THE NATURE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT 7 J these drafting tools are made of clear plas- tic, but 2 rainbow of colors appears when they ote ploced between two special fi ters called polarizers How does this cause the colors? enjoyed by anyone who has eyes with which to see them. But by studying the branch of physics called optics, Which deals with the behavior of light and other electromagnetic waves, we can reach a deeper appreciation ofthe visi= ‘ble World, A knowledge ofthe properties of light allows us to understand the blue color of the sky and the design of optical devices such as telescopes, micro- scopes, cameras, eyeglasses, and the human eye. The same basic principle ‘optics also lie at the heart of modem developments such as the laser, optical fibers, holograms, optical computers, and new techniques in medical imaging. “The importance of optics tn physics. and to science and engineering in get ‘eral, is so great that we will devote the next four chapters to its study. In this ‘chapter we begin with a study ofthe laws of reflection and refraction and the con- cepts of dispersion, polarization, and scattering of light. Along the wey we com- [pare the various possible descriptions of light in terms of particles, rays, oF waves, and we introduce Huygens’ principle, n important fink that conpects the ray and wave viewpoints. In Chapter 34 we'll use the ray description of light to ‘understand how mirrors and lenses work, and we'll sce how mirrors and lenses tre used in optical instruments such os cameras, microscopes, and telescopes. ‘We'll explore the wave characteristics of light further in Chapters 35 and 36. B sentence ence bays 33.1 The Nature of Light Until the time of Isaac Newton (1642-1727), most scientists thought that light consisted of streams of particles (called corputcles) emitted by light sources, Galileo and others tried (unsuccessfully) to measure the speed of light. Around 33 LEARNING GOALS [ny stuyiog ths chapter, you wl fear: + What Eg ray ao, and How they are releted to wave fronts. + The [avs that govern the reflection and reaction of ight. The circumstances under which light is totally reflected at an. imerace. + How wo meke polarized light out of ordinary ight. + ow laygents principle hep us anayze recon an retracion. 1211122 CHAPTER 33. The Nature end Propagation of Light {35.1 An eloctic beating element emits primarily infrared radiction. But if its tem- peratures high enough, it aso emits a dis cceribte amount of visible Tight, ‘55.2 Opbthalmie surgeons use lasers for repairing detached retinas and for eaneri2 {ng blood vessels in retinopathy. Pulses of blue-green light from an szgon laser sre ‘deal for this purpose, since they pass ‘armlessly through the transpazeat part of heey bt are soba by rel iments inthe retina, 1665, evidence of wave properties of light began to be discovered. By the early 19th centmry, evidence that ight is a wave had grown very persnasive In 1873, James Cletk Maxwell predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves and calculated their speed of propagation, as we learned in Chapter 32. ‘This development, along with the experimental work of Heinrich Her starting in 1887, showed conclusively that light is indeed an electromagnetic wave, The Two Personalities of Light “The wave picture of light is not the whole story, however. Several effects associ- ated with emission and absorption of Hight reveal a particle aspect, in that the energy cartied by light waves is packaged in discrete bundles called photons or quanta, These apparently contradictory wave and particle properties have been reconciled since 1930 with the development of quantum electrodynamics, a com- prehensive theory that includes both wave and particle properties. The propagation of light is best described by x wave model, bot understanding emis ‘sion and absorption requires a particle approach. ‘The fundamental sources of all electromagnetic radiation are electric charges in accelerated motion, All bodies emit clectromagnetic radiation as a result of thermal motion af their molecules; thie radiation, called theresa? mdlaston, a ‘mixture of different wavelengths. At sufficiently high temperatures, all matter emits enough visible ight tobe self-lurninous; « very hot body appears “red-hot” (Fig. 33.1) or “white-hot” Thus hot matter in any form isa tight source. Famitiar examples are a candle flame, hot coals in « campfire, the cols in an electric room heater, and an incandescent lamp filament (which usually operates st a tempera ture of about 300°C). ‘Ligit i also produced during eletrioal dicchacgea through ionized govee. The ‘bluish fight of meccury-arc lamps, the orange-yellow of sodium-vapor lamps, and the various colors of “neon” signs are famiir. A variation of the mereury-are lamp is the fluorescent lamp (see Fig. 30.7). This light source uses # material called @ phosphor to convert the ultraviolet radiation from a mercury arc into vis- ‘ble light. This conversion makes fluorescent lamps more efficient than incandes- cent lamps in transforming electrical energy into light. “A Tight suuice dat has sllxined prouiiucace iu he Last forty yecus ise fase [In most light sources, light is emitted independently by different ctoms within the source; in a laser, by contrast, atoms are induced to emit light in a cooperative, coherent fashion. The result is a very narrow beam of radiation that can be enor ‘ously intense and that is much more nearly monochromatic, orsingle-frequency, than light from any other source. Lasers are used by physicians for microsurgery, in CD players and computers to scan the information encoded on x compact disc or CD-ROM, in industry to cut through stecl and to fuse high-meiting-point materials, and in many other applications (Fig. 332). [No matter what its source, electromagnetic radiation travels in vacuum at the some speed. As we saw in Sections 1/4 and 92.1, the sperd of Tight in vacwuim is defined to be © = 299792458 x 10° m/s ‘or 3,00 x 10" m/s to three significant figures. The duration of one second is defined by the cesium clock (see Section 1.3), so one meter is defined to be the m,) and the angle 6, is smaller than 6. (@) Piane waves teflcted an reftactd froma window (@) The wanes inthe ouside ui and hase depeeuted ways Tldent ny eb Rete, ys Reteaad gc: ys 35.6 Two types of reflection (©) Specatarreiesion (©) Dee renecion “The segments of plane waves shown in Fig. 33.5a.can be represented by bun- dles of rays forming becims of light (Fig. 33.56). For simplicity we often draw only one ray in each beam (Fig. 33.5o). Representing these waves in terms of rays is the basis of geometric optics. We begin our study with the behavior of an individual ray. We describe the directions of the incident, reflected, and refracted (transmit- {0d} rays at 2 stom interface between two optical materials in terms of the angles they make with the norma! (perpendicular) to the surface at the point of incidence, as shown in Fig. 33.c. Ifthe interface is rough, both the transmitted Tight and the reflected Fight are scattered in varione ditections, and there ix ne xine ale angle of transmission or reflection. Reflection at definite angle from a very ‘smooth surface is called specular reflection (from the Latin word for “mirror"); scattered reflection from a rough surface is called diffuse reflection. This distinc tion is shown in Fig. 33.6. Both kinds of reflection can occur with either transpar- cent materials or opaque materials that do not transmit light. The vast majority of objects in your environment (including clothing, plants, other people, and this book) are visible to you beoauce they reflect ight ina diffuse manner from their surfaces. Our primary concer, however, will be with specular reflection from a ‘very smooth surfece such as highly polished glass, plastic, or metal. Unless stated otherwise, when referring to “reflection” we will always mean specular reflec tion, ‘The index of refraction of an optical material also called the refractive index), denoted by n, plays a central role in geometric optics. Itis the ratio of the speed of light c in vacuum to the speed v it the material: (index of refraction) cn Light always travels more slowly in a material than in vacuum, 60 the valuc of ‘anything other than vacuum ie always greater than unity, For vacuum, n= 1.‘Since n is a ratio of two speeds, itis a pure number without units. (The relation- ship of the value of m to the electric and magnetic properties af n material is deseribed in Section 32.3.) ERUHIONE wove speed and index of refraction Kecpin mind hat the wave speed» Isimersey propotonat he ince cf rtactonn.The petro dco taco a ‘ati te cloner Ge wave spect tht mata Fall fo etext poi a, Icadto cious confusion! © The Laws of Reflection and Refraction Experimental studies of the directions of the incident, refiected, and refracted ays at smooth interface between two optical materials lead to the following conclusions (Fig. 33:7): 1, The incident, reflected, and refracted rays and the normal to the sur- face all ie in the same plane. The plane of the three rays is perpendicular to the plane of the boundary surface between the two materials. We always draw ray diagrams so that the incident, reflected, and refracted rays are in the plane of the diagram, 2, ‘The angle of retiection 8, 1s equal to the angle of mcidence W, tor all wavelengths and for any pair of materials. That is, in Fig. 3.5c, 6,— 0, Caw ul flection) 33) ‘This relationship, together with the observation that the incident and refleoted rays and tho normal ellie in the care plane, is called tho law of reflection. 3. For monochromatic light and for a given pair of materials, @ and b, on ‘opposite sides of the interface, the ratio of the sines of the angles 0, and 6 where both angles are measured from the normal to the surface, is ‘equal to the inverse ratio of the two indexes of refraction: sind, my sind, ne oe) ngsin€, = nysin6, (law of refraction) 34) ‘This experimental result, together with the observation that the incident and refracted rays and the normal all Iie in the same plane, is called the Eaw of refraction or Snell's law, after the Dutch scientist Willebrord Snell (1591-1626). There is sou doubt that Suell wlually discovered it, The discovery that = cfu came manch later While these results were first observed experimentally, they ean be derived ‘theoretically from a wave description of Hight. We do this in Section 33.7. Equations (33.3) and (33.4) show that when a ray passes from ore material (a) into another material (b) having a Isnger index of refraction (1m, > 74.) and hence a slower wave speed, the angle 0, withthe normal is smaller inthe secon ‘material than the angle @, in the first; hence the ray is bent toward the normal Fig. 3388). When the socond material has a smaller index of refraction than the ‘first material (71, <7.) and hence a faster wave speed, the ray is bent away from the normal (Fig. 33.86). "No-matter what the materials on either side of the interface, in the case of normal incidence the transmitted ray is not bent tall (Fig. 33.8e). In this case 8, =O and = 0, 20 from Eq. (33-4) 8, in also equal to zero, ro the transiitied ray is 135.2 Reflection and Fetection 1125 33.7 ‘The laws ofreflostion and refraction, 1. Tinea, find, and fact ae ta the norco the surface a He tn te 3. When amoncebromatic ight ay erse the Intetae between two piven marae a the sngles and reread to the inden of efiteten of ar by oa ind 3348 Reftasionandrefesionin Gp) three cases. (a) Mauetal bs larger index of refraction than materiel a, (©) Matas marae of. fon than material a. (2) The incident gir mised gets Gi the materials. (@) Atay emering n materi of larger inex of ‘finan bend mt iene iceial@ | Maia mem1126 CHAPTER 33. The Nature end Propagation of Light 35.9 (@) This ruleris actually straight, but (©) Astesight ruler elFimmersed io water it appears to beod a the surface ofthe ‘alee () Light rays from any submerged ‘object bend avvay from the normal when ‘they emerge into the air. As seen by an observer above the surface ofthe water, ‘the object appenr to be much closer 0 the ‘surface than it acu is. ‘Aczal posion fend cfraler also normal to the interface. Equation (33.2) shows that 6, 100, is equal 10 7270, so the reflected ray travels back along the same path asthe incident ray. ‘The law of refraction explains why a partially anbmesged ruler ar drinking straw appears bent; light rays coming from below the surface change indirection at the air-water interface, so the rays appear to be coming from a position above their actual point of origin (Fig. 3.9). similar effect explains the appearance of the setting sun (Fig. 33.10). An important special eas is refraction that oecurs at an interface between vac- ‘uum, for which the index of refraction is unity by definition, and » material. Whom a ray pacoce from vacuum into a material (b),.o that mz — 1 ond mip > 1, the ray is always bent foward the normal. When a ray passes from a material into ‘vacuum, 60 that, > 1 and n, = 1, the ray is always bent away from the norm. ‘The laws of reflection and refraction apply regardless of which side of the imerface the incident ray comes from, Ife ray of light approaches the interface in 35.10 (©) The index ofrefiaction of iris (@) — Ammaapnxe ® ‘igh pester than 120 igh ray rom toottoseas) the acting min bend downward when they ‘enter our atmogphere (The effect is exag- _gected in this figure) (b) Stronger refise- ‘tion occurs for light coming from the Jewer im of the sun the part that appecrs ‘closest to the horizon), which passes: through denser alin the lover stmox- ‘phere. As a result, the setting sun appears ‘utanod vertically. (Soe Problem 33.55)135.2 Reflecion and Retraction 1127 Fig. 33.82 or 33.8b from the right rather than from the left, there are again Table 33.1 Index of Refraction for tefected and refracted mys these tun rays the incident ry, nnd thenarmal tothe Yellow Sodium Light Ay = SE9.am surface again lie in the same plane, Furthermore, the path of a refracted ray is Iedex of reversible; it follows the seme path when going from to a as when going from a Substance Retraction to b. [You can verify this using Eq. (33.4).] Since reflected and incident rays : oo _make the samme angle with the normal, the path ofa relleced ray is also reversible, 130 ‘That's Why when you see someone's eyes in a mirror, they ean also $20 you. tase ‘The intensities of the reflected and refracted rays depend on the angle of inc 1a. once, the two indoxes of refraction, and the polarization (that it, tho direction of rae the electricfield vector) of the incident ray. The fraction reflected is smallest at 1903 ‘normal incidence (@, = 0°), where it is about 4% for an air-glass interface, This ae fraction increases with increasing angle of incidence to 100% at grazing inc 262 dence, when 6, = 90°. Tes possible to use Maxwels equations to pedit the amplitude, intensity, iz ‘phase, and polarization states ofthe reflected and refracted waves. Such an analy- te sis is beyond our scope, howeves Le ‘The index of refraction depends not only on the substance but also on the ‘wavelength of the light. The dependence on wavelength is called dispersion; we 1x9 will consider it in Section 334. Indexes of refraction for several solids and lic- 1383 Lids are given ia Table 3341 fora particular wavelength of yellow light. , ‘The index of refraction of air at standard temperature and pressure is about tan 1.0003, and we will usually take it to be exaetly unity. The index of refraction of was f gas incroases us its density increases. Most glasses used in optical insrumemts ts hhave indexes of refraction between about 1.5 and 2.0. A few substances have larger indexes; one example is diamond, with 2.417. Index of Refraction and the Wave Aspects of Light We have discussed how the direction of « Hight ray changes when it passes from ‘one material to another material with a different index of refraction. Ir’ also important to see what happens to the wave characteristics ofthe Hight when this happens. Fine, the frequency f af the wave dacs nar change when pasting from one ‘material to another, That is, the nuraber of wave eyeles arriving per unit time ‘must equal the number leaving per unit time: this is a statement that the boundary surface cannot create or destroy waves. Second, the wavelength A ofthe wave is different in general in different mate- tals, This is because in any material, v = Af; sinee f is the same in any material asin vacuum and v is always less than the wave speed ¢ in vacuum, Ais also co reopondingly reduced, Thus the wavelength A of light in» material is fese than the wavelength Ag of the same light in vacuum. From the above discussion, f= ¢]Ao = vA. Combining this with Eg, (33.1), n = efv, we find 35) ‘When a wave passes from one material into a second material with larger index of refraction, so that mp > ng, the wave speed decreases. The wa ‘Ay = olny in the second material is then shorter than the wavelength A, = Aelne in the first material If instead the second material has « smaller index of refrac tiom than the frst material, 50 that n, , (For1130 CHAPTER 53 The Nature end Propagation of Licht ‘55.13 (@) Total internal reflection. The angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90” is calle the critical angle: this isthe cease for ray 3, The relected portions of ras 1,2, and 3 are omited for clarity (b) Rays of laser lit enter the water in the fishbowl ‘rom above; they are reflected atthe botiom by mirrors tilted at slightly different angles. One ray undergoes total internal refection et the air-water interface. (© touts retection (@) Teel Iowrna selection dermonswated with "Tay intra wefleton occur ony my Ouastoms total intemal election en ee) instance, materials ¢ and b could be water and air respectively.) From Snel’s aw of refraction, sing, = "*sind, a Because m,fn, is greater than unity, sin 6, is larger than sin@; the ray is bent ‘away from the normal. ‘Thus thore must bo some valus of @, Less thar: 90° for which Snell's law gives sind, = 1 and 6, = 90°. This is shown by ray 3 in the iagram, which emerges just grazing the surface at an angle of refrection of 90°. Compare the diggram in Fig. 33.13a to the photograph of light rays in Fig. 33.13b. “The angle of incidence for which the refracted ray emerges tangent tothe sur= face is called the eritieal angle, denoted by Haq» (A more detailed analysis using Maxwell's equations shows that us dhe incident angle appruacles the eriteal angle, the transmitted intensity approaches zero.) If the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the sine of the angle of refraction, es computed by Snell's law, would have to be greater than unity. which is impossible. Beyond the aitical angle, the ray cannot pass into the upper material; it is trapped in the lower material and is completely refiected at the boundary surface. This situation, called total infernal reflection, occurs only when a ray is incident on the inter face with a second material whose index ot retraction 1S smaer than that of the ‘material in which the ray is traveling. ‘We can find the critical angle for two given materials by setting J, — 90°( sind, = 1) in Snell's law. We then have Sines = (citical angle for total internal reflection) 33.6) “Total internal reflection will cecur if the angle of incidence @, is larger than or equal 10 x. Applications of Total Internal Reflection ‘Total intemal reflection finds numerous uses in optical technology. As an exam- ple, consider glass with index of refraction n = 1.52. If light propagating within this glass encounters aplas-air interface, the critical angle is -tL Sina 59 7 0858 Cas 1a(© Toe! inna fection ins Poropriam {ee incident beam serene es show, toa zal wefletion occurs cx the 85° faces (bocese, fora laser interface, oq 4.1". ‘The light will be totally reflected if it strikes the glass-air surface at an angle of 411° or larger. Because the critical angle is stightly smaller than 45°, it is possi- bie to use a prism with angles of 45° 5° 90° asa totally reflecting surface. As reflectors, totally reflecting prisms have some advantages over metallic surfaces such as ordinary coated-glass mirrors, While no metallic surface reflects 100% of the Fight ineident on it, ight can be totally reflected by a prism. The reflecting properties of a prism have the additional advantages of being permanent and ‘unaffected by tarnishing. ‘A.45°- 45°-90° prism, used as in Fig. 33.14 is called a Porro prism. Light ‘enters and feaves aright angles to the hypotenuse and ts torally reflected ac each of the shorter faces. The total change of direction of the rays is 180°. Binoculars ‘often use combinations of two Porro prisms, asin Fig. 33.14. When a beam of light enters at one end cf a teansparent red (Fig, 1415), the light can be totally reflected internally if the index of refraction of the rod is ‘greater than that ofthe surrounding matcral. The light is “trapped!” within the rod ‘even if the rod is curved, provided that the eurvature is not too great. Such a rod is sometimes called a light pipe. A bundle of fine glass or plastic fibers behaves in ‘the same way and has the advantage of being flexible. A bundle may consist of ‘thousands of individual fibers, each of the order of 0,002.t0 0.01 mm in diameter. If the fibers are accernbled in the bundle co that the relative potitione of the ende, ‘are the same (or mirror images) at both ends, the bundle can transmit an image, ‘a shown in Fig. 33.16. Fiber-optic devices have found a wide range of medical applications in instru- ‘ments called endoscopes, which can be inserted directly into the bronchial tubes, ‘the bladder, the colon, and 50 on, for direct visual examination, A bundle of fibers ‘can be enclosed in a hypodermic needle for study of tssues and blood vessels far beneath the skin, Fiber optics also have applications in communication systems, in which they are used to transmit a mostulated laser beam. The rate at which information can be transmitied by a wave (ight, mio, or whatever) is proportional to the fre- ‘quency, To see qualitatively why this is s0, consider modulating (modifying) the wave by chopping off some of the wave crests. Suppose each crest represents a binary digit, with a choppedoff crest representing, a zer0 and an unmodified ‘crest representing a one. The number of binary digits we can transmit per unit ‘time is thus proportional tothe frequency of the wave. Infrared and visible-ight ‘waves have much higher frequency than do radio waves, $0 a modulated laser beam ean trantmit an enormous amount of information through a single fiber. ‘optic cable. 35.3 Total Internal Reflecion 1131 [33-14 (6) Total intemal reflection ina ‘Porro prism. (b)A combination of two Porro prisms in binoculars. 33.15 A transpareat rod with refractive index greater then that of the sorrounding ‘Theis tapped the rad ira Gemglesef incidence (suchas a B, and 7) feroaed the ica angle, — 33.16 Image transmission by a bundle of optical fibers1132 CHAPTER 33 The Nature and Propagation of Light ‘38.17 Tomaximize ther brilliance, dia- Anotiver advantage of optical fibers is that they can be made thinner than con- ‘monds ae eut so that there ig total internal yeni a empl ey ‘ventional copper wire, 50 more fibers ean be bundled together in a cable of a sven diameter. Hleoce more distinct signals (for instunce, different phooe lines) ‘cam be sent over the same cable, Because fber optic cables are electrical insula- tors, they are immune to electrical interference from lightning and other sources, ‘nd they don’t eTiow unwanted currents berween source and recetver. For these ‘nd orher reasons, fiber-optic cables are playing an increesingly important role in long-distance telephone, television, and Interoet communication ‘Total intemal reflection also plays an important role inthe design of jewelry ‘The brilliance of diamond is due in large measure to its very high index of refrac tion (n = 2.417) and correspondingly smal ertical angle, Light entering a cut diamond is totally internally reflected from facets on its back surface, and then ‘emerges from its front surface (Hig. 33.17). “Imitation diamond” gems, such as cubic zirconia, are made from less expensive erysalline materials with compara- ble indexes of refraction, ee caetee A leaky periscope ‘A periscope for a submarine uses two totally rellecting gg = asin MS = 61.0" 45°~4S"—S0" prisms with total intemal reflection en tho sides 132 tnent to the 45 angen. pings lek, nd the bot piss ee eee a eee ra The AS angle of incense fora totally reflecting im i amaler than the 61° critical angle, so total internal reflection does not ‘oceur atthe glass-vater boundary. Most ofthe Fight is transmitted “The extol angle for water (ny = 1.33) on glass (ny = 1.82) ig TxD the water, and vey lites reflected back inc the prism, ‘33.18 Vacation of index of refraction n ‘with wavelength fr different transparent ‘materials. Che Rorzontal exis OWS the ‘wavelength Ay of the Tight r vacuaem; the ‘wavelength inthe material is equal 1 pwd Ine of refraction) uy ‘est Your Understanding of Section 33.3. In which of te following am ations is there total intemal reflection? (Light propagating in water (n = 1.33) strikes a watcr-ar interface at an incident angle of 70°; i Tight propagating in glass (n= 1.52) sakes 2 glass-waerintefae et an ncent angle of 70"; Gil light prope tng in water stkesa water-las interface at en incident angle of 77 *33.4 Dispersion (Ordinary white light is a superposition of waves with wavelengths extending ‘throughout the visible spectrum, The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all, wavelengths, but the speed in a material substance is different for different wave- lengths. Therefore the index of refraction of a material depends on wavelength. ‘The dependence of wave speed and index of refraction on wavelength is called dispersion. Figure 33.18 shows the variation of index of refraction n with wavelength for ‘afew common optical materials. Note that the horizontal axis of this figure is the wavelength of the light in vacuum, Ag the wavelength in the material is given by Eq. G35), A= Adfn, In most materials the value of n decreases with increasing wavelength and decreasing frequency, and this n increases with decreasing, ‘wavelength and increasing frequency. Ia such a msterial, light of longer waver length has greater speed than light of shorter wavelength. Figure 33.19 shows a ray of white light incident on a prism. The deviation (Change of dirceion) produced by the prism increases with increasing index of refraction and frequency and decreasing wavelength. Violet light is deviated ‘most, and red is deviated least; other colors are in intermediate positions. When it comes out ofthe prist, the Light is spread out into a fan-shaped beam, as shown.ed — yellow ight t FA red pees ‘The light is said to be dispersed into a spectrum. The amount of dispersion ‘depends on the difference between the refractive indexes for violet light and for red light. From Fig, 33.18 we can see that for a substance such as fluorite, the dif- ference between the indexes for red and violet is small, and the dispersion will also be small A better choice of material fora prism whose purpose isto produce ‘spectrum would be silicate flint glass, for which there is a larger difference in the value of n between red and violet. ‘As we mentioned in Section 33.3, the brilliance of diamond is dne in part to its uuousually Farge refractive index; another important factor is its large dispersion, ‘which causca white Hight entcring a diamond to emorge a3 a multicolored spec trum. Crystals of rutile and of strontium titanate, which can be produced synthet- ‘cally, have about eight times the dispersion of dicmond. Rainbows When you experience the beauty of a rainbow, as in Fig. 33.20a, you are seeing ‘the combined effects of dispersion, refraction, and reffection. Sunlight comes ‘from behind you, enters a water drople, is (partially) reflected from the back sur- face ofthe droplet, and is refracted again upon exiting the droplet (Fig. 33.206). Tighe ray that enters the midale of the raindrop is resected straight back, All other rays exit the raindrop within an engle A ofthat mide ray, with many rays “piling up” atthe angle 4, What you see is a disk of light of angular radius A centered on ‘the down-sun point (the point in the sky apposite the sun); duc to the “piling up” ‘of light rays, the disk is brightest around its rim, which we see as a rainbow Fig. 33.20c). Because no light reaches your eye from angles larger than A, the sky looks dark ovtside the rainbow (see Fig. 3.20e). The value of the angle 4 depends on the index of refraction of the water that makes up the raindrops, which ‘in tum depends on the wavelengih (Fig, 33.20d). The bright disk of red ght is slightly larger than that for orange light, which in turn is slightly larger than that for yellow light, and so on. As a result, you see the rainbow as band of colors. Jin many eases you can sex a second, larger rainbow. Iti the result of disper- sion, refraction, and two reflections from the back surface of the droplet (Fig. 33.20). Each time a light ray hits the back surface, part of the light is refracted out of the drop (not shown in Fig. 33.20); after two such hits, relatively Title light is lett inside the drop, which is why the secondary rainbow is notice- ‘ably fainter than the primary rainbow, Just as a mirror held up to a book reverses the printed letters, s0 the second reflection reverses the sequence of colors in the secondary rainbow. You can see this effect in Fig 33.203, 33.5 Polarization Polarization is a chaructetistic of all transverse waves. This chapter is about Tight, but to introduce some basic polarization concepts, les go back to the tranqverse waves on a tring that we sided in Chapter 15, Fora string that in BS Polarization 1133 33-19 Dispersion of ight by a prism. The band of eolorsis called a spectrum. Ade Physics 169. Physeal Optics PolataenTSH CHAPTER35 Thee and Propepaton cf iht 15820 How einbows farm. ()Adzbionisbon (Mee pabe ofihtmyventsng hs wppertlffe inp ( Ferningandabon The mae aetna ead ‘equllbeum ies slong the» ans the isplacernents may be along the y discon, 5 ia Big. $4.21. In this cave the sting always lies inthe xy-plane, But the dis ‘placeapeats might instead be along the z-axis, ws in Fig 332ib; then the string ‘ays ie inthe ‘Wha yave bas aly y-isplacmens, we aay ttt is Henry polarize ia te y-direction; a vave with oaly z-dsplacements 4 fincaly polarized in the _dizeotion. For mechanical waves we cea build a polarizing filter, or polarizer that permits only waves with a cedain polarization direction to pass. In Fig. 38.21e the suing can slide vertically inthe slot without freon, bat no hoxk-35S Polatation 1135 ‘33.21 (@, (b) Polarized waves on a string, (€) Making a polarized wave on a string from an unpolarized one using 2 polarizing filter. Oren wary poutine eee ny Port (© te siornnedoes os a potaraing ier, dng cay gamer eine Ar A ai. ‘zontal motion is possible. This flter passes waves that are polarized in the _y-direction but blocks those that arc polarized in the zirection. ‘This same language can be applied to electromagnetic waves, which also have polarization. As we leamed in Chapter 32, an electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave; the fluctuating eletric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to ‘each other and to the direction of propagation. We always define the direction of polarization of an electromagnetic wave to be the direction of the electrie-feld vector B, not the magnetic field, because many common electromagnetic-wave ‘detectors respond to the electric forces on electrons in materials, not the magnetic foores "This the electromagnetic wave dearethed hy Fg (49 17), Et) = jE aos kx - of) B51) = hi c0s(ke — a) is said to be polarized in the y-direction because the electric field has only a -componnt (EXGHOR! the meaning of “polarization” it's unfortunatc that the samc word *plaization” tt red odes te dren of Bin an electromagnetic wave fas ted to deserbe the shifting of elec charge within a body, sich a in response 10 8 nearby charged body; we described this later kind of polarization in Section 21.2 (see ig. 21.7) Yoo should remember that while these two concepts have the same name, they do not describe the same phenomenon, © Polarizing Filters Waves ernitted by a radio transmitter are usually linearly polarized. The vertical antennas that are used for radio broadcasting emit waves that, in a horizontal plane around the antenna, are polarized in the vertical direction (parallel to the antenna) (Fig. 33.222). Rooftop TV anteanas have horizontal elements in the United States and vertical elements in Great Britain because the transmitted ‘waves have different polarizations. {33.22 (@) Electrons in the red and white ‘otc waves that propagate away from the ‘antenna inthe horizontal direction. (The ‘small gray antennas aze for relaying cello- {ar phone signals.) (P) No matter how this light but is oriested, the random motion cof electrons in the filament produces unpo- [atized light waves.1136 CHAPTER 33. The Nature and Propagation of Light 35.25 APolarcd filter is by impaling chown by Bee ‘os that point in all directions perpeadicn- lar tothe direction ot propagation). Ihe ‘ranseittod igh is incaly along. ‘the polarizing exis (shown by E voetors along the polarization direction only). ‘ier oly partly sbeorbs vertically Pies exper ih Tacident Poets vps POR pried component of the ver direeion Tighe. ‘The situation is different for visible light. Light from ordinary sourees, such as incandescent Tight hulhe and finocescent Tight fixtures, is mot polarired (Fig. 33.22b). ‘The “entennas” that radiate light waves are the molecules that ‘make up the sources. The waves emitted by any one molecule may be linearly polarized, like those from a radio antenna. But any actual light source contains a tremendous number of molecules with random orientations, so the emitted light is a random mixture of waves linearly polarized in all possible transverse direc tions. Such light is called unpolarized light or matural light. To create polarized light from unpolarized natural ight requires a flker that ie analogous to tho slot for mechanical waves in Fig. 33.2tc. Polarizing filters for electromagnetic waves have different details of con- struction, depending on the wavelength. For microwaves with a wavelength of ‘few centimeters, a good polarizer is an array of closely spaced, parallel conduct- ing wires that are insulated from each other. (Think of a barbecue grill with the ‘outer metal ring replaced by an insulsting one.) Electrons are free to move along, the length of the conducting wires and will do so in respouse to a wave ‘whose B field is parallel to the wires. The resulting currents in the wires dissi- pate energy by FER heating; the dissipated energy comes from the wave, s0 ‘wave passes through the erid is ereatlv reduced in amplitude. Waves with B oriented perpendicular to the wires pass through almost unaffected, since electrons eannot move through the air between the wires, Hence a wave that passes through such a filter will be predominantly polarized inthe direction per~ endicutar to the wires, ‘The most common polarizing filter for visible light is a material known by the {rade name Polaroid, widely used for sunglasses and polarizing filters for camera Tenses. Neveloped ariginally hy the American scientit Fawin H. T and, this mate- ‘ial incorporates substances that have diehroism, a selective absorption in which ‘one of the polarized components is absorbed much more strongly than the other (Fig, 33.23), A Polaroid fier transmits 80% or more of the intensity of a wave that is polarized parallel to a certain axis in the material, called the polarizing, ‘axis, but only 1% or less for waves that are polarized perpendicular to this axis. In one type of Polaroid filter, long-chain molecules within the filter are oriented ‘with their axis perpendicular to the polarizing axis; these molecules preferen tially absoxb light that is polarized along their length, much like the conducting, ‘wires in a polarizing filter for microwaves. Using Polarizing Filters ‘An ideal polacizing filter (polarizer) passes 100% of the incident light that is poluized in the direction of the filter's polarizing mxis but completely blocks all light that is polacized perpendiculer to this axis. Such a device is an unat- tainable idealization, but the concept is useful in clarifying the basic ideas. In the following discussion we will assume that all polarizing filters are ideal. In Fig, 33.24 unpolarized light is incident on a flat polarizing fies. The polarizing axis is represented by the blue linc. The # vector of the incident wave can be represented in terms of components parallel end perpendicular to the polarizer ani only the component of B peralel to the polorizing oxis is transmited. Hence the light emerging from the polarizer is linearly polarized parallel to the polarizing axis, ‘When unpolarized light is incident on an ideal polarizer as in Fig. 33.24, the intensity of the transmitted light is exactly half that ofthe incident unpolarized ‘no matter how the polarizing axis i oriented. Here's why: We can resolve field of the incident wave into a component parallel to the polarizing axis ‘and a component perpendicular to it, Because the incident light is a random mix- ture of all states of polarization, these two components are, on average, equal. ‘The ideal polarizer transmits only the component that is parallel tothe polarizing axis, $0 half the incident intensity is transmitted,‘The intensity of he transmed ght s the sane forall ereattins ofthe polarizing fier ‘+ Focan ea! polairng fe, he transi tensity ial te incident inte resold into components #and E, parle] and perpen, ‘spectely, tothe polarziag ari of toe analjaee What happens when the linearly polarized light emerging from a polarizer ppasscs through a second polarizer, as in Fig. 33.25? Consider the general case in ‘which the polarizing axis of the second polarizer, or analyzer, makes an angle ® with the polarizing axis of the first polarizer. We can resolve the linearly polar ‘zed light thats transmitted by the first polarizer into two components, as shown jin Fig. 73.25, ome parallel and the other perpendienln to the axis of the analyzer ‘Only the parallel component, with amplitude Eeos 6, is tansmitted by the ana- Iyzer. The transmitted intensity is greatest when ¢ — 0, and itis zer0 when polar- izer and analyzer are crassed so that 6 = 90° (Fig, 33.26). To determine the he) is xhown, (2) Successive positions ofa plane wave AA ‘itis reacted by a plane surtece fa n > Ne 1451146 CHAPTER 33. The Nature and Propagation of Light ‘3557 How mirages ae formed. The hota conmimamets higher. ee ‘this analysis helps to confirm the relationship v = ¢/n for the speed of light in a ‘material. ‘Mirages offer an intresting example of Huygens’s principle in action. When the surface of pavement or desert sand is heated intensely by the sun, « hot, less dense, smaller-n layer of air forms near the surface. The speed of light is slightly greater in the holier air near the ground, the Huygens wavelets have slightly larger radii, the wave fronts tilt slightly, and rays that were headed toward the surface with a large angle of incidence (near 90°) can be bent up as shown in Fig. 33.37. Light farther from the ground is bent leee and wavels nearly in a straight line, The observer sees the object in its natural position, with an inverted ‘image below it, as though seen in a horizontal reflecting surface, Even when the turbulence of the heated air prevents a clear inverted image from being formed, the mind of the thirsty traveler can interpret the epparent reflecting surface as a sheet of water. ‘Tt is important to keep in mind that Maxwell's equations are the fundamental ‘elationships for electromagnet wave propagation, Dut it is a remarkable fact that Huygens's principle anticipated Maxwell's analysis by two centuries. “Maxwell provided the theoretical underpinning for Huygens’ principle. Every ‘point in an electromagnetic wave, with its time-varying electric and magnetic fields, acts ax a source of the continning wave, 2s predicted by Ampere’s and Faraday’s laws. ‘Test Your Understanding of Section 33.7. Sound travels faster in warm air than Incold sit Imagine » weather fron that runs porh-south, with warm air to the wes of the {root und col air to the eas, A sound vavetravstng in northeast direction inthe warm ‘ir encounters this front. How will the direction of this sound Wave ehange wher it passes into te colar? () The wave direction will dcfcct toward the north: Gi) the wave diree- tion will deflect toward the eas; (i) the wave dcection will be unchanged egCHAPTER 33. SUMMARY Light and its properties: Light is an ckectromagnetic. ‘ave. When emitied ex ubsotbed, it also shows particle ‘properties. Is emued ty accelerated elect charges, "The speed of light is a fundamental physical constant. ‘Avwave ion: i w surface of constant pas; wave fronts move with a speed equal to the propagation speed of the wave. Aray i ine along the dircction of prope- ‘gation, perpendicular to the wave fonts. Representation ‘of light by says isthe bass of geometric optics. ‘When light is transmitted from one material to anathes, the frequency ofthe light uncharged, ut the ‘wavelength and wave speed can change. The index of refraction n ofe mulera ia the ratio ofthe speed of light jn vacuum cto the speed v inthe material If isthe ‘wavelength in vacimum, the same wave has a short=e ‘ayelength A in mediam with index of refraction n, ‘oflection and refraction: At smoot Iverfuse ‘betveen two optical materials, the incident, reflected, sand refracted rays ond the normal tothe interface all ie Sma ingle plane called the plane of incidence. The law ‘ofretccton sates thatthe angles of incidence ark! refkeotion ae equal The lw ofreftaction relates the angles oficidence and reftacion to the indexes of refraction ofthe materials. Angles of incidence, reflec- tion, and refraction ae always measured from the nor- ‘mal tothe surface. (See Examples 33.1 and 33.3.) “otal intemal reflection: When aray travels in a mate- ial of greater index of refraction n, toward a material of ‘smaller index n,ttal internal refietion occurs atthe ‘mteriace when the angle of incidence exceeds a critical ange Oca (See Example 334) (law of redection) n,sing, = mysind, Chae of refraction) ey we Woe rots Polarization of light: The diretionof polarization of Tineary polarized electromagnetic waves thedirection ‘of the & field, A polarizing filter passes waves thet are Tinearly polarized slong its polariring nx andblocks waver polarized perpendicularly to hac acs, When Polarized light of innsity Zi incident on apoerizing ‘ierused es an analyze. theinteasity J ofthelight rans ‘ited through the analyzer depen onthe angle ‘btwcen the polarization drcction oftheineidnt ight andthe polarizing mais of the analyrer. See Fxan ple 33.1) When two linearly polarize waves witha hase difference ste superposed the results circularly or liptcally polarize ight. In tis case the E vector isnot confined toa plane containing te direction of propegs- ‘don, but rather describes circles cr elipes in planes per- pendlcler tothe propagsticn direction, Lights seater by ar molecules. The scatiered Tights partially polarized, T= hacolh (Maluss lew) narN48 CHAPTER 35. The Nature and Prepagation of ight ‘Polarization by reflection: When unpolarized Lisht stikes an interface beoween two materials, Brewster's parpenticula tothe plane of fn dence (parallel tothe Intetace) ifthe angle of neldeace equal he plats angle 6, (See Example 33.6) m feng, = ‘aw stats tt the reflected ight i completely polacized (Brews lew) on) ‘aypens's principle: Huygens’ principle sates thet ithe position of @ wavefront atone instant {is knowa, tenth postion ofthe fa at ate time can be const by imagining the ont ax ee et eee ee ene eerie et ear ‘nd reftecton, Key Terms optic 1721 In ofrefecion, 125 Malu's tay, 1138 wave front, 122 law of refraction (Snell's law), 1125 plane of incidence, 1139 may, 1123 critical angle, 1130 polarizing angle, 1139 oometsic onto. 1123 total interna reestin. 1130 Brewster's lew 139 physical optics, #23 dispersion, 1132 circular polarization, 1141 feflection, 1723 lines poavaton, 134 ‘fipcal poate, 1747 ‘efactio, 1123 polizing fer (pain, 1:34 seating. 1142 speclarrflecoa, 1224 polarized igh (tre igh 25 Hyper price, 1144 diffuse reflection, 124 index of refraction (refractive index), 124 ichroism, 1136 polarizing exis, 36 ? Answer to Chapter Opening Question “This is the same effect es shown in Fig 33.31. The drafting tools ae placed between to polarizing fiers whose polsrizing axes ‘rc perpendicular, In places wcrc the clear plastic is under siuess, the plastic Becomes Lirefricgenss that is, Light travels ‘through it a speed thar depends omits pelarization. The result is that the light thet emerges from the plastic has a different polsr- ization than the light that enters. A spot on the plete sopeers bright if the emerging Light has the same polarization as the second polarizing filter The amoant of birefringence, depends cn the wavelength of the light ax well ws the amount of stress on fhe plete, wn diferent colore ae sen at diffeent locations a the laste, Answers to Test Your Understanding Questions ‘551 Answer: (iii) The waves go farther in the y-direction in a sven amomt of time then inthe other cretion, so the wave fronts are clonaatod in they direction. ‘33.2 Answers: (a) (if), (b) {iil) As shown in the figure, light rays: ‘coming from the fish bend avay from the normal when they pass: from the water (n~ 1.33) into the air (n= 1.00). As a result, ‘the fish appears to be higher in the water than it actually is. Hence 3yoe should sim m spear elo the apparent poston ofthe fish. HF ‘you use a laser beam, you should sim ar the apparent postion of the fisa: The beam of laser light takes the sume path from you to the fish es ordinary Tigh tekes from the fish to you (Chough in the ‘opposite direction), ‘posilin of fs ‘353 Answers: (1), (if) Total internal reflection can occur only if ovo conditions are rot: ra must be leis than ny and the eit Cal angle day (where sng ~ raf.) must be smaller than the angle of incidence 8. Inthe fist two enes bith condone ace race The veal anges are ()@ay = #n"*(1/133) = 483° and Gi) Gq = sin "(1.33/1.52) = 61.0", both of which are smaller ‘han, = 70. tothe third ease my = 1.52 ts greater than n, 1.33, 0 total intemal reflction cannot occur for eny ingen: oon{385 Answer: (fl) ‘The sunlight retlectod from the windows of the high sso buildin is partially polarized in the vertical direction. since each windaw Ties in vertical plane. The Polaroid filter in front ofthe lens is oricuted with is poling axis perpendicular 1 the dorsinant direction of polsrization ofthe reflected light, 327 Answers G1) Huygens prinsiple applies to weroe of ll ‘Kinds, including sound waves. Hence this situeGion is exactly Tike PROBLEMS Discussion Questions (G53 Light requires about 8 minctes to trave! from the sun tothe ‘earth Ist delayed appreciably by te earth’ tmoephere? Explain, {G52 Sunlight or staright pasing through the earth's almos- phere is slovays bent toward the vertical. Way? Does this mean that aster is mot really where it sppears tobe? Explain, (@55.3, A beam of list goes from oe material info another. On physical grounds, explain why the wavelength changes bu the fre ‘quency and period do not. 554, A student claimed thet, because of ntmosphetic refraction (Gee Discussion Question (43.7), the sun can be seen afer it hae set and that the day is therefore longer than it would bei the ea bad no atmosphere. First, what docs she mean by eying thatthe sun can he sen afc it has set? Second, comment on the validity ‘he coun {Q555, When ot irises ffom a radiator or heating duct, objects ‘bind it appear to shimmer or waver What causes this? {G558, Dovise smaightforward expesimects to measure the speed ‘of light ia a given glass wsing (2) Snel’ law; (0 total internal reflection; (€) Brewster's lew. (Q557, Sometimes when locking aa window, you see two reflected image sight cieplaced from enchoticr. Wha causes this? {Q558, you look up from underncath toward the surface ofthe water in your equaiam, you may see an upside-down refetion of ‘yout pet sh nthe susface of the water. Expia how this cam happen, {Q559, A ray of ht in ai clon wglas ufos, Ie here x range ‘of angles for which oa relostion occurs? Explain, (Q5510, Whea light is incident on aninterface between two macei- als, the angle ofthe refracted ray depeads onthe wavelength, bot the angle of die redecied may dee a. Why adn Cs bo? (Q5541, A salesperson at e bargsin counterclaims that a eetin pir of sunglases has Plaid filers; you suspect that the glasses just tated plastic. How could you find out for sure? {Q5S12. Docs it make sense to alk shout the polarization ofa fong- itadinal wave, suc es 4 sound wave? Why cx why not? {Q5315. How can you determine the diction of the polarizing axis of single polarizer? (Q5314, Ts fas been proposed that mstomobile windsbiel’s and headlights should have polarizing fiers to reduce the glae of ‘oncoming lights during night driving. Would this work? How should the polarizing axes be aranged? What advantages would this scheme have? What disavantages? (Q55:6, Whoo a shoot of plastic food wep is placed between two crossed polarizers, no light is uansmitied, When the sheet is stretched in one direction, some light pases through the crossed polarizers What x happening! Brerises 1149 ‘hat shou in Fig. 33.36, with material « representing the warm ‘ir, material b representing the cold air in which the waves travel ‘more slowly, and the interface between the materials representing the weather front. North is towed the top ofthe figure and east is toward the right, so Fig. 33.36 shows thatthe aye (which indicate the dirweon of propagation) deflect toward the east. Fevinsrur essen hare to wawmastngphysescom (MP) (Q53:6. 1 you sit on the beach and look at the ocean through ‘Polroid sunglasses the pastes help to reduce the glare from sunlight _eflctng of the wat, But if you lic on you side onthe beach, there Title redoction inthe glare, Explain why there is difference (Q54.7 When unpolarized fight i incident cn two erosced polaziz- ‘5, no light is transmitted. A student asserted tha fa thid potar- ‘ne is inserted between the other two, some transmission will senate Dana thio suaby. wien? Tow vats ling « did Blin increase transmission? (Q53.6. Forte old “rabbitear style TV antennas i's possible to alter the quality of reception considerably simply by changing the ‘onertation ofthe antenna, Why’? (QSK, In Fig. 33.32, since the light that is scattered out of the incident beam is polaized, why isthe trinsmitied bears ot slo pantally polarized? (Q5320, You ure sunbathing in the late afternoon wien the sum is relatively low inthe westem sky. You are lying flat on your back, Jocking straight up through Poleroid sunglasses. To minimize the aevonnt of ey ight aching your ryre, how ahem yoo Be: with ‘your fet pointing north, eat, south, wet, or in some other diec- ‘io? Explain your reasoning. ‘QS321, Light scattered from Bue sky isstongly polarized bocauso ‘fic neturcef tho scaling proveas descitbea in Seton 98.6. Tight seared from white clouds is usually nr polarized, Why 200? (053.22, Atmospheric haze is due to water droplets or smoke parti- cls (“smog”). Such haze roduces visibility by seattorng Haht, so that the light from distant cbjects becomes randomized and images Yecome indistinet. Explain. why visibility through hare ean be improved by wearing red-inted songlases, which fer out blue Tight. (Q53.25. The explanation given in Section 33.6 forthe color of the ‘setting sun should apply equally wel to the rising suo, since sun- Tight travels the same distance through the atmosphere to reach ‘your eyes at ether suns or sunset. Typiclly, however, sunsets fre redder than sunrises. Why? (int: Purticis ofall kinds inthe ‘aunospheze conusbute to scattering ) (Q33.24. Huygens’s principle also applies to sound waves. During the Ju, the temperature uf the utmogphere decreases with increas ing alrude above the round, But at nigh, when the ground cools, there is a layer of air just above the surface in which the tempera- ‘ure increases with altitude. Use this to explain why sound waves from distzm sources ean be heard more clearly st njght than inthe ‘daytime. (int: The speed of sound increases with increasing tem- ‘perature, Use the ideas displayed in Fig. 33.37 for light) ‘Q33.25. Can water waves be reflected and refracted? Give exam- ples. Does Huygens principle apply to water waves? Explain.1150 CHAPTER 53. The Nature and Propagation of Light Exercises Section 33.2 Reflection and Refraction ‘38 Two plane mirrors intersect at right angles. A laser beam ‘strikes the firs of them at poist 11.5 em from thei point of inez- section, as shown in Fig. 3338 For what ange of incidence a the fist mirror will this ray stike the midpoint of the second mirror (which is 28.0 ema long) after reflecting from the fist ioc? Figure 33.38 Exercise 33.1. ns '38.2. ‘Three plane mirrors intersect at right angles. A beam of laser ‘igor szkes ine rst ot mem at an angie v with respec: vo ne nor- ‘mal (Fig. 33.39). (a) Show that when this rey is reflected off of the ther two mirrors end crosses the original ray, the angle between ‘these two rays will be = 180° — 29. 2) For what angle 9 will the two rays be perpendicular when they eross? Figure 33.39 Exercite 33.2 33.3. A beam of Hicht has a wavelength of 650 am in vacuum, (@) What tho opeod ofthc lips in aliquid whose indo cf roto ‘ton at this wavelength i 147? (6) Whats the wavelength ofthese ‘waves inthe liguid? ‘38.4, Light with a frequency of 5.80 % 10!4Fz travels in x block (of ss that nas en index of refraction of 1.52. What 6 the wave- Jength ofthe light (a) in vacuum end (tin the gles? 3335. Alight beam travels at 194 X 10° m/s in quartz. The wave- length of the light in quartz s 385 nm. (@) What is the index of refraction of quarz at this wavelength’? (b) If his same light ray- cls throgh air, what sits wavelength ther? 3336. Light of a coin frequency has a wavelength of 438 nm in ‘aise. What is the wavelength of this lightin bonzcoe? 33.1. A parlel beam of light in air makes an angle of €7.5° with ‘he surface of a glass plate having a refractive index of 1.6, (a) What isthe onele between the reflcced part of the beam und the surfece of the glass? (6) What is the angle between the refracted beam and te surface of the las? [33.B. Using 2 fast-pulsed laser and electrosic timing exeuity, you find that ight travels 2.50 m within a plastic rod in 11S ns. Whats ‘he refractive index ofthe plastic? 3338, Light waveling in ai is incident on the sorace of a block of plastic at an englc of 62.7° to the normal and is bent so that it ‘makes 248.1° angle with the normal inthe plastic. Find the spect of light inthe plastic, 35510, (0) A tenk containing methanol has wall 2.50 em thick rade of elas of rfmctve index 1.550, List from tho outside at strikes the glass a 41.3" angle with the normal to the glass. Find the nn the ight makes with the normal fn the anethaao.(b) The ‘nk is emptied and refed with an unknown ign. I ight inc ent atthe came angle ax in pert (a) errs the igi inthe tan ot sm angle of 202° from the nora, what i the refractive index of the unknown Higa? BIL, (a) Light pases through three parle slabs of different tmlcknestes and reimctve indetes, The lights tnldent tn he st slab and finally reacts into the third slab. Show thatthe riddle slab has no effocton the final direction of the light. That i, showr thatthe direction ofthe ight inthe third sab isthe same a the Aight bad passed directly from the Ext slab into the third slab. (8) Generalize ths result toa stack of N slabs. What determines the final diretion ofthe Light in the last slab? SM A horizontal, parae-sided pte of elas having a refao- tive index of 1.92 isin contact with the surface of water in tank. ‘Avray coming from abovo in sir makos an ange of incidence of 350° with the normal tothe tp surface of the glass. (a) What ‘gle doce the tay sfinted to the mate mala wi he recat {he rurface? (6) What the dependence ef is angle on he reac. tive index of the glas? 351, In u material having an index of refraction ny ight ray as frequency J, wavelength A, and speed &. What are the frequency, wavelength, and speed of this Light (@) in vacuum aod (0) in & raterial having reactive index n'? Ta coch ease, express your answers in terms cf ely fA, 0, m8. 3514, Prove tht ary of ight reflected from aplane mirrorrottes through a angle of 20 wen the miror rotetes through en angle 0 bout en axis perpendicular tothe plane of incidence. RIE. A my of fight i rcdent om n plane mcfare eperating tn sheets of glass with refractive indexes 1 incidence is 62.0%, and the cay originates in the glass with = 1.70. Compate th angle of refraction. 3526, In Example 33.1 the water-glae interface i borzootal. IE Instead this iterdace were tied 15.0* above the borlzor, ith the right side higher than the lef side, what would be the angle from the vertical ofthe ry in the lass? (The ray in the water st rakes an angle of 011" wat the ect) Section 33.3 Total Internal Reflection 3517, Light Pipe. Light enters sli pipe mace of plastic bav- ing a dex of refraction of 1.60. The Hight travels parallel to the ‘pper prof the pipe (Fig. 33.42). You want to cut the face AB 30 ‘at ll the Hight will reflect bec nt the pipe afer tre eukes thet fce. a) What iste largest that canbe i the pip isin air? ©) de pipe is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33, what isthe largest tht 0 can be? ‘Figure 33.40 Exercise 33.17 354. A beam of light is traveling inside a solid plass cube having index of refraction 1.53. I strikes the suface of the cube from the‘inside. (@) If te cube isin ix, at whet minimam engle with the ‘normal inside the glas8 will tis lit not enter the air at this sur- fece? (6) What would be the minimum engle in past (if the cube were immersed in water? ‘3818. The critical angle for tte intemal refetion ata iguid-air interface i 42.5%. (0) If «ray of Fight waveling in the Hguid hae an angle of incidence atthe interface of 35.0, what angle docs ‘the reftacted ray in the air make with the normal? (2) Ifa ray of light traveling in air hes an engle of incidence atthe interface of 35.07, what angle docs Uae relate ray in dhe Kguid un wid the normal? ‘3820, At tho very end of Wagnar’s sores of operas Ring of the ‘Nibelung, Brande takes the goldcn ring from the fingcr of the dead Siegied and throws it into the Rhine, where it sinks to the bortom of the river. Assuming thatthe ring is small enough ‘compare tothe depth of the river to be treated as. poirt and that ‘the Rhine is 10.0 m deep where the ring goos in, what isthe area ‘of the largest circle at the surface ofthe water over which light from the ing could eseape from the water? ‘3821. A ray of light is traveling in a glass cube that is totally ‘ramored in weten. You find thet if th ray io incident on the ‘lass-weler interface at an engl tothe normal larger than 48.7%, no light i refracted into the wates. What isthe refractive index of theglass? 3322 Light 1s tocldent slong Flgure S581 sxerso 53.22 thenonmel onface AB ofagless prism of refractive index 1.52, a shown in Fig. 33.41. Find the lagest valoe the ange @ em ToKen| have without any light refacied "I - ‘out ofthe prism at face AC if (G0 the prism is immersed in wir and () the prism is immersed in water 13523. Any ofightin diamond (index of refraction 242) is inci- 1.09 mand Gi) $< 1.09 mi? Figure 33.51 Problem 33.53. “SS Sy 3854, A laze cube of has has a metal refetor on one face and water on an adjoining face (Fig. 33.52) light beam sites the reflector, s shown. You obi that as you gradually increas the angle ofthe light beam, if 0 = 582° no Tight enters the water ‘What the sper of Tigh in ths ase? Figure 33.52 Problem 33.54, Liebe Gs Wer [3555. When the sun is either ssing or seting and appeass to be Juston the horizon, iis infact below the hoczon, The explanation for this seeming paradox is that light from the san bends slghlly when enfting the cat's atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 33.53. ‘Since ane perception is hate om the iden tha light tenor in ‘sraght Lincs, we perceive the igh tobe coming from a apparent pociion that san angle & above the sun's true position. (2) Make ‘the simplifying assumptions thatthe stmospere as uriform der- snty, and hence uniform indox of refiection n, and. extends t9 & Ieight he above the earth's surface, at which point it bruply stops. ‘Show that the zngle Bis piven by bal) mg) where R= 637Bkm is the méius of the exrth. (b) Calculate 3 using n = 1.0003 and A = 20 an. How does this compare tothe Figure 33.53 Problem 33.55.1154 CHAPTER 33 The Nature and Propagation of Licht angular radius of the sun, which is shout ove qusrter of a degree? (Gn actuality a liaht ray from the sun bends pradually, not abruptly, since the density and refractive index of the atmosphere change ‘gradually with altitde) ‘38.56. Fermat’s Principle of Least Time. A.ray of light ravel- ‘ng with speed c leaves point I shown in Fig. 33.54 snd is reflected. ‘to point 2. The ray strikes the reficting surface a horizontal dis- tance x from point 1. (a) Show that the time ¢ require for the Tight totravel from 1 to 2is Voi tat + Vb + U3)? (0) Take the derivative oft with reopoet to x, Set the derivative equal to zero to show that this time reaches its minim value ‘when 0, = @ which isthe law of reflection and corresponds to the actual path taken by the light. Ths is an example of Fer Iat’s principle of least time, which states that among all post bl paths betwean two points, the onc actually taken by a ray of Fight is tht for which the tine of tavel is minima. Ia fact, ere are some eases in which the time is a maximum rather than a minimum) Figure 38.54 Problem 33.56. 3457, Arey of light goos from point Ain a medium in which the _pced of igh ine to pot D in a mediom in which the speed ay (ig. 3355). Theray sks the interface aorizotal distance 110 the right of point A. (a) Show thatthe time required for the ight to go from A0Bie Vireo | Vig CaP % * (Take he desnaive wt wil expt ta, Set hie devaive ‘equal 10 zero to show that this tue reaches Sis minimum value when n,sin6, = n,sin@,. This is Snell's law, and corresponds to ‘the actual path taken by the light, This is another example of Fer- ‘mals principle of least time (see Problem 33.56). Figure 38.55 Problem 33.57. 33.58, Light is incident in cir ot an angle 8, (Fig. 33.56) on the ‘upper surface ofa transperet lat. tho surfaces ofthe plato being plane snd parallel to each other. (a) Prove that = 67, (9) Show that this is tue for aay number of different parle plates (© Prove thatthe lsteral displacement d ofthe emergent beam is ‘whore #is the thickness ofthe plate. () A ray of light is incident at anangle of 66.0 on one surface ofa glass plate .40.em thick with a index of refraction 1.80. The medium on either side of the plate Asalr Find the lateral dspseernent between the incident and emer- gentrays, Figue 35.56 Problem 35.58 3556, Light reveling downwardis incident on horizontal film of thickness 1, as chown in Fig. 33.57. The incident ray splits into two ays, A and B. Ray A reliects from te top of the 6m. Ray B reflects from the bottom of the film and then refracts back into the satel that is above the flim. If the fl us parallel faces, show that rays A and B end up parallel to exch other Figure 33.57 Problem 33.59. ecient my, Ap 3560, A thin beam of white light i directed at a flat sheet of siti- cate fint glass at an angle of 20.0° to the surfacc of the sheet, Due to dispersion in the glass, the bean is spread out as shown in 2 spectum in Fig. 33.58. The refractive index of silicate flint lass versus wavelength is graphed in Fig. 38.18. (a) The rays 4 and b shown in Fig. 33.58 correspond to the extremes of the visible spectrum. Which corresponds to red and which to viole!? Explain your reasoning. (b) For what thickness d of the glass sheet will the spectrum be LOmm wide, as shown (see Prob- lem 33.58)?Figure 35.58 Problem 33.60. 10m: EGL Angle of Deviation. Toe incident angle 0, shown in ‘Fig, 33.59 is chosen 90 that the light passes symmetrically through ‘the prism, which has refractive index n and apcx angle A. (a) Show thatthe angle of devition (he angle between the initial and Gil directions of the ray) is given by A+B A 2 th (Wen the light passes though symncticaly as shown the angle ‘of deviation is a minimum) (2) Use the result of part (2) to find the angle of deviaion fora ray of Tight passing symmetreally through a prism having three equal angler (A — 60.07) and n= 152. (©) A certain glass has a refractive index of 1.61 for red light (100 nua) nd 1.66 for violet light (400 ax). IF bot colocs piss Uirough symmetsally, ax descebod in part (a), and if ‘A = 60.0, find Ox dereace aween Un anes of devia for thetwo colors Figure 35.59 Problem 33.61. Ack ‘3562. A beam of unpolarized sunlight etikes the yertical plastic ‘wall of a water tank at an unknown angle. Some ol the ight rte from the wall end enters the water (Fig. 39.60). The refractive index of the plastic walls 161. Ifthe Tight that has been reflected ‘rom the wall ito the waters observed to be completely polarized, ‘what angle does this beam make withthe normal inside the water? Figure 33.60 Problem 33.62 Plate wall pa cud ‘wae ‘S565. A bear of Fight traveling horizoatally is made of an wopo- lnrized component with imensity J and 2 polarized component Challenge Problems 1155 ‘with intensity 1. The plane of polarization ofthe polarized compo- ‘ent is oriented at an angle of O with respect to the vertical. The ‘daa in the table give the intensity measured through a polsizer with aa eriemation of ¢ with respect tothe vertical. (2) What isthe ‘orientation of the polarized component? (That is, what is the angle (87) (@) Wit are the values off and J? OC) tua Whm*) 6) Tuas Wht) ° 184 100 36 10 aia 10 6 2 27 120 52 30 248 10 52 a DAR tan aa 30 237 150 36 o 21a 160 116 70 184 10 150 #0 150 180 14 9 16 ‘33.64, A certain bireftingent material has indexes of refraction feu ap fur Ge twy peapenvulan Gompoucuts wOMuealy pulaslzc light passing through it. The corresponding wavelengths sre Ay = Agfn; and Aen, where A isthe wavelength in vacuum. (a) If ‘the crysial is to function as a quarter-wave plate, the mumbor of ‘wavelengths of each component within the material must differ by 4 Show that the minimum thielness for a quarter-wave plate is do a Him =m) (b) Find the minimam thickness of a quarteswaye ple made of siderite (FeO *CO,) if the indexes of refrction sre ny = 1875 and, ~ 1.635 and the wavelength in vacuumic 2, ~ S89.am. Challenge Problems 35.65. Consider two vibrations of equal amplitude and frequency but differing in phase, one along the x-axis, ¥= asin(wt — a) and the other along the ya y= asin(ar ~ 8) ‘These can be written as follows: = sinwrecsa ~ enseutsina. o Bie aly = siowrcosf — cosersinB ® (a) Mattiply Ea, (1 by sing and Ba, (2) by sina, and then subtract the resulting equations. () Maitply Eq. (1) by coef asd Ea. 2) by cosa, and then subtract the resulting equations. (c) Square and add the results of puts (@) and (2). (@) Derive the equation + y? ~ 2xyoosd = a’sin®8, where 6 = a ~ B. (©) Use the above real to justify cach of the diagrarm in Fig. 3261 (next ego). Inthe figus, the angle given is the phase diffrence ‘tween two simple hanmonic mations of the sare frequency andl amplitude, one horizontal (along the x-axis) end the other vertical (along the exis). The figure thus shows the resultant motion from. ‘the superposition ofthe tvo perpendicular hamoaie motions.1156 CHAPTER 33. The Nate end Propegtion of Light Figure 53.61 Challenge Problem 33.65. . = 5 OF AO’ N\ WOW) 566. A ruinbow is produced ty the reflection of sunlight by spherical drops of water in te ait. Figure 33.62 shows « ray that refracts imo a drop at point A, is reflacted from the back surface of ‘the drop at point B, and refracts back into the ir at point C. The angles of incidence and refraction, @, and 0, are chow st pointe A and C, and the angles of ineidenee and reBection, 0, cd 0, are shown at point B, (6) Show that €,* = 6, and 6° = 64 (©) Show thar the angle in radians between the ray before it enters the drop at A apd after it exits et C (the total angular deflection of ‘the ray) is & = 261 — 4 + a. (Hint Find the angular deice- Figure 55.62 Challenge Problem 33.66. fons that occur at A, R, and Cand ad therm to get.) (2 Ue Srel’s aw to writ in terms of 6 and nthe reffitve index of the water inthe drop. (0) A ralabow will foam when the angular detection A is stationary in the incident angle 6/'—that is, when ‘ah/aad = 0.1 is condition x sated al the rye with icident ‘nates close to 64 will be ent back inthe same direction, praduc- Jing a bright one in the ky Let 0 be the value of ef for which this coeur. Show that core, = H(n2— 1). tnt: You may find ‘the dervetive formula 4(arosin u(x) lax ~ (1 — w?)-# (dus) help (e) The index of refraction in water is 1.342 for vilet Tight and 1.330 for re light. Us the rests of prt (e) end (@) 0 find 6, ond A for vilet and red ight. Do your reauls gree with ‘tho angleo shown in Fig 39.204? Whon you view te rainbor, ‘wbich colored or violet. is higher above the horizon? 356%. A secondary rainbow is formed when the incident Fight tundergocs tio intemal reficctions ina spheric drop of water as shown in Tig. 33.20c. (Gee Challenge Problem 23.66) (2) terns of the incident angle @ andthe refractive index of the don, what is te angular deletion A ofthe ray? That is, what is the angle between the ray before it enters the drop and afc it cats? Q) What i Ge luke augle 0p fox which the deviate ff A with respect tothe incident angle O2 is zero? (0)The Indexes of reftetion fore ad viol: Tight in weter are given in prt @ of Challenge Prablem 93.66. Use the reals of part(s) nd (i od op and fx viet aed ve Hight. Do your sels gree with the angles shown in Fl. 3320e7 When you view a secondary rainbow, is red or vile: higher shove the horizon? apis,