Experiment VII

Operational Amplifier

One of the greatest achievements of electrical engineering has been the development of the
operational amplifier (op-amp). In a negative feedback configuration the op-amp is able to
provide linear, distortion free signal amplification. With various feedback networks, this high
gain, open loop circuit has been used to perform many analog mathematical operations such as
differentiation and integration.

In 1966 The Fairchild Company introduced The A71 that became the standard for op-amp in
the electronic world. Many later manufactured op-amps have followed the conventions Fairchild
used in their 741, specially the arrangement of the pins. A741 op-amp has the following
characteristics:

Open -Loop Gain 300,000

Input Impedance 2M
Output Impedance 50

Theory:

The op-amp is a voltage controlled voltage source (amplifier) with a very high gain. It has a very
large input impedance and very small output impedance. Figure1 shows the symbol for an op-
amp and its equivalent circuit. When a voltage is applied across the input (Ri), that voltage is
multiplied by the gain (A) of the op-amp and the resulting voltage is sent to the output (pin 6).
The gain of an ideal op-amp is infinite. The gain of a 741 is at least 300,000. This means that if
an input voltage of 33 micro-Volts is applied across pins 2 and 3, then 10V will be produced at
point 6.

The full open-loop gain of op-amp is rarely used in real life for several reasons. First, the actual
gains of op-amps are not constant. For example, one 741 may have a gain of 300,000, while
another one may have a gain of 350,000. Second, the useful bandwidth where the gain is
constant is very narrow (about 4 Hz).

2
+
6
3

Figure 1: Op-amp Symbol and Equivalent Circuit.

 1- Null offset
1 8- Not connected
2- Inverting input
7- Positive DC +3+18
3- Non Inverting Input
6- Output
4- Negative DC -3-18
5- Null offset

Definition of 741-pin functions:

Pin 1 (Offset Null): Offset nulling. Since the op-amp is the differential type, input offset
voltage must be controlled so as to minimize offset. Offset voltage is nulled by application of a
voltage of opposite polarity to the offset. An offset null-adjustment potentiometer may be used to
compensate for offset voltage. The null-offset potentiometer also compensates for irregularities
in the operational amplifier manufacturing process which may cause an offset. Consequently, the
null potentiometer is recommended for critical applications.

Offset Voltage: Build any op-amp circuit, apply 0V to its input, and what do you expect at the
output? Although you'd be tempted to say 0 V, there's actually an error voltage present at its
output. What causes this error? You can trace the error back to a number of unbalances in the
op amp's internal transistors and resistors. To account for this in a circuit design, the net error
is modeled as an offset voltage, Voff, in series with op amp's input terminals. How will it affect
your circuit? That depends on the op amp itself and your circuit design.

Pin 2 (Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be inverted at output pin 6. Pins 2 and
3 are very important (obviously) to get the correct input signals or the op amp can not do its
work.

Pin 3 (Non-Inverted Input): All input signals at this pin will be processed normally without
inversion. The rest is the same as pin 2.

Pin 4 (-V): The V- pin (also referred to as Vss) is the negative supply voltage terminal. Supply-
voltage operating range for the 741 is -4.5 volts (minimum) to -18 volts (max), and it is specified
for operation between -5 and -15 V DC. The device will operate essentially the same over this
range of voltages without change in timing period. Sensitivity of time interval to supply voltage
change is low, typically 0.1% per volt. (Note: Do not confuse the -V with ground).

Pin 5 (Offset Null): See pin 1.

Pin 6 (Output): Output signal's polarity will be the opposite of the input's when this signal is
applied to the op-amp's inverting input.
Pin 7 (posV): The V+ pin (also referred to as Vcc) is the positive supply voltage terminal of the
741 op-amp. Supply-voltage operating range for the 741 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +18 volts
(maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 and +15 V DC. The device will operate
essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in timing period. Actually, the
most significant operational difference is the output drive capability, which increases for both
current and voltage range as the supply voltage is increased. Sensitivity of time interval to supply
voltage change is low, typically 0.1% per volt.

Pin 8 (N/C): The 'N/C' stands for 'Not Connected'. There is no other explanation. There is
nothing connected to this pin, it is just there to make it a standard 8-pin package.

Negative Feedback:

If we connect the output of an op-amp to its inverting input and apply a voltage signal to the non-
inverting input, we find that the output voltage of the op-amp closely follows that input voltage.

As Vin increases, Vout will increase in accordance with the differential gain. However, as Vout
increases, that output voltage is fed back to the inverting input, thereby acting to decrease the
voltage differential between inputs, which acts to bring the output down. What will happen for
any given voltage input is that the op-amp will output a voltage very nearly equal to Vin, but just
low enough so that there's enough voltage difference left between Vin and the (-) input to be
amplified to generate the output voltage.

The circuit will quickly reach a point of stability (known as equilibrium in physics), where the
output voltage is just the right amount to maintain the right amount of differential, which in turn
produces the right amount of output voltage. Taking the op-amp's output voltage and coupling it
to the inverting input is a technique known as negative feedback, and it is the key to having a
self-stabilizing system (this is true not only of op-amps, but of any dynamic system in general).
This stability gives the op-amp the capacity to work in its linear (active) mode, as opposed to
merely being saturated fully "on" or "off" as it was when used as a comparator, with no
feedback at all.

Comparator Circuit: A comparator circuit compares two voltage signals and determines which
one is greater. The result of this comparison is indicated by the output voltage: if the op-amp's
output is saturated in the positive direction, the non-inverting input (+) is a greater, or more
positive, voltage than the inverting input (-), all voltages measured with respect to ground. If the
op-amp's voltage is near the negative supply voltage (in this case, 0 volts, or ground potential), it
means the inverting input (-) has a greater voltage applied to it than the non-inverting input (+).
Because the op-amp's gain is so high, the voltage on the inverting input can be maintained almost
equal to Vin. Let's say that our op-amp has a differential voltage gain of 200,000. If Vin equals 6
volts, the output voltage will be 5.999970000149999 volts. This creates just enough differential
voltage (6 volts - 5.999970000149999 volts = 29.99985 V) to cause 5.999970000149999 volts
to be manifested at the output terminal, and the system holds there in balance. As you can see,
29.99985 V is not a lot of differential, so for practical calculations, we can assume that the
differential voltage between the two input wires is held by negative feedback exactly at 0 volts.

One great advantage to using an op-amp with negative feedback is that the actual voltage gain of
the op-amp doesn't matter, so long as it's very large. If the op-amp's differential gain were
250,000 instead of 200,000, all it would mean is that the output voltage would hold just a little
closer to Vin (less differential voltage needed between inputs to generate the required output). In
the circuit just illustrated, the output voltage would still be (for all practical purposes) equal to
the non-inverting input voltage. op-amp gains, therefore, do not have to be precisely set by the
factory in order for the circuit designer to build an amplifier circuit with precise gain. Negative
feedback makes the system self-correcting. The above circuit as a whole will simply follow the
input voltage with a stable gain of 1.

Figure 2 shows an example of the open-loop gain of an op-amp. In particular, negative feedback
is commonly used to cut back the gain of the op-amp, while increasing its useful frequency
range. In employing negative feedback, we adjust the gain to a desired value ( some horizontal
line under the curve in Figure 2). Which makes the overall circuit more stable and independent
of power supplys voltage fluctuations. When we use negative feedback, the two terminals of the
input will be approximately at he same potential. Consequently, the input current is practically
zero.

Figure2: Gain and Bandwidth of the 741 op-amp

The op-amp, with negative resistive feed back, can be used for inverting and non-inverting
amplifiers. With a negative reactive feedback circuits, the op-amp can be used to implement
integrating and differentiating circuits. By placing filters in the negative feedback element
position, the inverse transfer function of those filters will appear in the output. A positive
feedback can be employed for oscillators and Schmitt trigger circuits.

Positive feedback:

Another type of feedback, namely positive feedback, also finds application in op-amp circuits.
Unlike negative feedback, where the output voltage is "fed back" to the inverting (-) input, with
positive feedback the output voltage is somehow routed back to the non-inverting (+) input. In its
simplest form, we could connect a straight piece of wire from output to non-inverting input and
see what happens:
The inverting input remains disconnected from the feedback loop, and is free to receive an
external voltage. Let's see what happens if we ground the inverting input:

With the inverting input grounded (maintained at zero volts), the output voltage will be dictated
by the magnitude and polarity of the voltage at the non-inverting input. If that voltage happens to
be positive, the op-amp will drive its output positive as well, feeding that positive voltage back to
the non-inverting input, which will result in full positive output saturation. On the other hand, if
the voltage on the non-inverting input happens to start out negative, the op-amp's output will
drive in the negative direction, feeding back to the non-inverting input and resulting in full
negative saturation.

What we have here is a circuit whose output is bi-stable: stable in one of two states (saturated
positive or saturated negative). Once it has reached one of those saturated states, it will tend to
remain in that state, unchanging. What is necessary to get it to switch states is a voltage placed
upon the inverting (-) input of the same polarity, but of a slightly greater magnitude. For
example, if our circuit is saturated at an output voltage of +12 volts, it will take an input voltage
at the inverting input of at least +12 volts to get the output to change. When it changes, it will
saturate fully negative.

So, an op-amp with positive feedback tends to stay in whatever output state it's already in. It
"latches" between one of two states, saturated positive or saturated negative. Technically, this is
known as hysteresis.

Hysteresis can be a useful property for a comparator circuit to have. Comparators can be used to
produce a square wave from any sort of ramping waveform (sine wave, triangle wave, saw-tooth
wave, etc.) input. If the incoming AC waveform is noise-free (that is, a "pure" waveform), a
simple comparator will work just fine.
However, if there exist any anomalies in the waveform such as harmonics or "spikes" which
cause the voltage to rise and fall significantly within the timespan of a single cycle, a
comparator's output might switch states unexpectedly:

Any time there is a transition through the reference voltage level, no matter how tiny that
transition may be, the output of the comparator will switch states, producing a square wave with
"glitches."
If we add a little positive feedback to the comparator circuit, we will introduce hysteresis into the
output. This hysteresis will cause the output to remain in its current state unless the AC input
voltage undergoes a major change in magnitude.

What this feedback resistor creates is a dual-reference for the comparator circuit. The voltage
applied to the non-inverting (+) input as a reference which to compare with the incoming AC
voltage changes depending on the value of the op-amp's output voltage. When the op-amp output
is saturated positive, the reference voltage at the non-inverting input will be more positive than
before. Conversely, when the op-amp output is saturated negative, the reference voltage at the
non-inverting input will be more negative than before. The result is easier to understand on a
graph:

When the op-amp output is saturated positive, the upper reference voltage is in effect, and the
output won't drop to a negative saturation level unless the AC input rises above that upper
reference level. Conversely, when the op-amp output is saturated negative, the lower reference
voltage is in effect, and the output won't rise to a positive saturation level unless the AC input
drops below that lower reference level. The result is a clean square-wave output again, despite
significant amounts of distortion in the AC input signal. In order for a "glitch" to cause the
comparator to switch from one state to another, it would have to be at least as big (tall) as the
difference between the upper and lower reference voltage levels, and at the right point in time to
cross both those levels.
Another application of positive feedback in op-amp circuits is in the construction of oscillator
circuits. An oscillator is a device that produces an alternating (AC), or at least pulsing, output
voltage. Technically, it is known as an astable device: having no stable output state (no
equilibrium whatsoever). Oscillators are very useful devices, and they are easily made with just
an op-amp and a few external components.

When the output is saturated positive, the Vref will be positive, and the capacitor will charge up
in a positive direction. When Vramp exceeds Vref by the tiniest margin, the output will saturate
negative, and the capacitor will charge in the opposite direction (polarity). Oscillation occurs
because the positive feedback is instantaneous and the negative feedback is delayed (by means of
an RC time constant). The frequency of this oscillator may be adjusted by varying the size of any
component.

Inverting Amplifier Circuits:

This Circuit (Figure 3) utilizes negative feedback to amplify the negative of the input signal.

Applying Kirchhoffs rules at node, we have

This equation for gain is independent of the open-loop gain A of the op-amp.
Rf

+V
R1
+
Vo
+
Vi
- -V

Figure 3: Inverting Amplifier

Non-Inverting Amplifier Circuits:

This circuit (Figure 4) utilizes negative feedback to amplify the input signal.

Applying Kirchhoffs rule at the node,

This equation for the gain is independent of the open-loop gain A of the op-amp.
Rf

+V
R1
+
Vo

+
Vi -V
-

Figure 4: Non-Inverting Amplifier

Circuit with Positive Feedback (Oscillator Circuit):

Figure 5 illustrate an op-amp circuit using both positive and negative feedbacks. This circuit is
an oscillator. This is its output has two stable levels, very positive and very negative.
R1

+V

+
Vo
C

R2

-V

R3

Figure 5: Oscillator Circuit

To analyze this circuit, first, we predict the voltage of one of the nodes. Since there is a positive
feedback, it would be a safe assumption to consider output voltage is at its saturation point.
When Vo is high, the voltage at the non-inverting input can be determined by voltage divider law
with R2 and R3. At this time the output voltage starts to charge the capacitor C. This charging
continues until the voltage across the capacitor exceeds the voltage at the non-inverting input. At
this time, the output voltage drops to its lowest point(negative saturation) and capacitor starts to
charge in opposite direction.

With the output in its negative saturation, the voltage at the non-inverting input can be calculated
by the voltage divider law. The voltage at the inverting input is the same as potential difference
across the capacitor. When the capacitor is sufficiently discharged ( its potential difference is
smaller ( more negative) than the non-inverting input), the output voltage jumps again to its
positive saturation.

The potential difference across the capacitor can be expressed by the exponential equation with
two constant parameters.
Where

( )

And

( ) ( ) ( )

Where = R1C. The capacitor reaches its maximum possible potential difference at where
T is the period of the oscillation. At this time:

( ) [ ( )]

At , . After this time, ( ) changes sign and the output voltage goes to the
negative saturation point. The period of this oscillation is

( )
Pre-lab:

1. Design an inverting amplifier circuit with again near-10. Use resistors between 100 and
1M. Choose values which are available with 5% tolerance.

Rf =________, R1= _________

2. Design a non-inverting amplifier with a gain of 11, using the same resistors.

Rf =________, R1= _________

3. Using inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, it is possible to design an amplifier with

almost any gain. What gains are not possible to achieve?
Experiments:

1. Construct the inverting op-amp circuit you designed in step 1 of the. Use a signal about
1Vp-p as your input. Measure and plot the gain of the circuit as function of frequency (use
log scale for frequency.

f Vo/Vin GdB

Extrapolate roll-off part of your graph to find gain at 4Hz.

Vo/Vin|f=4Hz =____________

At f= 1 kHz, increase your voltage until sine-wave gets distorted. Sketch the output signal. Label
all key voltages and times.

Vary your power supply voltage and

observe what happens to your output
signal. How does the saturation
voltage depend on the power supply
rail voltage? Do not exceed 18 volts
on your power supply.

Relation between VDC and Vsat is

_________________________________

_________________________________

_________________________________
2. Real op-amp has a small internal DC Offset voltage that might cause unexpected results
for small input signals, especially when no feedback is employed. Experimentally
measure this input offset voltage. Find what DC input voltage is necessary to apply
between the inverting and non-inverting inputs of the op-amp such that the output voltage
reduces exactly to zero. Do not use any feedback.

How does this compare to the expected of the input offset voltage? (30mV)

3. Another undesirable feature of the op-amp is that they have common mode gain. That is,
if two identical nonzero signals are applied to both inputs, then the output signal (with no
feedback) should be ideally zero. But actually it will be a small fraction of the input
voltage. This fraction is known as the Common Mode Gain (Gcm).

Measure the common mode gain of your op-amp by applying a sinusoidal input signal of
20Vp-p to both the inverting and non-inverting inputs. Do not apply any feedback to the
op-amp. Measure the ratio of the output to the input voltage magnitude using the
oscilloscope. This ratio is your Common Mode Gain.

Gcm = ___________

Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is the ratio of the open loop gain of your
amplifier (at 4 Hz) to the Common Mode Gain. It is regularly reported in dB. CMRR is a
measure of how well an op-amp will amplify differential signals and not Common Mode
Signals. What is the CMMR of your op-amp? How does this compare to the expected
value? (90dB)

CMMR _______, % difference ________

How large a CMRR will cause an error of 10% when amplifying a 0.1 Vp-p signal by a
factor of 10?
 4. Construct the non-inverting op-amp circuit that you designed in step 2 of the Pre-lab. Use
a sin-wave signal of about 1Vp-p amplitude and 1 kHz frequency as your input. Measure
the output voltage and then the frequency and plot the gain vs. Frequency (log scale).
Then extrapolate your roll-off part of the graph to find gain at 4 Hz.

f Vo/Vin GdB

1 kHz

Construct the circuit in Figure 5 with R1 = 100k, R2 =1k, R3 = 9k, and C = 0.01F. This
circuit uses positive feedback. Observe and record the voltage across capacitor and out put
voltage of this circuit. Explain how this output signal is generated.

Voltage across Capacitor and Output Voltage