Pala Empire
The Pala Empire was an imperial power during the Late
Classical period on the Indian subcontinent, which originated in
the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling dynasty, whose
rulers bore names ending with the suffix of Pala, which meant
"protector" in the ancient language of Prakrit. They were
followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
The empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the
emperor of Gauda in 750. The Pala stronghold was located in
[3]
Bengal and Bihar, which included the major cities
of Pataliputra, Vikrampura, Ramvati (Varendra), Munger, Tamralipta and Jaggadala.
The Palas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its vast war
elephant cavalry. Their navyperformed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay of Bengal. The Palas
were important promoters of classical Indian philosophy, literature, painting and sculpture. They built grand
temples and monasteries, including the Somapura Mahavihara, and patronized the great universities
of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The Proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule. The empire enjoyed
relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Islam first appeared
in Bengal during Pala rule, as a result of increased trade between Bengal and the Middle East. Abbasid coinage
found in Pala archaeological sites, as well as records of Arab historians, point to flourishing mercantile and
intellectual contacts. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad absorbed the mathematical and astronomical
achievements of Indian civilization during this period. [4]
At its height in the early 9th century, the Pala Empire was the dominant power in the northern subcontinent,
with its territory stretching across parts of modern-day eastern Pakistan, northern and
northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh. The
[3][5]
empire reached its peak under
Emperors Dharmapala and Devapala. The Palas also exerted a strong cultural influence underAtisa in Tibet, as
well as in Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they struggled with
theGurjara-Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control of Kannauj and were defeated. After a short lived
decline, EmperorMahipala I defended imperial bastions in Bengal and Bihar against South
Indian Chola invasions. Emperor Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler, who gained control
of Kamarupa and Kalinga. The empire was considerably weakened by the 11th century, with many areas
engulfed in rebellion.
The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century, ending the reign of the last
major Buddhist imperial power in the subcontinent. The Pala period is considered as a golden era of pre-
Islamic Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war
[6][7]
between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali civilizations and created
outstanding works of art and architecture. They laid the basis for the Bengali language, including its first
literary work, the Charyapada. The Pala legacy is still reflected in Tibetan Buddhism.
Origins
According to the Khalimpur copper plate inscription, the first Pala king Gopala was the son of a warrior named
Vapyata. The Ramacharitam attests that Varendra (North Bengal) was the fatherland (Janakabhu) of the Palas.
The ethnic origins of the dynasty are unknown, although the later records claim that Gopala was
a Kshatriya belonging to the legendary solar dynasty. The Ballala-Carita states that the Palas were Kshatriyas,
a claim reiterated by Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India as well as Ghanaram Chakrabarty in
his Dharmamangala (both written in the 16th century CE). The Ramacharitam also attests the fifteenth Pala
emperor, Ramapala, as a Kshatriya. Claims of belonging to the mythical solar dynasty are unreliable and
clearly appear to be an attempt to cover up the humble origins of the dynasty. The Pala dynasty has also been
[7]
branded as udra in some sources such as Manjushri-Mulakalpa; this might be because of their Buddhist
leanings. According to Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak (inAin-i-Akbari), the Palas were Kayasthas. There are
[8][9][10][11][12][13][14]
even accounts that claim Gopala may have been from a Brahmin lineage. [15][16]
Establishment
After the fall of Shashanka's kingdom, the Bengal region was in a state of anarchy. There was no central
authority, and there was constant struggle between petty chieftains. The contemporary writings describe this
situation as matsya nyaya ("fish justice" i.e. a situation where the big fish eat the small fish). Gopala ascended
the throne as the first Pala king during these times. The Khalimpur copper plate suggests that
the prakriti (people) of the region made him the king. Taranatha, writing nearly 800 years later, also writes
[7]
that he was democratically elected by the people of Bengal. However, his account is in form of a legend, and is
considered historically unreliable. The legend mentions that after a period of anarchy, the people elected
several kings in succession, all of whom were consumed by the Naga queen of an earlier king on the night
following their election. Gopal, however managed to kill the queen and remained on the throne. The [17]
historical evidence indicates that Gopala was not elected directly by his citizens, but by a group of feudal
chieftains. Such elections were quite common in contemporary societies of the region. [7][17]
Gopala's ascension was a significant political event as the several independent chiefs recognized his political
authority without any struggle. [6]
Expansion under Dharmapala and Devapala
An illustration of the Kannaujtriangle
Gopala's empire was greatly expanded by his son Dharmapala and his
grandson Devapala. Dharmapala was initially defeated by thePratihara ruler Vatsaraja.
Later, the Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated both Dharmapala and Vatsaraja. After
Dhruva left for the Deccan region, Dharmapala built a mighty empire in the northern
India. He defeated Indrayudha of Kannauj, and installed his own nominee Chakrayudha
on the throne of Kannauj. Several other smaller states in North India also acknowledged
his suzerainty. Soon, his expansion was checked by Vatsaraja's son Nagabhata II, who
conquered Kannauj and drove away Chakrayudha. Nagabhata II then advanced up
to Munger and defeated Dharmapala in a pitched battle. Dharmapala was forced to surrender and to seek
alliance with theRashtrakuta emperor Govinda III, who then intervened by invading northern India and
defeating Nagabhata II. The Rashtrakuta records show that both Chakrayudha and Dharmapala recognized
[18][19]
the Rashtrakuta suzerainty. In practice, Dharmapala gained control over North India after Govinda III left for
the Deccan. He adopted the title Paramesvara Paramabhattaraka Maharajadhiraja. [6]
Dharmapala was succeeded by his son Devapala, who is regarded as the most powerful Pala ruler. His [6]
expeditions resulted in the invasion of Pragjyotisha (present-day Assam) where the king submitted without
giving a fight and the Utkala (present-day Orissa) whose king fled from his capital city. The inscriptions of
[20]
his successors also claim several other territorial conquests by him, but these are highly exaggerated (see
the Geography section below). [7][21]
First period of decline
Following the death of Devapala, the Pala empire gradually started disintegrating. Vigrahapala, who was
Devapala's nephew, abdicated the throne after a brief rule, and became an ascetic. Vigrahapala's son and
successor Narayanapala proved to be a weak ruler. During his reign, the Rashtrakuta
king Amoghavarsha defeated the Palas. Encouraged by the Pala decline, the King Harjara of Assam assumed
imperial titles and the Sailodbhavas established their power in Orissa.[6]
Naryanapala's son Rajyapala ruled for at least 12 years, and constructed several public utilities and lofty
temples. His son Gopala II lost Bengal after a few years of rule, and then ruled only Bihar. The next
king, Vigrahapala II, had to bear the invasions from the Chandelas and the Kalachuris. During his reign, the
Pala empire disintegrated into smaller kingdoms like Gauda, Radha, Anga and Vanga. Kantideva
of Harikela (eastern and southern Bengal) also assumed the title Maharajadhiraja, and established a separate
kingdom, later ruled by the Chandra dynasty. The Gauda state (West and North Bengal) was ruled by
[6]
the Kamboja Pala dynasty. The rulers of this dynasty also bore names ending in the suffix -pala
(e.g. Rajyapala, Narayanapala and Nayapala). However, their origin is uncertain, and the most plausible view
is that they originated from a Pala official who usurped a major part of the Pala kingdom along with its capital.
[6][7]
Revival under Mahipala I
Mahipala I recovered northern and eastern Bengal within three years of ascending the throne in 988 CE. He
also recovered the northern part of the present-day Burdwan division. During his reign, Rajendra Chola I of
the Chola Empire frequently invaded Bengal from 1021 to 1023 CE in order to get Ganges water and in the
process, succeeded to humble the rulers, acquiring considerable booty. The rulers of Bengal who were defeated
by Rajendra Chola were Dharmapal, Ranasur and Govindachandra, who might have been feudatories under
Mahipala I of the Pala Dynasty. Rajendra Chola I also defeated Mahipala, and obtained from the Pala king
[22]
"elephants of rare strength, women and treasure". Mahipala also gained control of north and south Bihar,
[23]
probably aided by the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni, which exhausted the strength of other rulers of North
India. He may have also conquered Varanasi and surrounding area, as his brothers Sthirapala and Vasantapala
undertook construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Varanasi. Later, the Kalachuri king
Gangeyadeva annexed Varanasi after defeating the ruler of Anga, which could have been Mahipala I. [6]
Second period of decline
Nayapala, the son of Mahipala I, defeated the Kalachuri king Karna (son of Ganggeyadeva) after a long
struggle. The two later signed a peace treaty at the mediation of the Buddhist scholar Atia. During the reign of
Nayapala's son Vigrahapala III, Karna once again invaded Bengal but was defeated. The conflict ended with a
peace treaty, and Vigrahapala III married Karna's daughter Yauvanasri. Vigrahapala III was later defeated by
the invading Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI. The invasion of Vikramaditya VI saw several soldiers from
South India into Bengal, which explains the southern origin of the Sena Dynasty. Vigrahapala III also faced
[24]
another invasion led by the Somavamsi king Mahasivagupta Yayati of Orissa. Subsequently, a series of
invasions considerably reduced the power of the Palas. The Varmans occupied eastern Bengal during his reign.
[6][7]
Mahipala II, the successor of Vigrahapala III, brought a short-lived reign of military glory. His reign is well-
documented by Sandhyakar Nandi in Ramacharitam. Mahipala II imprisoned his brothers Ramapala and
Surapala II, on the suspicion that they were conspiring against him. Soon afterwards, he faced a rebellion of
vassal chiefs from the Kaibarta (fishermen). A chief named Divya (or Divvoka) killed him and occupied the
Varendra region. The region remained under the control of his successors Rudak and Bhima. Surapala II
escaped to Magadha and died after a short reign. He was succeeded by his brother Ramapala, who launched a
major offensive against Divya's grandson Bhima. He was supported by his maternal uncle Mathana of the
Rashtrakuta dynasty, as well as several feudatory chiefs of south Bihar and south-west Bengal. Ramapala
conclusively defeated Bhima, and killing him and his family in a cruel manner. [6][7]
Revival under Ramapala
After gaining control of Varendra, Ramapala tried to revive the Pala empire with limited success. He ruled
from a new capital at Ramavati, which remained the Pala capital until the dynasty's end. He reduced taxation,
promoted cultivation and constructed public utilities. He brought Kamarupa and Rar under his control, and
forced the Varman king of east Bengal to accept his suzerainty. He also struggled with the Ganga king for
control of present-day Orissa; the Gangas managed to annex the region only after his death. Ramapala
maintained friendly relations with the Chola king Kulottunga to secure support against the common enemies:
the Ganas and the Chalukyas. He kept the Senas in check, but lost Mithila to a Karnataka chief named
Nanyuadeva. He also held back the aggressive design of the Gahadavala ruler Govindacharndra through a
matrimonial alliance.[6][7]
Final decline
Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler. After his death, a rebellion broke out in Assam during his son
Kumarapala's reign. The rebellion was crushed by Vaidyadeva, but after Kumarapala's death, Vaidyadeva
practically created a separate kingdom. According to Ramacharitam, Kumarapala's son Gopala III was
[6]
murdered by his uncle Mandapala. During Madanapala's rule, the Varmans in east Bengal declared
independence, and the Eastern Gangas renewed the conflict in Orissa. Madanapala captured Munger from the
Gahadavalas, but was defeated by Vijayasena, who gained control of southern and eastern Bengal. A ruler
named Govindapala ruled over the Gaya district around 1162 CE, but there is no concrete evidence about his
relationship to the imperial Palas. The Pala dynasty was replaced by the Sena dynasty.
[7]
Administration
The Pala rule was monarchial. The king was the centre of all power. Pala kings would adopt imperial titles
like Parameshwara, Paramvattaraka, Maharajadhiraja. Pala kings appointed Prime Ministers. The Line of
Garga served as the Prime Ministers of the Palas for 100 years.
Garga
Darvapani (or Darbhapani)
Someshwar
Kedarmisra
Bhatta Guravmisra
Pala Empire was divided into separate Bhuktis (Provinces). Bhuktis were divided into Vishayas (Divisions)
and Mandalas (Districts). Smaller units were Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti,Chaturaka, and Pattaka. Administration
covered widespread area from the grass root level to the imperial court.
[29]
The Pala copperplates mention following administrative posts: [30]
Raja
Rajanyaka
Ranaka (possibly subordinate chiefs)
Samanta and Mahasamanta (Vassal kings)
Mahasandhi-vigrahika (Foreign minister)
Duta (Head Ambassador)
Rajasthaniya (Deputy)
Aggaraksa (Chief guard)
Sasthadhikrta (Tax collector)
Chauroddharanika (Police tax)
Shaulkaka (Trade tax)
Dashaparadhika (Collector of penalties)
Tarika (Toll collector for river crossings)
Mahaksapatalika (Accountant)
Jyesthakayastha (Dealing documents)
Ksetrapa (Head of land use division) and Pramatr(Head of land measurements)
Mahadandanayaka or Dharmadhikara (Chief justice)
Mahapratihara
Dandika
Dandapashika
Dandashakti (Police forces)
Khola (Secret service). Agricultural posts likeGavadhakshya (Head of dairy farms)
Chhagadhyakshya (Head of goat farms)
Meshadyakshya (Head of sheep farms)
Mahishadyakshya (Head of Buffalo farms) and many other like Vogpati
Vishayapati
Shashtadhikruta
Dauhshashadhanika
Nakadhyakshya
Culture
Religion
Nalanda is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It reached its height under the Palas.
Atisha was a Buddhist teacher, who helped establish the Sarma lineages ofTibetan Buddhism.
The Palas were patrons of Mahayana Buddhism. A few sources written much after Gopala's
death mention him as a Buddhist, but it is not known if this is true. The subsequent Pala [31]
kings were definitely Buddhists. Taranatha states that Gopala was a staunch Buddhist, who
had built the famous monastery at Odantapuri. Dharmapala made the Buddhist [32][not in citation given]
philosopher Haribhadra his spiritual preceptor. He established the Vikramashila monastery
and the Somapura Mahavihara. Taranatha also credits him with establishing 50 religious
institutions and patronizing the Buddhist author Hariibhadra. Devapala restored and enlarged the structures at
Somapura Mahavihara, which also features several themes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Mahipala I also ordered construction and repairs of several sacred structures at Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh
Gaya. The Mahipala geet ("songs of Mahipala"), a set of folk songs about him, are still popular in the rural
[6]
areas of Bengal.
The Palas developed the Buddhist centers of learnings, such as the Vikramashila and the Nalanda universities.
Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history, reached its height under the
patronage of the Palas. Noted Buddhist scholars from the Pala period
include Atisha, Santaraksita, Saraha, Tilopa, Bimalamitra, Dansheel, Dansree, Jinamitra, Jnanasrimitra,
Manjughosh, Muktimitra, Padmanava, Sambhogabajra, Shantarakshit, Silabhadra, Sugatasree and Virachan.
As the rulers of Gautama Buddha's land, the Palas acquired great reputation in the Buddhist world.
Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent an ambassador to him, asking for a grant of five villages for the
construction of a monastery at Nalanda. The request was granted by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin
[33]
Viradeva (of Nagarahara, present-day Jalalabad) as the head of the Nalanda monastery. The Budhdist poet
Vajradatta (the author of Lokesvarashataka), was in his court. The Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire [6]
travelled from Bengal to other regions to propagate Buddhism. Atisha, for example, preached
in Tibet and Sumatra, and is seen as one of the major figures in the spread of 11th-century Mahayana
Buddhism.
The Palas also supported the Saiva ascetics, typically the ones associated with the Golagi-Math. Narayana [34]
Pala himself established a temple of Shiva, and was present at the place of sacrifice by his Brahmin minister.
Queen of King Madanapaladeva, namely Chitramatika, made a gift of land to a Brahmin named Bateswara
[35]
Swami as his remuneration for chanting the Mahabharata at her request, according to the principle of the
Bhumichhidranyaya.Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images ofVishnu, Siva and Sarasvati were
also constructed during the Pala dynasty rule.
Literature
The Palas patronized several Sanskrit scholars, some of whom were their officials. The Gauda riti style of
composition was developed during the Pala rule. Many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and translated
during the Pala rule. Besides the Buddhist scholars mentioned in the Religion section
above, Jimutavahana, Sandhyakar Nandi, Madhava-kara, Suresvara and Chakrapani Datta are some of the
other notable scholars from the Pala period. [6]
The notable Pala texts on philosophy include Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta
and Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva. The texts on medicine include
Chikitsa Samgraha, Ayurveda Dipika, Bhanumati, Shabda Chandrika and Dravya Gunasangraha by
Chakrapani Datta
Shabda-Pradipa, Vrikkhayurveda and Lohpaddhati by Sureshwara
Chikitsa Sarsamgraha by Vangasena
Sushrata by Gadadhara Vaidya
Dayabhaga, Vyavohara Matrika and Kalaviveka by Jimutavahana
Sandhyakar Nandi's semi-fictional epic Ramacharitam (12th century) is an important source of Pala history.
A form of the proto-Bengali language can be seen in the Charyapadas composed during the Pala rule. [6]
Art and architecture[edit]
The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art, and is noted for the artistic
genius of the Bengal sculptors. It is influenced by the Guptaart.
[37] [38]
As noted earlier, the Palas built a number of monasteries and other sacred structures. The Somapura
Mahavihara in present-day Bangladesh is a World Heritage Site. It is a monastery with 21 acre (85,000 m)
complex has 177 cells, numerous stupas, temples and a number of other ancillary buildings. The gigantic
structures of other Viharas, including Vikramashila, Odantapuri, and Jagaddala are the other masterpieces of
the Palas. These mammoth structures were mistaken by the forces of Bakhtiar Khilji as fortified castles and
were demolished. The art of Bihar and Bengal during the Pala and Sena dynasties influenced the art of
[citation needed]
Nepal, Burma, Sri Lanka and Java. [39]
Somapura Mahavihara, aWorld Heritage Site, was built by Dharmapala
Central shrine decor at Somapura
A model of the Somapura Mahavihara by Ali Naqi
List of Pala rulers
Most of the Pala inscriptions mention only the regnal year as the date of issue, without any well-
known calendar era. Because of this, the chronology of the Pala kings is hard to determine. Based on their
]
different interpretations of the various epigraphs and historical records, different historians estimate the Pala
chronology as follows:
AM DC D. K.
RC
Chowdhury BP Sinha (1977)[ Sircar (1975 Ganguly
Majumdar (1971)
(1967) 76) (1994)
Gopala I 750770 756781 755783 750775 750-774
Dharmapala 770810 781821 783820 775812 774-806
Devapala 810c.850 821861 820860 812850 806-845
NA (Mahendrapala's existence was conclusively established through a copper-
Mahendrapala 845-860
plate charter discovered later.)
Shurapala I 850858 860-872
850853 861866 860865
Vigrahapala I 85860 872-873
Narayanapala 854908 866920 865920 860917 873-927
Rajyapala 908940 920952 920952 917952 927-959
Gopala II 940957 952969 952967 952972 959-976
Vigrahapala
960c.986 969995 967980 972977 976-977
II
Mahipala I 988c.1036 9951043 9801035 9771027 977-1027
Nayapala 10381053 10431058 10351050 10271043 1027-1043
Vigrahapala
10541072 10581075 10501076 10431070 10431070
III
Mahipala II 10721075 10751080 10701071 1070-1071
10761078/9
Shurapala 10751077 10801082 10711072 1071-1072
Ramapala 10771130 10821124 1078/91132 10721126 1072-1126
Kumarapala 11301125 11241129 11321136 11261128 11261128
Gopala III 11401144 11291143 11361144 11281143 11281143
Madanapala 11441162 11431162 11441161/62 11431161 11431161
11621176 or
Govindapala 11551159 NA 11611165 11611165
11581162
Palapala NA NA NA 11651199 11651200
Earlier historians believed that Vigrahapala I and Shurapala I were the two names of the same person.
Now, it is known that these two were cousins; they either ruled simultaneously (perhaps over different
territories) or in rapid succession.
AM Chowdhury rejects Govindapala and his successor Palapala as the members of the imperial Pala
dynasty.
According to BP Sinha, the Gaya inscription can be read as either the "14th year of Govindapala's
reign" or "14th year after Govindapala's reign". Thus, two sets of dates are possible.
Military
The highest military officer in the Pala empire was the Mahasenapati (commander-in-chief). The Palas
recruited mercenary soldiers from a number of kingdoms, including Malava, Khasa, Huna, Kulika,
Kanrata, Lata, Odra and Manahali. According to the contemporary accounts, the Rashtrakutas had the best
infantry, the Gurjara-Pratiharas had the finest cavalry and the Palas had the largest elephant force. The Arab
merchant Sulaiman states that the Palas had an army bigger than those of the Balhara (possibly the
Rashtrakutas) and the king of Jurz (possibly the Gurjara-Pratiharas). He also states that the Pala army
employed 10,000-15,000 men for fueling and washing clothes. He further claims that during the battles, the
Pala king would lead 50,000 war elephants. Sulaiman's accounts seem to be based on exaggerated reports; Ibn
Khaldun mentions the number of elephants as 5,000. [46]
Since Bengal did not have a good native breed of horses, the Palas imported their cavalry horses from the
foreigners, including the Kambojas. They also had a navy, used for both mercantile and defence purposes.[47]
