks post-fertilization), 542 were actively
treated. Of the 542 who were actively treated, 180 babies survived (33%).78

(New England Journal of Medicine, Variation in Treatment and Outcomes in Preterm Infants, May
2015)
There are about 5,000 premature babies born annually in the U.S. between 22 and 23 weeks (20
to 21 weeks post-fertilization). Dr. David Burchfield, the chief of neonatology at the University
of Florida said, It confirms that if you dont do anything, these babies will not make it, and if
you do something, some of them will make it.79
Another July 2016 study about Survival Among Infants Born at 22 or 23 Weeks Gestation [20
to 21 weeks post-fertilization] Following Active Prenatal and Postnatal Care showed that 67%
of the infants who received active care survived until hospital discharge without severe
complications. More specifically, of 106 liveborn infants (45 born at 22 weeks and 61 born at 23
weeks and 6 days), 20 (19%) received palliative care (17 born at 22 weeks and 3 born at 23
weeks), and 86 (81%) received active care (28 born at 22 weeks and 58 born at 23 weeks). Of the
86 infants who received active care (mean [SD] maternal age, 32 [6] years), 58 (67%) survived
until hospital discharge (17 born at 22 weeks and 41 born at 23 weeks). Eighty-five infants
survived without severe complications, with 1 infant born at 22 weeks excluded because of
missing data.80
Prevention and Management of Pain in Premature Children
In February 2016 the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) published a policy statement in
Pediatrics about the prevention and management of pain in newborns, including those who are

12

born premature. The policy statement listed published studies that had various pain assessment
tools for measuring pain in newborns. Some of these studies included premature infants as
young as 21 and 22 weeks post-fertilization. One of the recommendations that the AAP made
was that preventing or minimizing pain in neonates should be the goal of pediatricians and
other health care professionals who care for babies. It also stated that it remains critical to
achieve adequate pain control in newborns, both as an ethical duty and because painful
experiences in the NICU can have long-term adverse effects.81
Painful stimuli are associated with long-term harmful neuro-developmental effects ranging
from altered sensitivity to pain to the possibility of emotional, behavioral, and learning
disabilities later in life.82 In addition, there is also evidence to suggest that infants have the
ability to form the memory of pain.83
The Development of Babies Born At Around 20 Weeks Post-Fertilization
Ultrasound technology can do much to inform us about fetal development, but images of
children around this age outside of the womb are even more powerful in depicting the
development of the child at this age.
In January 2014, a Pennsylvania mother by the name of Alexis Fretz who miscarried her baby at
19 weeks gestation [17 weeks post-fertilization], bravely shared photographs of her son Walter
online. The images and story of the Fretz family went viral. The grieving wife and mother
shared: I am so very glad that Joshua [her husband] took the photos. At first I did not want
any photos, but they are the only thing I have to look back on now I held him, cuddled him,
while his heart was beating I held him to my heart, I counted his toes and kissed his tiny head. I
will always cherish those memories that I have of him.84
In these photographs, we can see a tiny, fully formed Walter with translucent skin and nerves
very close to the surface.

(dailymail.co.uk)

13

There are also many personal stories of survival of children at this age. Here are a few.
Micah Pickering was born to Clayton and Danielle Pickering at 22 weeks gestation (20 weeks
post-fertilization) on July 25, 2012. He spent more than four months in intensive care but is now
a happy and healthy four-year-old.

Micah Pickering born at 22 weeks gestation (20 weeks postfertilization) and again at four years old in July 2016 comparing
his current size against a bag of M&Ms as his parents did at
birth. (Photo: Facebook/MiraclesForMicah/)

Alexis Hutchinson was also born at 22 weeks (20 weeks post-fertilization) in 2010 weighing 1
pound, 1 ounce at birth. She had no heart rate initially but survived under the watchful care of
University of Iowa Childrens Hospital, where she spent her first 84 days on a ventilator and is
now a thriving six year old.85

14

Twins Hunter and Darcy Ridley were born at 22 weeks on April 24, 2006. Hunter weighed 1
pound, 3 ounces and Darcy weighed 1 pound, 1 ounce at birth. They were released six months
after their birth.86 They are now over 10 years old.

Twins Hunter and Darcy Ridley born at 22 weeks gestation (20 weeks post-fertilization), weighing a
little over 500 grams and a little bigger than the size of a pen.

Hunter and Darcy as older babies and in 2013 at 7 years of age. (Photo: Facebook/HunterandDarcy)

15

In another case, a couple from Great Britain, Rachel Crockett and Craig Walkow, shared the
story in October of 2014 of their premature son, Connor, who was born at 23 weeks gestation
[21 weeks post-fertilization] weighing only 1 lb. He survived and celebrated his first birthday.

Connor was born at 21

weeks post-fertilization,
weighing 1lb 2oz on
October 8, 2013. His
temperature was regulated
by being held in a bag
similar to a freezer bag.
(Photo: dailymail.co.uk)

Connor spent the first 75 days of his life on a ventilator, but celebrated his first birthday
in October 2014. (Photo: dailymail.co.uk)
After her experience, Connors mother shared, I think the abortion limit should be lowered to
20 weeks especially considering what happened with Connor. 87

16

Another family, Sylvia and Thomas Moore and their son Lucas have a similar story. Lucas was
born at 23 weeks gestation [21 weeks post-fertilization] weighing 1lb 1oz at birth, and he
celebrated his first year also in October 2014.88

Lucas Moore being held in his fathers hands when he was just a few hours old at 21
weeks post-fertilization. (Photo: SWNS.com)

Lucas with his parents on his first birthday. (Photo: SWNS.com)

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These stories depict the complex development of children born around 20 weeks postfertilization. As medical technology continues to improve, more children like Connor will be
able to be saved following a premature delivery. Scientific data, common medical practice and
observation of the child show that the development of the child by 20 weeks post-fertilization is
sufficient for pain perception.
The Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act
In light of this information, the Family Research Council (FRC) supports state and federal
efforts to pass such laws as the Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act, a bill that protects
unborn babies 20 weeks post-fertilization and older from abortion because they can feel pain.
States have a compelling interest in protecting the lives of pre-born children from the stage at
which substantial medical evidence indicates that these children are capable of feeling pain.
In poll after poll, Americans overwhelmingly agree on setting abortion bans for pain-capable
unborn children.
For example, a January 2016 Marist Poll found that six in ten Americans (61%) support banning
abortions after 20 weeks LMP (18 weeks post-fertilization) except to save the life of the mother;
62% of those who describe themselves as pro-choice shared this view.89 A July 2016 Marist poll
found that even though 51% of Americans say they are pro-choice, about 8 in 10 Americans
support substantial restrictions on abortion (78%), and would limit it to, at most, the first three
months of pregnancy.90
A July 2013 Huffington Post poll found that by a two-to-one margin, respondents said they
would favor a federal law banning abortion after 20 weeks of pregnancy [18 weeks postfertilization].91 In March 2013, the Polling Company poll found in a nationwide poll that 64
percent would support a law such as the Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act prohibiting
abortion after 20 weeks. Women voters were split 63 percent to 31 percent in support of such a
law.92
In a November 18-23, 2014 Quinnipiac University Poll, registered voters were asked the
following question: As you may know, in 2013, the House of Representatives approved
legislation that would ban virtually all abortions nationwide after 20 weeks of pregnancy,
except in cases of rape and incest that are reported to authorities. Would you support or oppose
such legislation? In fact, 60% indicated support for such legislation; 33% said they would
oppose; and 7% said they were unsure/no answer.93
Despite this overwhelming support for late abortion restrictions of pain-capable babies,
abortion at any stage of development and for any reason is still legal in many states. Some
doctors in many states even perform late abortion using methods such as Dilation and
Evacuation (D&E), in which the baby is ripped apart limb from limb before crushing her skull
to remove it. In Justice Kennedys dissent in Stenberg v. Carhart, he quoted late term abortionist
Dr. Carharts description of a D&E abortion: The fetus, in many cases, dies just as a human
adult or child would: It bleeds to death as it is torn from limb from limb.94 A late abortion can
be excruciatingly painful for the unborn child, be it via suction, dilation and curettage, D&E, or
any other abortion method. Late abortion should not be a legally sanctioned procedure.

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The Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act would prevent late abortion nationwide after 20
weeks post-fertilization. It contains exceptions to save the life of the mother and in cases of rape
and incest. The bill prescribes criminal fines of up to five years in jail for an abortionist who
performs an abortion after 20 weeks post-fertilization, yet it protects a woman who has an
abortion from any prosecution.
Current Fetal Pain Laws
Currently, commercial livestock in a slaughterhouse and animals in a laboratory have more
legal protection from pain than do unborn children.95 Almost 13,000 American unborn
babies who are 19 weeks post-fertilization and older die each year due to late abortion.
A total of 31 states have either introduced or enacted laws based on fetal pain.
Of those, 17 states have enacted laws to ban abortion at 20 weeks post-fertilization based on
fetal pain:
Alabama, Arkansas, Arizona*, Georgia*, Idaho*, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, West
Virginia, and Wisconsin. 96
In three of these states Arizona, Georgia, and Idaho, the laws are facing court challenges.
The other 14 states have introduced fetal pain bills: Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky,
Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio,
Virginia, and Wyoming. Federal bill H.B. 36 fetal pain bill has also been introduced.
According to the Guttmacher Institutes brief on Counseling and Waiting Periods for
Abortion published March 1, 2016, 12 states include information about the ability of the
unborn child to feel pain:
Alaska, Arkansas, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, Missouri, Oklahoma,
South Dakota, Texas, and Utah.97
Some of these states require verbal counseling, written materials, or both.
FRC Stands Against Anesthesia-Only Fetal Pain Laws
One state, Utah, requires abortionists to administer anesthesia for the abortion of an unborn
child at 20 weeks LMP (18 weeks post-fertilization) or later. This law does not ban abortions
after 18 weeks post-fertilization, but requires that anesthesia be used unless the mother's life or
major bodily function is implicated, or the baby has terminal fetal abnormality.
FRC opposes allowing paincapable babies with fetal abnormalities to be brutally aborted. FRC
also opposes this law because it still allows unborn children at 18 weeks post-fertilization and
later to be killed.

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Conclusion
An abundance of peer-reviewed scientific studies show that the early brain structures and
neurological development of the unborn child are sufficient for the perception of pain by 20
weeks post-fertilization.
By 18 weeks post-fertilization, when the connection between the spinal cord and the thalamus is
complete, painful stimuli elicit a stress response in the unborn child and the child can perceive
severe pain. By 18 weeks post-fertilization, the cerebral cortex has also acquired a full
complement of neurons, and by 20 weeks post-fertilization even greater development has taken
place. Even so, strong evidence shows that a functioning cortex is not necessary for the unborn
child to feel pain.
We should stop late abortions because, as Dr. Sunny Anand stated in his testimony, based on
evidence suggesting that the types of stimulation that will occur during abortion procedures,
very likely most fetuses at 20 weeks after conception will be able to perceive that as painful,
unpleasant, noxious stimulation.98
FRC urges the passage of the Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act and similar laws that
protect the lives of unborn children who can feel pain.
Arina O. Grossu, M.A. is the Director for the Center for Human Dignity at Family Research Council
where she focuses on sanctity of human life issues, ranging from conception to natural death.
Fetal age can be given as age post-fertilization meaning the time from conception, or gestational age meaning the
time since the last menstrual period (LMP), which is usually easier to determine and occurs approximately two
weeks before ovulation and fertilization. Thus gestational age will be 2 weeks older than post-fertilization age, i.e., 22
weeks gestation = 20 weeks post-fertilization.
2 See definition b at: Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary, accessed on May 12, 2014, http://www.merriamwebster.com/medlineplus/pain.
3 Dr. Jean A. Wright, professor and chair of Pediatrics at Mercer School of Medicine, in a testimony before the House
of Representatives. Committee on the Judiciary. Pain of the Unborn: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on the
Constitution. 109th Cong., 1st Sess., 2005.
4 S. Vanhatalo and O. van Nieuwenhuizen, Fetal Pain?, Brain & Development 22(2000): 145-150.
5 Linda S. Aglio, Robert W. Lekowski, Richard D. Urman, eds., Essential Clinical Anesthesia Review: Keywords, Questions
and Answers for the Boards (Cambridge University Press, 2015), 399.
6 Induced Abortion in the United States, Guttmacher Institute, July 2014, accessed January 17, 2015,
http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/fb_induced_abortion.html.
7 Vanhatalo and van Nieuwenhuizen, Fetal Pain?, 145-150.
8 Nissi, coronal, histo, Whole-Brain, adult, Brainmaps.org, accessed January 17, 2015, http://brainmaps.org/ajaxviewer.php?datid=20&sname=n25&hname=cornu%20ammonis%201%20of%20hippocampus&hlabel=CA1.
9 Susan Tucker Blackburn, Maternal, Fetal, & Neonatal Physiology: A Clinical Perspective 2nd Edition (Philadelphia:
Elsevier Inc., 2003). Blackburn, Maternal, Fetal, and Neonatal Physiology.
10 Thalamus, Oxford Dictionaries, accessed January 14, 2015 at
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/thalamus.
11 C.L. Lowery, M.P. Hardman, N. Manning, B. Clancy, R.W. Hall, K.J.S. Anand, Neurodevelopmental Changes of
Fetal Pain, Seminars in Perinatology 31, no. 5 (2007): 275-282.
12 Vanhatalo and van Nieuwenhuizen, Fetal Pain?, 145-150.
13 For more scientific documentation on fetal pain, see Fetal Pain: The Evidence, Doctors on Fetal Pain, accessed on
May 12, 2014, http://www.doctorsonfetalpain.com/.
1

20

Thomas W. Sadler, Langmans Medical Embryology, 11th Edition, (Baltimore: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2009),
Chapters 5 and 6.
15 Testimony of Maureen L. Condic, Ph.D., Priests for Life, May 23, 2013, accessed on May 12, 2014,
http://www.priestsforlife.org/legislation/hr-1797-condic.pdf.
16 Ibid.
17 R. Brusseau, Developmental Perspectives: Is the Fetus Conscious? International Anesthesiology Clinics 46, no. 3
(2008): 11-23.
18 L.B. Myers, L.A. Bulich, Fetal endoscopic surgery: indications and anaesthetic management, Best Practice &
Research Clinical Anaesthesiology 18, no. 2 (2004): 231-258.
19 Blackburn, Maternal, Fetal, and Neonatal Physiology.
20 M.D. Rollins and M.A. Rosen, Anesthesia for Fetal Intervention and Surgery, Gregorys Pediatric Anesthesia, ed. 5,
Edited by George A. Gregory and Dean B. Adropoulos, (West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 444474.
21 P.N.A. Van Scheltema, S. Bakker, F.P.H.A. Vandenbussche, D. Oepkes, Fetal Pain, Fetal and Maternal Medicine
Review 19, no. 4 (2008): 311-324.
22 Carlo Valerio Bellieni, Pain Assessment in Human Fetus and Infants, The AAPS Journal 14 (2012): 456-461.
23 Lowery et al., Neurodevelopmental Changes of Fetal Pain, 275-282.
24 V. Glover and N.M. Fisk, Fetal pain: implications for research and practice, British Journal of Obstetrics and
Gynecology 106, (1999): 881-886.
25 S.J. Lee, H.J.P. Ralston, E.A. Drey, J.C. Partridge, and M.A. Rosen, A Systematic Multidisciplinary Review of the
Evidence, Journal of the American Medical Association 294, no. 8, (2005): 947-954. Note: Lee et al. believe that pain
requires conscious cortical processing, which they dont think is likely until 29 or 30 weeks. Even so, they
acknowledge this finding.
26 R. Gupta, M. Kilby, and G. Cooper, Fetal surgery and anaesthetic implications, Continuing Education in
Anaesthesia, Critical Care & Pain 8, no. 2 (2008): 71-75.
27 Marc Van de Velde and Frederik De Buck, Fetal and Maternal Analgesia/Anesthesia for Fetal Procedures, Fetal
Diagnosis and Therapy 31, no. 4, (2012): 201-209.
28 Aida Salihagi Kadi and Maja Predojevi, Fetal neurophysiology according to gestational age, Seminars in Fetal
& Neonatal Medicine 17, no. 5 (2012): 256-260.
29 Y. Ohashi, K. Terui, K. Tainura, M. Tanaka, and K. Baba, Success rate and challenges of fetal anesthesia for
ultrasound guided fetal intervention by maternal opioid and benzodiazepine administration, Journal of MaternalFetal Neonatal Medicine 26, no. 2 (2013): 158-160.
30 Testimony of Maureen L. Condic, Ph.D.
31 K.M. Tran, Anesthesia for fetal surgery, Seminars in Fetal & Neonatal Medicine 15, (2010): 40-45.
32 Myers et al., Fetal endoscopic surgery, 231-258.
33 R. Brusseau and A. Mizrahi-Arnaud, Fetal Anesthesia and Pain Management for Intrauterine Therapy, Clinics in
Perinatology 40, no. 3, (2013): 429-442.
34 Expert Report of Kanwaljeet S. Anand, M.B.B.S., D.Phil. National Right to Life, January 15, 2014, accessed
January 18, 2015, http://www.nrlc.org/uploads/fetalpain/AnandPainReport.pdf.
35 S.W. Derbyshire, Fetal Pain: Do We Know Enough to Do the Right Thing?, Reproductive Health Matters 16, no. 31,
(2008): 117-126.
36 Gupta, Kilby, and Cooper, Fetal surgery and anaesthetic implications, 71-75.
37 N.M. Fisk, R. Gitau, J.M. Teixeira, X. Giannakoulopoulos, A.D. Cameron, and V.A. Glover, Effect of direct fetal
opioid analgesia on fetal hormonal and hemodynamic stress response to intrauterine needling, Anesthesiology 95, no.
4, (2001): 828-835.
38 Testimony of Maureen L. Condic, Ph.D.
39 Lowery et al., Neurodevelopmental Changes of Fetal Pain, 275-282.
40 Christine Greco and Soorena Khojasteh, Pediatric, Infant and Fetal Pain, Case Studies in Pain Management, edited
by Alan David Kaye and Rinoo V. Shah, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 379.
41 Brusseau and Mizrahi-Arnaud, Fetal Anesthesia and Pain Management for Intrauterine Therapy, 429-442.
42 E.E. Lin and K.M. Tran, Anesthesia for fetal surgery, Seminars in Pediatric Surgery 22, no. 1, (2013): 50-55 .
43 S. Gibbins, B. Stevens, J. Beyene, P.C. Chan, M. Bagg, and E. Asztalos, Pain behaviours in extremely low
gestational age infants, Early Human Development 84, no. 7, (2008): 451-458.
44 L.K. Badr, B. Abdallah, M. Hawari, S. Sidani, M. Kassar, P. Nakad, and J. Breidi, Determinants of Premature Infant
Pain Responses to Heel Sticks, Pediatric Nursing 36, no. 3, (2010): 129-136.
45 Expert Report of Kanwaljeet S. Anand.
46 Ibid.
47 Sheila Page, Neuroanatomy and Physiology of Pain Perception in the Developing Human, L. & Med. (2015): 227.
14

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Greco and Khojasteh, Pediatric, Infant and Fetal Pain, 379.

Mauricio Vasco Ramrez, Anesthesia for fetal surgery, Colombian Journal of Anesthesiology (2012): 269,
http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rca/v40n4/en_v40n4a07.pdf.
50 Testimony of Maureen L. Condic, Ph.D.
51 Mauricio Vasco Ramrez, Anesthesia for fetal surgery, Colombian Journal of Anesthesiology (2012): 271,
http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/rca/v40n4/en_v40n4a07.pdf.
52 Rollins and Rosen, Anesthesia for Fetal Intervention and Surgery, 444474.
53 L. Giuntini and G. Amato, Analgesic Procedures in Newborns, Neonatal Pain 73 (Giuseppe Buonocore & Carlo V.
Bellieni ed.), 2007.
54 M. Van de Velde, D. Van Schoubroeck, L.E. Lewi, M.A.E. Marcus, J.C. Jani, C. Missant, A. Teunkens, and J.A.
Deprest, Remifentanil for Fetal Immobilization and Maternal Sedation During Fetoscopic Surgery: A Randomized,
Double-Blind Comparison with Diazepam, Anesthesia & Analgesia 101, no. 1, (2005): 251-258.
55 Gupta, Kilby, and Cooper, Fetal surgery and anaesthetic implications, 71-75.
56 M.J. Mayorga-Buiza, J. Mata, M. Rivero-Garvia, G. Antinolo, J. Marquez-Rivas, and M.L. Marenco, Management
of fetal pain during invasive fetal procedures. Lessons learned from a sentinel event: 11AP49, European Journal of
Anaesthesiology 31 (2014): 88-89.
57 Brusseau and Mizrahi-Arnaud, Fetal Anesthesia and Pain Management for Intrauterine Therapy, 429-442.
58 Lin and Tran, Anesthesia for fetal surgery, 50-55.
59 A.T. Bhutta, S. Garg, and S. Rovnaghi, Fetal Response to Intra-Uterine Needling: Is It Pain? Does It Matter?
Pediatric Research 51, no. 1 (2002): 2.
60 Greco and Khojasteh, Pediatric, Infant and Fetal Pain, 379.
61 Ibid.
62 C.V. Bellieni and G. Buonocore, Is fetal pain a real evidence? The Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine
25, no. 8, (2012): 16.
63 Ayten Saracoglu, Kemal Tolga Saracoglu, Ibrahim Alatas and Haluk Kafali, Secrets of anesthesia in fetoscopic
surgery, Trends in Anaesthesia & Critical Care 5 (2015).
64 N.S. Adzick, Prospects for fetal surgery, Early Human Development 89, (2013): 881886.
65 Lin and Tran, Anesthesia for fetal surgery, 50-55.
66 T.S. Collett, Previability Abortion and the Pain of the Unborn, Washington and Lee Law Review 71, no. 2, (2014):
1222-1231.
67 K.S. Anand and Barbara Clancy, Fetal Pain?, Pain: Clinical Updates 14, no. 2, (2006).
68 B. Merker, Consciousness without a cerebral cortex: A challenge for neuroscience and medicine, The Behavioral
and Brain Sciences 30, no. 1, (2007): 63-81.
69 Brusseau, Developmental Perspectives: Is the Fetus Conscious?, 11-23.
70 R. Brusseau and L. Myers, Developing consciousness: fetal anesthesia and analgesia, Seminars in Anesthesia,
Perioperative Medicine and Pain 25, no. 4, (2006): 189-195.
71 Van Scheltema et al., Fetal Pain, Fetal and Maternal Medicine Review 19, no. 4 (2008): 311-324.
72 Brusseau, Developmental Perspectives: Is the Fetus Conscious?, 11-23.
73 Anand and Clancy, Fetal Pain?, 1-4.
74 Van Scheltema et al., Fetal Pain, 311-324.
75 M. Fitzgerald, The Development of Nociceptive Circuits, Nature Reviews: Neuroscience 6, (2005): 507-520.
76 Nadja Reissland, Brian Francis, James Mason, Can Healthy Fetuses Show Facial Expressions of Pain or
Distress? Public Library of Science One 8, no. 6, (2013): e65530.
77 M. Sato, K. Kanenishi, U. Hanaoka, J. Noguchi, G. Marumco, and T. Hata, 4D ultrasound study of fetal facial
expressions at 2024 weeks of gestation, International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 126, no. 3, (2014): 275-279.
78 Matthew A. Rysavy, Lei Li, et al., Between-Hospital Variation in Treatment and Outcomes in Extremely Preterm
Infants, The New England Journal of Medicine 372 (2015), http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJMoa1410689.
79 Pam Belluck, Premature Babies May Survive at 22 Weeks if Treated, Study Finds, The New York Times, May 6,
2015, accessed August 23, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/health/premature-babies-22-weeksviability-study.html?_r=0.
80 Katrin Mehler, Andr Oberthuer, et al., Survival Among Infants Born at 22 or 23 Weeks Gestation Following
Active Prenatal and Postnatal Care, JAMA Pediatrics 170 (2016).
81 Prevention and Management of Procedural Pain in the Neonate: An Update, American Academy of Pediatrics 137
(2016), http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2016/01/22/peds.2015-4271. For more commentary,
see: https://lozierinstitute.org/pediatricians-recommend-attention-pain-management-premature-infants/
82 For more information, see Doctors on Fetal Pain, accessed January 18, 2015,
http://www.doctorsonfetalpain.com/fetal-pain-the-evidence/4-documentation/#.VLVqzSvF9gg.
48
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Greco and Khojasteh, Pediatric, Infant and Fetal Pain, 379.

Alex Greig, Mother shares heartbreaking photos of baby son born at just 19 weeks, Daily Mail, January 19, 2014,
accessed January 14, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2542212/Mother-shares-heartbreakingphotos-baby-miscarried-19-weeks.html.
85 Against Impossible Odds: NICU to the Rescue, University of Iowa Children's Hospital, accessed August 23, 2016,
https://www.uichildrens.org/against-impossible-odds-nicu-to-the-rescue/; Born at 22 Weeks: A Story of Survival,
Youtube.com, accessed August 23, 2016, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7wP900Cdcnc and Pam Belluck,
Premature Babies May Survive at 22 Weeks if Treated, Study Finds, The New York Times, May 6, 2015, accessed
August 23, 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/health/premature-babies-22-weeks-viability-study.html.
86 Born at 22 weeks, premature twins celebrate ninth birthday, Live Action News, May 7, 2015, accessed August 23,
2016, http://liveactionnews.org/born-premature-twins-22-weeks-birthday/.
87 Andrew Levy, Baby boy born at 23 weeks after doctors told parents he would be treated as a miscarriage
celebrates first birthday after sandwich bag treatment saves his life, October 14, 2014, January 18, 2015,
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-2792649/baby-boy-born-23-weeks-doctors-told-parents-treatedmiscarriage-celebrates-birthday-sandwich-bag-treatment-saves-life.html.
88 Telegraph reporter, Thriving a year on, the boy born a week under abortion limit, The Telegraph, October 8, 2014,
accessed January 18, 2015, http://www.msn.com/en-gb/news/uknews/thriving-a-year-on-the-boy-born-a-weekunder-abortion-limit/ar-BB87QR8.
89 Abortion in America, Knights of Columbus/Marist Poll,
http://www.kofc.org/un/en/resources/communications/abortion-america-january2016.pdf.
90 Knights of Columbus/Marist Poll, July 2016, http://www.kofc.org/un/en/resources/communications/kofcarist-poll-banner072016.pdf.
91 Emily Swanson and Mark Blumenthal, Abortion Poll Finds Support For 20-Week Ban, July 11, 2013, accessed
January 18, 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/07/11/abortion-poll_n_3575551.html.
92 New Polling Show Strong Support for Prohibiting Abortion on Pain-Capable Unborn Children, National Right to
Life, April 22, 2013, http://www.nationalrighttolifenews.org/news/2013/04/new-polling-shows-strong-supportfor-prohibiting-abortion-on-pain-capable-unborn-children/#.VDWhPfldVgg.
93 Abortion and Birth Control, accessed January 18, 2015, http://www.pollingreport.com/abortion.htm.
94 Stenberg v. Carhart (99-830) 530 U.S. 914 (2000) 192 F.3d 1142, affirmed, accessed January 18, 2015,
http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/99-830.ZD2.html.
95 Human Slaughter Act, 7 U.S.C. 1902, accessed April 16, 2014, http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/7/1902.
96 State Policies on Later Abortions, Guttmacher Institute State Policies in Brief, March 1, 2016, accessed August 9,
2016 and independent research, https://www.guttmacher.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/spibs/spib_PLTA.pdf. *A
new Georgia law that would ban abortion at 20 weeks post-fertilization is only being enforced against post viability
abortions. Enforcement of an Idaho and Arizona fetal pain law is permanently enjoined by a court order. The policy
is not in effect.
97 Counseling and Waiting Periods for Abortion, Guttmacher Institute State Policies in Brief, March 1, 2016,
accessed August 9, 2016, https://www.guttmacher.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/spibs/spib_MWPA.pdf.
98 From the testimony of Dr. Sunny Anand, Director, Pain Neurobiology Laboratory, Arkansas Childrens Hospital
Research Institute, and Professor of Pediatrics, Anesthesiology, Pharmacology, and Neurobiology, University of
Arkansas College of Medicine. U.S. Congress. House of Representatives. Committee on the Judiciary. Pain of the
Unborn: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on the Constitution. 109th Cong., 1st Sess., 2005, p. 38.
83
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