Rhetoric

This article is about the art of rhetoric in general. For from the verb er, I say, I speak.[7]
the work by Aristotle, see Rhetoric (Aristotle).
Rhetorical Strategies redirects here. For modes of
persuasion, see rhetorical strategies. 1 Uses

1.1 Scope
Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient
times. Although some have limited rhetoric to the spe-
cic realm of political discourse, many modern scholars
liberate it to encompass every aspect of culture. Contem-
porary studies of rhetoric address a more diverse range of
domains than was the case in ancient times. While classi-
cal rhetoric trained speakers to be eective persuaders in
public forums and institutions such as courtrooms and as-
semblies, contemporary rhetoric investigates human dis-
course writ large. Rhetoricians have studied the dis-
courses of a wide variety of domains, including the natu-
ral and social sciences, ne art, religion, journalism, dig-
ital media, ction, history, cartography, and architecture,
Painting depicting a lecture in a knight academy, painted by along with the more traditional domains of politics and
Pieter Isaacsz or Reinhold Timm for Rosenborg Castle as part of
the law.[8] Many contemporary approaches treat rhetoric
a series of seven paintings depicting the seven independent arts.
This painting illustrates rhetoric.
as human communication that includes purposeful and
strategic manipulation of symbols. Public relations, lob-
Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or bying, law, marketing, professional and technical writ-
speaker strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular ing, and advertising are modern professions that employ
audiences in specic situations. As a subject of formal rhetorical practitioners.
study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public politi-
a central role in the European tradition.[1] Its best known cal participation, rhetoric emerged as a crucial tool to in-
denition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a coun- uence politics. Consequently, rhetoric remains associ-
terpart of both logic and politics, and calls it the fac- ated with its political origins. However, even the original
ulty of observing in any given case the available means of instructors of Western speechthe Sophistsdisputed
persuasion.[2] Rhetoric typically provides heuristics for this limited view of rhetoric. According to the Sophists,
understanding, discovering, and developing arguments such as Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak con-
for particular situations, such as Aristotles three persua- vincingly on any topic, regardless of his experience in that
sive audience appeals, logos, pathos, and ethos. The ve eld. This method suggested rhetoric could be a means
canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in de- of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his
signing a persuasive speech, were rst codied in classi- Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to c-
cal Rome: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and tion by seeking for his own pleasure to prove the blame-
delivery. Along with grammar and logic (or dialectic lessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the
see Martianus Capella), rhetoric is one of the three an- Trojan War.[9]
cient arts of discourse. Looking to another key rhetorical theorist, Plato dened
From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, it was a the scope of rhetoric according to his negative opinions
central part of Western education, lling the need to train of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as
public speakers and writers to move audiences to action a means of deceit instead of discovering truth. In Gor-
with arguments.[3] The word is derived from the Greek gias, one of his Socratic Dialogues, Plato denes rhetoric
rhtoriks, oratorical,[4] from rhtr, as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and
public speaker,[5] related to rhma, that which assemblies.[10] Rhetoric, in Platos opinion, is merely a
is said or spoken, word, saying,[6] and ultimately derived form of attery and functions similarly to cookery, which

1
2 1 USES

masks the undesirability of unhealthy food by making it on the situation, the very usage of language is rhetorical.
taste good. Thus, Plato considered any speech of lengthy An author, White would say, is always trying to construct
prose aimed at attery as within the scope of rhetoric. a new world and persuading his or her readers to share
[14]
Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and that world within the text.
narrowed its focus by dening three genres of rhetoric Individuals engage in the rhetorical process anytime they
deliberative, forensic or judicial, and epideictic.[11] Yet, speak or produce meaning. Even in the eld of science,
even as he provided order to existing rhetorical theories, the practices of which were once viewed as being merely
Aristotle extended the denition of rhetoric, calling it the the objective testing and reporting of knowledge, scien-
ability to identify the appropriate means of persuasion in tists must persuade their audience to accept their ndings
a given situation, thereby making rhetoric applicable to all by suciently demonstrating that their study or exper-
elds, not just politics. When one considers that rhetoric iment was conducted reliably and resulted in sucient
included torture (in the sense that the practice of torture is evidence to support their conclusions.
a form of persuasion or coercion), it is clear that rhetoric The vast scope of rhetoric is dicult to dene; how-
cannot be viewed only in academic terms. However, the ever, political discourse remains, in many ways, the
enthymeme based upon logic (especially, based upon the paradigmatic example for studying and theorizing spe-
syllogism) was viewed as the basis of rhetoric. cic techniques and conceptions of persuasion, consid-
However, since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. ered by many a synonym for rhetoric.[15]
For example, Modal logic has undergone a major devel-
opment that also modies rhetoric.[12] Yet, Aristotle also
outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art 1.2 As a civic art
squarely within the domain of public political practice.
He restricted rhetoric to the domain of the contingent Throughout European History, rhetoric has concerned it-
or probable: those matters that admit multiple legitimate self with persuasion in public and political settings such
opinions or arguments. as assemblies and courts. Because of its associations
with democratic institutions, rhetoric is commonly said
The contemporary neo-Aristotelian and neo-Sophistic
to ourish in open and democratic societies with rights of
positions on rhetoric mirror the division between the
free speech, free assembly, and political enfranchisement
Sophists and Aristotle. Neo-Aristotelians generally study
for some portion of the population. Those who classify
rhetoric as political discourse, while the neo-Sophistic
rhetoric as a civic art believe that rhetoric has the power
view contends that rhetoric cannot be so limited. Rhetor-
to shape communities, form the character of citizens and
ical scholar Michael Le characterizes the conict be-
greatly eect civic life.
tween these positions as viewing rhetoric as a thing con-
tained versus a container. The neo-Aristotelian view Rhetoric was viewed as a civic art by several of the an-
threatens the study of rhetoric by restraining it to such cient philosophers. Aristotle and Isocrates were two of
a limited eld, ignoring many critical applications of the rst to see rhetoric in this light. In his work, Antidosis,
rhetorical theory, criticism, and practice. Simultane- Isocrates states, We have come together and founded
ously, the neo-Sophists threaten to expand rhetoric be- cities and made laws and invented arts; and, generally
yond a point of coherent theoretical value. speaking, there is no institution devised by man which the
power of speech has not helped us to establish. With this
Over the past century, people studying rhetoric have
statement he argues that rhetoric is a fundamental part of
tended to enlarge its object domain beyond speech texts.
civic life in every society and that it has been necessary in
Kenneth Burke asserted humans use rhetoric to re-
the foundation of all aspects of society. He further argues
solve conicts by identifying shared characteristics and
in his piece Against the Sophists that rhetoric, although it
interests in symbols. By nature, humans engage in
cannot be taught to just anyone, is capable of shaping the
identication, either to identify themselves or another in-
character of man. He writes, I do think that the study of
dividual with a group. This denition of rhetoric as iden-
political discourse can help more than any other thing to
tication broadened the scope from strategic and overt
stimulate and form such qualities of character. Aristo-
political persuasion to the more implicit tactics of identi-
tle, writing several years after Isocrates, supported many
cation found in an immense range of sources.[13]
of his arguments and continued to make arguments for
Among the many scholars who have since pursued rhetoric as a civic art.
Burkes line of thought, James Boyd White sees rhetoric
In the words of Aristotle, in the Rhetoric, rhetoric is "...
as a broader domain of social experience in his notion
the faculty of observing in any given case the available
of constitutive rhetoric. Inuenced by theories of social
means of persuasion. According to Aristotle, this art of
construction, White argues that culture is reconstituted
persuasion could be used in public settings in three dier-
through language. Just as language inuences people,
ent ways. He writes in Book I, Chapter III, A member
people inuence language. Language is socially con-
of the assembly decides about future events, a juryman
structed, and depends on the meanings people attach to
about past events: while those who merely decide on the
it. Because language is not rigid and changes depending
orators skill are observers. From this it follows that there
1.3 As a course of study 3

are three divisions of oratory (1) political, (2) foren- has conformed to a multitude of dierent applications,
sic, and (3) the ceremonial oratory of display. Eugene ranging from architecture to literature.[20] Although the
Garver, in his critique of Aristotles Rhetoric, conrms curriculum has transformed in a number of ways, it has
that Aristotle viewed rhetoric as a civic art. Garver writes, generally emphasized the study of principles and rules of
Rhetoric articulates a civic art of rhetoric, combining the composition as a means for moving audiences. Generally
almost incompatible properties of techne and appropri- speaking, the study of rhetoric trains students to speak
ateness to citizens.[16] Each of Aristotles divisions plays and/or write eectively, as well as critically understand
a role in civic life and can be used in a dierent way to and analyze discourse.
aect cities.
Rhetoric began as a civic art in Ancient Greece where
Because rhetoric is a public art capable of shaping opin- students were trained to develop tactics of oratorical per-
ion, some of the ancients including Plato found fault in suasion, especially in legal disputes. Rhetoric originated
it. They claimed that while it could be used to improve in a school of pre-Socratic philosophers known as the
civic life, it could be used equally easily to deceive or ma- Sophists circa 600 BC. Demosthenes and Lysias emerged
nipulate with negative eects on the city. The masses as major orators during this period, and Isocrates and
were incapable of analyzing or deciding anything on their Gorgias as prominent teachers. Rhetorical education fo-
own and would therefore be swayed by the most persua- cused on ve particular canons: inventio (invention), dis-
sive speeches. Thus, civic life could be controlled by positio (arrangement), elocutio (style), memoria (mem-
the one who could deliver the best speech. Plato ex- ory), and actio (delivery). Modern teachings continue to
plores the problematic moral status of rhetoric twice: in reference these rhetorical leaders and their work in dis-
Gorgias, a dialogue named for the famed Sophist, and in cussions of classical rhetoric and persuasion.
The Phaedrus, a dialogue best known for its commentary Rhetoric was later taught in universities during the Middle
on love. This concern is still maintained to nowadays. Ages as one of the three original liberal arts or trivium
More trusting in the power of rhetoric to support a re- (along with logic and grammar).[21] During the medieval
public, the Roman orator Cicero argued that art required period, political rhetoric declined as republican oratory
something more than eloquence. A good orator needed died out and the emperors of Rome garnered increasing
also to be a good man, a person enlightened on a variety authority. With the rise of European monarchs in fol-
of civic topics. He describes the proper training of the lowing centuries, rhetoric shifted into the courtly and re-
orator in his major text on rhetoric, De Oratore, modeled ligious applications. Augustine exerted strong inuence
on Platos dialogues. on Christian rhetoric in the Middle Ages, advocating the
Modern day works continue to support the claims of the use of rhetoric to lead audiences to truth and understand-
ancients that rhetoric is an art capable of inuencing civic ing, especially in the church. The study of liberal arts,
life. In his work Political Style, Robert Hariman claims, he believed, contributed to rhetorical study: In the case
Furthermore, questions of freedom, equality, and jus- of a keen and ardent nature, ne words will come more
tice often are raised and addressed through performances readily through reading and hearing the eloquent than by
ranging from debates to demonstrations without loss of pursuing the rules of rhetoric.[22] Poetry and letter writ-
moral content.[17] James Boyd White argues further that ing, for instance, became a central component of rhetori-
rhetoric is capable not only of addressing issues of polit- cal study during the Middle Ages.[23] After the fall of the
ical interest but that it can inuence culture as a whole. Republic in Rome, poetry became a tool for rhetorical
In his book, When Words Lose Their Meaning, he argues training since there were fewer opportunities for political
that words of persuasion and identication dene com- speech.[24] Letter writing was the primary form through
munity and civic life. He states that words produce "... which business was conducted both in state and church, so
the methods by which culture is maintained, criticized, it became an important aspect of rhetorical education.[25]
and transformed.[18] Both White and Hariman agree that Rhetorical education became more restrained as style and
words and rhetoric have the power to shape culture and substance separated in 16th-century France with Peter
civic life. Ramus, and attention turned to the scientic method.
In modern times, rhetoric has consistently remained rel- That is, inuential scholars like Ramus argued that the
processes of invention and arrangement should be ele-
evant as a civic art. In speeches, as well as in non-verbal
forms, rhetoric continues to be used as a tool to inuence vated to the domain of philosophy, while rhetorical in-
struction should be chiey concerned with the use of g-
communities from local to national levels.
ures and other forms of the ornamentation of language.
Scholars such as Francis Bacon developed the study of
1.3 As a course of study scientic rhetoric.[26] This concentration rejected the
elaborate style characteristic of the classical oration. This
Rhetoric as a course of study has evolved signicantly plain language carried over to John Locke's teaching,
since its ancient beginnings. Through the ages, the study which emphasized concrete knowledge and steered away
and teaching of rhetoric has adapted to the particular ex- from ornamentation in speech, further alienating rhetori-
igencies of the time and venue.[19] The study of rhetoric cal instruction, which was identied wholly with this or-
4 2 HISTORY

namentation, from the pursuit of knowledge. Harvard University, the rst university in the United
In the 18th century, rhetoric assumed a more social States, based on the European model, taught a basic cur-
role, initiating the creation of new education systems. riculum, including rhetoric. Rhetoric, in this sense, how
"Elocution schools arose (predominantly in England) in to properly give speeches, played an important role in
which females analyzed classic literature, most notably their training. Rhetoric was soon taught in departments
the works of William Shakespeare, and discussed pro- of English as well.[33]
nunciation tactics.[27]
The study of rhetoric underwent a revival with the rise 1.4 Knowledge
of democratic institutions during the late 18th and early
19th centuries. Scotlands author and theorist Hugh Blair The relationship between rhetoric and knowledge is an
served as a key leader of this movement during the old and interesting philosophical problem, partly because
late 18th century. In his most famous work Lectures of our dierent assumptions on the nature of knowledge.
on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, he advocates rhetorical But it is fairly clear that while knowledge is primarily con-
study for common citizens as a resource for social suc- cerned with truth (i.e. assuming that there is such a thing
cess. Many American colleges and secondary schools as truth), rhetoric is primarily concerned with statements
used Blairs text throughout the 19th century to train stu- and their eects on the audience. The word rhetoric
dents of rhetoric.[28] may also refer to empty speak, which reects an indif-
Political rhetoric also underwent renewal in the wake of ference to truth, and in this sense rhetoric is adversar-
the US and French revolutions. The rhetorical studies of ial to knowledge. Plato famously criticized the Sophists
ancient Greece and Rome were resurrected in the stud- for their rhetoric which had persuaded people to sentence
ies of the era as speakers and teachers looked to Cicero his friend Socrates to death regardless of what was true.
and others to inspire defense of the new republic. Lead- However, rhetoric is also used in the construction of true
ing rhetorical theorists included John Quincy Adams of arguments, or in identifying what is relevant, the crux
Harvard who advocated the democratic advancement of of the matter, in a selection of true but otherwise triv-
rhetorical art. Harvards founding of the Boylston Pro- ial statements. Hence, rhetoric is also closely related to
fessorship of Rhetoric and Oratory sparked the growth knowledge.
of rhetorical study in colleges across the United States.[25]
Harvards rhetoric program drew inspiration from literary
sources to guide organization and style. Recently, there
have been studies conducted examining the rhetoric used
2 History
in political speech acts to illustrate how political gures
will persuade audiences for their own purposes.[29][30] Rhetoric has its origins in Mesopotamia.[34] Some of
the earliest examples of rhetoric can be found in
Debate clubs and lyceums also developed as forums in
the Akkadian writings of the princess and priestess
which common citizens could hear speakers and sharpen
Enheduanna (c. 22852250 BC,[35] while later exam-
debate skills. The American lyceum in particular was
ples can be found in the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the
seen as both an educational and social institution, featur-
time of Sennacherib (704681 BC).[36] In ancient Egypt,
ing group discussions and guest lecturers.[31] These pro-
rhetoric had existed since at least the Middle Kingdom
grams cultivated democratic values and promoted active
period (c. 20801640 BC). The Egyptians held eloquent
participation in political analysis.
speaking in high esteem, and it was a skill that had a
Throughout the 20th century, rhetoric developed as very high value in their society. The Egyptian rules
a concentrated eld of study with the establishment of rhetoric also clearly specied that knowing when
of rhetorical courses in high schools and universities. not to speak is essential, and very respected, rhetori-
Courses such as public speaking and speech analysis ap- cal knowledge. Their approach to rhetoric was thus
ply fundamental Greek theories (such as the modes of a balance between eloquence and wise silence. Their
persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos) as well as trace rules of speech also strongly emphasized adherence to
rhetorical development throughout the course of history. social behaviors that support a conservative status quo
Rhetoric has earned a more esteemed reputation as a eld and they held that skilled speech should support, not
of study with the emergence of Communication Studies question, society.[37] In ancient China, rhetoric dates
departments as well as Rhetoric and Composition pro- back to the Chinese philosopher, Confucius (551479
grams within English departments in universities and in BC), and continued with later followers. The tradition
conjunction with the linguistic turn. Rhetorical study has of Confucianism emphasized the use of eloquence in
broadened in scope, and is especially utilized by the elds speaking.[38] The use of rhetoric can also be found in the
of marketing, politics, and literature. ancient Biblical tradition.[39]
Rhetoric, as an area of study, is concerned with how hu- In ancient Greece, the earliest mention of oratorical
mans use symbols, especially language, to reach agree- skill occurs in Homer's Iliad, where heroes like Achilles,
ment that permits coordinated eort of some sort.[32] Hector, and Odysseus were honored for their ability to
2.2 Isocrates 5

advise and exhort their peers and followers (the Laos or analyzed poetry, parsed close synonyms, invented argu-
army) in wise and appropriate action. With the rise of the mentation strategies, and debated the nature of reality.
democratic polis, speaking skill was adapted to the needs They claimed to make their students better, or, in other
of the public and political life of cities in ancient Greece, words, to teach virtue. They thus claimed that human
much of which revolved around the use of oratory as the excellence was not an accident of fate or a prerogative
medium through which political and judicial decisions of noble birth, but an art or "techne" that could be taught
were made, and through which philosophical ideas were and learned. They were thus among the rst humanists.
developed and disseminated. For modern students today, Several sophists also questioned received wisdom about
it can be dicult to remember that the wide use and avail- the gods and the Greek culture, which they believed was
ability of written texts is a phenomenon that was just com- taken for granted by Greeks of their time, making them
ing into vogue in Classical Greece. In Classical times, among the rst agnostics. For example, they argued that
many of the great thinkers and political leaders performed cultural practices were a function of convention or nomos
their works before an audience, usually in the context of rather than blood or birth or phusis. They argued even
a competition or contest for fame, political inuence, and further that morality or immorality of any action could
cultural capital; in fact, many of them are known only not be judged outside of the cultural context within which
through the texts that their students, followers, or detrac- it occurred. The well-known phrase, Man is the measure
tors wrote down. As has already been noted, rhetor was of all things arises from this belief. One of their most
the Greek term for orator: A rhetor was a citizen who famous, and infamous, doctrines has to do with probabil-
regularly addressed juries and political assemblies and ity and counter arguments. They taught that every argu-
who was thus understood to have gained some knowledge ment could be countered with an opposing argument, that
about public speaking in the process, though in general fa- an arguments eectiveness derived from how likely
cility with language was often referred to as logn techne, it appeared to the audience (its probability of seeming
skill with arguments or verbal artistry.[40] true), and that any probability argument could be coun-
Rhetoric thus evolved as an important art, one that pro- tered with an inverted probability argument. Thus, if it
vided the orator with the forms, means, and strategies for seemed likely that a strong, poor man were guilty of rob-
persuading an audience of the correctness of the orators bing a rich, weak man, the strong poor man could argue,
arguments. Today the term rhetoric can be used at times on the contrary, that this very likelihood (that he would be
to refer only to the form of argumentation, often with the a suspect) makes it unlikely that he committed the crime,
pejorative connotation that rhetoric is a means of obscur- since he would most likely be apprehended for the crime.
ing the truth. Classical philosophers believed quite the They also taught and were known for their ability to make
contrary: the skilled use of rhetoric was essential to the the weaker (or worse) argument the stronger (or better).
discovery of truths, because it provided the means of or- Aristophanes famously parodies the clever inversions that
dering and clarifying arguments. sophists were known for in his play The Clouds.
The word sophistry developed strong negative connota-
tions in ancient Greece that continue today, but in ancient
2.1 Sophists Greece sophists were nevertheless popular and well-paid
professionals, widely respected for their abilities but also
Main article: Sophists widely criticized for their excesses.

In Europe, organized thought about public speaking be-

gan in ancient Greece.[41] Possibly, the rst study about 2.2 Isocrates
the power of language may be attributed to the philoso-
pher Empedocles (d. c. 444 BC), whose theories on Main article: Isocrates
human knowledge would provide a basis for many fu-
ture rhetoricians. The rst written manual is attributed Isocrates (436338 BC), like the sophists, taught pub-
to Corax and his pupil Tisias. Their work, as well as lic speaking as a means of human improvement, but he
that of many of the early rhetoricians, grew out of the worked to distinguish himself from the Sophists, whom
courts of law; Tisias, for example, is believed to have he saw as claiming far more than they could deliver. He
written judicial speeches that others delivered in the suggested that while an art of virtue or excellence did
courts. Teaching in oratory was popularized in the 5th exist, it was only one piece, and the least, in a process
century BC by itinerant teachers known as sophists, the of self-improvement that relied much more heavily on
best known of whom were Protagoras (c. 481420 BC), native talent and desire, constant practice, and the imi-
Gorgias (c.483376 BC), and Isocrates (436338 BC). tation of good models. Isocrates believed that practice
The Sophists were a disparate group who travelled from in speaking publicly about noble themes and important
city to city, teaching in public places to attract students questions would function to improve the character of both
and oer them an education. Their central focus was speaker and audience while also oering the best service
on logos or what we might broadly refer to as discourse, to a city. In fact, Isocrates was an outspoken champion
its functions and powers. They dened parts of speech, of rhetoric as a mode of civic engagement.[42] He thus
6 2 HISTORY

wrote his speeches as models for his students to im-

itate in the same way that poets might imitate Homer
or Hesiod, seeking to inspire in them a desire to attain
fame through civic leadership. His was the rst perma-
nent school in Athens and it is likely that Platos Academy
and Aristotles Lyceum were founded in part as a response
to Isocrates. Though he left no handbooks, his speeches
(Antidosis and Against the Sophists are most relevant
to students of rhetoric) became models of oratory (he was
one of the canonical "Ten Attic Orators") and keys to his
entire educational program. He had a marked inuence
on Cicero and Quintilian, and through them, on the entire
educational system of the west.

2.3 Plato

Main articles: Plato and Platonism

Plato (427347 BC) famously outlined the dierences

between true and false rhetoric in a number of dialogues;
particularly the Gorgias and Phaedrus dialogues wherein
Plato disputes the sophistic notion that the art of persua-
sion (the sophists art, which he calls rhetoric), can exist
independent of the art of dialectic. Plato claims that since A marble bust of Aristotle
sophists appeal only to what seems probable, they are not
advancing their students and audiences, but simply at-
tering them with what they want to hear. While Platos cal methods are required in practical matters such as ad-
condemnation of rhetoric is clear in the Gorgias, in the judicating somebodys guilt or innocence when charged
Phaedrus he suggests the possibility of a true art wherein in a court of law, or adjudicating a prudent course of
rhetoric is based upon the knowledge produced by dialec- action to be taken in a deliberative assembly. The core
tic, and relies on a dialectically informed rhetoric to ap- features of dialectic include the absence of determined
peal to the main character, Phaedrus, to take up philoso- subject matter, its elaboration on earlier empirical prac-
phy. Thus Platos rhetoric is actually dialectic (or philos- tice, the explication of its aims, the type of utility and the
ophy) turned toward those who are not yet philosophers denition of the proper function.
and are thus unready to pursue dialectic directly. Platos
animosity against rhetoric, and against the sophists, de- For Plato and Aristotle, dialectic involves persuasion, so
rives not only from their inated claims to teach virtue and when Aristotle says that rhetoric is the antistrophe of di-
their reliance on appearances, but from the fact that his alectic, he means that rhetoric as he uses the term has a
teacher, Socrates, was sentenced to death after sophists domain or scope of application that is parallel to, but dif-
eorts. ferent from, the domain or scope of application of dialec-
tic. In Nietzsche Humanist (1998: 129), Claude Pavur
explains that "[t]he Greek prex 'anti' does not merely
2.4 Aristotle designate opposition, but it can also mean 'in place of.'"
When Aristotle characterizes rhetoric as the antistrophe
Main article: Rhetoric (Aristotle) of dialectic, he no doubt means that rhetoric is used in
Aristotle (384322 BC) was a student of Plato who fa- place of dialectic when we are discussing civic issues in a
mously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still court of law or in a legislative assembly. The domain of
repays careful study today. In the rst sentence of The rhetoric is civic aairs and practical decision making in
Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle says that rhetoric is the coun- civic aairs, not theoretical considerations of operational
terpart [literally, the antistrophe] of dialectic.[43] As the denitions of terms and clarication of thought. These,
antistrophe of a Greek ode responds to and is patterned for him, are in the domain of dialectic.
after the structure of the "strophe" (they form two sec- Aristotles treatise on rhetoric systematically describes
tions of the whole and are sung by two parts of the cho- civic rhetoric as a human art or skill (techne). It is more of
rus), so the art of rhetoric follows and is structurally pat- an objective theory than it is an interpretive theory with
terned after the art of dialectic because both are arts of a rhetorical tradition. Aristotles art of rhetoric empha-
discourse production. Thus, while dialectical methods sizes persuasion as the purpose of rhetoric. His denition
are necessary to nd truth in theoretical matters, rhetori- of rhetoric as the faculty of observing in any given case
3.1 Cicero 7

the available means of persuasion, essentially a mode of senting the persuasive arguments); and memory (the pro-
discovery, limits the art to the inventional process, and cess of learning and memorizing the speech and persua-
Aristotle heavily emphasizes the logical aspect of this sive messages.)[45]
process. In his account, rhetoric is the art of discover- In the rhetoric eld, there is an intellectual debate about
ing all available means of persuasion. A speaker supports Aristotles denition of rhetoric. Some believe that Aris-
the probability of a message by logical, ethical, and emo- totle denes rhetoric in On Rhetoric as the art of persua-
tional proofs. Some form of logos, ethos, and pathos is sion, while others think he denes it as the art of judg-
present in every possible public presentation that exists. ment. Rhetoric as the art of judgment would mean the
But the treatise in fact also discusses not only elements
rhetor discerns the available means of persuasion with
of style and (briey) delivery, but also emotional appeals a choice. Aristotle also says rhetoric is concerned with
(pathos) and characterological appeals (ethos).
judgment because the audience judges the rhetors ethos.
Aristotle identies three steps or oces of rhetoric One of the most famous of Aristotelian doctrines was the
invention, arrangement, and styleand three dierent idea of topics (also referred to as common topics or com-
types of rhetorical proof: ethos (Aristotles theory of monplaces). Though the term had a wide range of ap-
character and how the character and credibility of a plication (as a memory technique or compositional ex-
speaker can inuence an audience to consider him/her to ercise, for example) it most often referred to the seats
be believablethere being three qualities that contribute of argumentthe list of categories of thought or modes
to a credible ethos: perceived intelligence, virtuous char- of reasoningthat a speaker could use to generate argu-
acter, and goodwill);[44] pathos (the use of emotional ap- ments or proofs. The topics were thus a heuristic or in-
peals to alter the audiences judgment through metaphor, ventional tool designed to help speakers categorize and
amplication, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a thus better retain and apply frequently used types of ar-
way that evokes strong emotions in the audience.); and, gument. For example, since we often see eects as like
logos (the use of reasoning, either inductive or deductive, their causes, one way to invent an argument (about a fu-
to construct an argument). ture eect) is by discussing the cause (which it will be
Aristotle emphasized enthymematic reasoning as central like). This and other rhetorical topics derive from Aris-
to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetor- totles belief that there are certain predictable ways in
ical theorists placed much less emphasis on it. An en- which humans (particularly non-specialists) draw conclu-
thymeme would follow todays form of a syllogism; how- sions from premises. Based upon and adapted from his
ever it would exclude either the major or minor premise. dialectical Topics, the rhetorical topics became a central
An enthymeme is persuasive because the audience is pro- feature of later rhetorical theorizing, most famously in
viding the missing premise. Because the audience is able Ciceros work of that name.
to provide the missing premise, they are more likely to be
persuaded by the message.
Aristotle identied three dierent types or genres of civic 3.1 Cicero
rhetoric. Forensic (also known as judicial), was con-
cerned with determining the truth or falseness of events Main articles: Cicero, Asiatic style, De Inventione, De
that took place in the past and issues of guilt. An example Oratore, Brutus (Cicero), De Optimo Genere Oratorum,
of forensic rhetoric would be in a courtroom. Deliberative and De Partitionibus Oratoriae
(also known as political), was concerned with determin- For the Romans, oration became an important part of
ing whether or not particular actions should or should not public life. Cicero (10643 BC) was chief among Roman
be taken in the future. Making laws would be an example rhetoricians and remains the best known ancient orator
of deliberative rhetoric. Epideictic (also known as cer- and the only orator who both spoke in public and pro-
emonial), was concerned with praise and blame, values, duced treatises on the subject. Rhetorica ad Herennium,
right and wrong, demonstrating beauty and skill in the formerly attributed to Cicero but now considered to be of
present. Examples of epideictic rhetoric would include a unknown authorship, is one of the most signicant works
eulogy or a wedding toast. on rhetoric and is still widely used as a reference today.
It is an extensive reference on the use of rhetoric, and in
the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it achieved wide pub-
lication as an advanced school text on rhetoric.
3 Canons Cicero is considered one of the most signicant rhetori-
cians of all time, charting a middle path between the com-
The Five Canons of Rhetoric serve as a guide to creating peting Attic and Asiatic styles to become considered sec-
persuasive messages and arguments. These are invention ond only to Demosthenes among historys orators.[46] His
(the process of developing arguments); style (determin- works include the early and very inuential De Inven-
ing how to present the arguments); arrangement (orga- tione (On Invention, often read alongside the Ad Heren-
nizing the arguments for extreme eect); delivery (the nium as the two basic texts of rhetorical theory through-
gestures, pronunciation, tone and pace used when pre- out the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance), De Ora-
8 3 CANONS

in all branches of learning: an idea that was rendered as

liberal humanism, and that lives on today in liberal arts
or general education requirements in colleges and univer-
sities around the world.

3.2 Quintilian

Main articles: Quintilian and Byzantine rhetoric

Quintilian (35100 CE) began his career as a pleader

in the courts of law; his reputation grew so great that
Vespasian created a chair of rhetoric for him in Rome.
The culmination of his lifes work was the Institutio Ora-
toria (Institutes of Oratory, or alternatively, The Orators
Education), a lengthy treatise on the training of the orator,
in which he discusses the training of the perfect orator
from birth to old age and, in the process, reviews the doc-
trines and opinions of many inuential rhetoricians who
preceded him.
In the Institutes, Quintilian organizes rhetorical study
through the stages of education that an aspiring orator
would undergo, beginning with the selection of a nurse.
Aspects of elementary education (training in reading and
Bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero
writing, grammar, and literary criticism) are followed
by preliminary rhetorical exercises in composition (the
progymnasmata) that include maxims and fables, nar-
ratives and comparisons, and nally full legal or politi-
tore (a fuller statement of rhetorical principles in dialogue cal speeches. The delivery of speeches within the con-
form), Topics (a rhetorical treatment of common topics, text of education or for entertainment purposes became
highly inuential through the Renaissance), Brutus (Ci- widespread and popular under the term declamation.
cero) (a discussion of famous orators) and Orator (a de- Rhetorical training proper was categorized under ve
fense of Ciceros style). Cicero also left a large body of canons that would persist for centuries in academic cir-
speeches and letters which would establish the outlines cles:
of Latin eloquence and style for generations to come. It
was the rediscovery of Ciceros speeches (such as the de-
Inventio (invention) is the process that leads to the
fense of Archias) and letters (to Atticus) by Italians like
development and renement of an argument.
Petrarch that, in part, ignited the cultural innovations that
we know as the Renaissance. He championed the learn- Once arguments are developed, dispositio (disposi-
ing of Greek (and Greek rhetoric), contributed to Roman tion, or arrangement) is used to determine how it
ethics, linguistics, philosophy, and politics, and empha- should be organized for greatest eect, usually be-
sized the importance of all forms of appeal (emotion, hu- ginning with the exordium.
mor, stylistic range, irony and digression in addition to
pure reasoning) in oratory. But perhaps his most signif- Once the speech content is known and the structure
icant contribution to subsequent rhetoric, and education is determined, the next steps involve elocutio (style)
in general, was his argument that orators learn not only and pronuntiatio (presentation).
about the specics of their case (the hypothesis) but also
about the general questions from which they derived (the Memoria (memory) comes to play as the speaker re-
theses). Thus, in giving a speech in defense of a poet calls each of these elements during the speech.
whose Roman citizenship had been questioned, the or-
ator should examine not only the specics of that poets Actio (delivery) is the nal step as the speech is pre-
civic status, he should also examine the role and value sented in a gracious and pleasing way to the audience
of poetry and of literature more generally in Roman cul- the Grand Style.
ture and political life. The orator, said Cicero, needed
to be knowledgeable about all areas of human life and This work was available only in fragments in medieval
culture, including law, politics, history, literature, ethics, times, but the discovery of a complete copy at the Abbey
warfare, medicine, even arithmetic and geometry. Cicero of St. Gall in 1416 led to its emergence as one of the most
gave rise to the idea that the ideal orator be well-versed inuential works on rhetoric during the Renaissance.
3.4 Sixteenth century 9

Quintilians work describes not just the art of rhetoric, (in particular Al-Andalus) renewed interest in Aristotle
but the formation of the perfect orator as a politically ac- and Classical thought in general, leading to what some
tive, virtuous, publicly minded citizen. His emphasis was historians call the 12th century renaissance. A number
on the ethical application of rhetorical training, in part a of medieval grammars and studies of poetry and rhetoric
reaction against the growing tendency in Roman schools appeared.
toward standardization of themes and techniques. At the Late medieval rhetorical writings include those of St.
same time that rhetoric was becoming divorced from po- Thomas Aquinas (1225?1274), Matthew of Vendome
litical decision making, rhetoric rose as a culturally vi- (Ars Versicatoria, 1175?), and Georey of Vinsauf (Po-
brant and important mode of entertainment and cultural
etria Nova, 12001216). Pre-modern female rhetori-
criticism in a movement known as the second sophis- cians, outside of Socrates friend Aspasia, are rare; but
tic, a development that gave rise to the charge (made
medieval rhetoric produced by women either in religious
by Quintilian and others) that teachers were emphasizing orders, such as Julian of Norwich (d. 1415), or the very
style over substance in rhetoric.
well-connected Christine de Pizan (1364?1430?), did
occur if not always recorded in writing.

3.3 Medieval to Enlightenment In his 1943 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation

in English, Canadian Marshall McLuhan (19111980)
surveys the verbal arts from approximately the time
After the breakup of the western Roman Empire, the
of Cicero down to the time of Thomas Nashe (1567
study of rhetoric continued to be central to the study
1600?).[48] His dissertation is still noteworthy for under-
of the verbal arts; but the study of the verbal arts went
taking to study the history of the verbal arts together as
into decline for several centuries, followed eventually by
the trivium, even though the developments that he sur-
a gradual rise in formal education, culminating in the rise
veys have been studied in greater detail since he under-
of medieval universities. But rhetoric transmuted dur-
took his study. As noted below, McLuhan became one
ing this period into the arts of letter writing (ars dictami-
of the most widely publicized thinkers in the 20th cen-
nis) and sermon writing (ars praedicandi). As part of the
tury, so it is important to note his scholarly roots in the
trivium, rhetoric was secondary to the study of logic, and
study of the history of rhetoric and dialectic.
its study was highly scholastic: students were given repet-
itive exercises in the creation of discourses on historical Another interesting record of medieval rhetorical thought
subjects (suasoriae) or on classic legal questions (contro- can be seen in the many animal debate poems popular
versiae). in England and the continent during the Middle Ages,
such as The Owl and the Nightingale (13th century) and
Although he is not commonly regarded as a rhetorician,
Georey Chaucer's Parliament of Fowls (1382?).
St. Augustine (354430) was trained in rhetoric and was
at one time a professor of Latin rhetoric in Milan. After
his conversion to Christianity, he became interested in us-
3.4 Sixteenth century
ing these "pagan" arts for spreading his religion. This new
use of rhetoric is explored in the Fourth Book of his De Walter J. Ongs article Humanism in the 1967 New
Doctrina Christiana, which laid the foundation of what
Catholic Encyclopedia surveys Renaissance humanism,
would become homiletics, the rhetoric of the sermon. which dened itself broadly as disfavoring medieval
Augustine begins the book by asking why the power of
scholastic logic and dialectic and as favoring instead the
eloquence, which is so ecacious in pleading either for study of classical Latin style and grammar and philol-
the erroneous cause or the right, should not be used for
ogy and rhetoric. (Reprinted in Ongs Faith and Contexts
righteous purposes (IV. 3). (Scholars Press, 1999; 4: 6991.))
One early concern of the medieval Christian church was One inuential gure in the rebirth of interest in clas-
its attitude to classical rhetoric itself. Jerome (d. 420) sical rhetoric was Erasmus (c. 14661536). His 1512
complained, What has Horace to do with the Psalms, work, De Duplici Copia Verborum et Rerum (also known
Virgil with the Gospels, Cicero with the Apostles?" Au- as Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style), was
gustine is also remembered for arguing for the preserva- widely published (it went through more than 150 edi-
tion of pagan works and fostering a church tradition that tions throughout Europe) and became one of the basic
led to conservation of numerous pre-Christian rhetorical school texts on the subject. Its treatment of rhetoric is
writings. less comprehensive than the classic works of antiquity,
Rhetoric would not regain its classical heights until the but provides a traditional treatment of res-verba (matter
renaissance, but new writings did advance rhetorical and form): its rst book treats the subject of elocutio,
thought. Boethius (480?524), in his brief Overview of showing the student how to use schemes and tropes; the
the Structure of Rhetoric, continues Aristotles taxonomy second book covers inventio. Much of the emphasis is on
by placing rhetoric in subordination to philosophical ar- abundance of variation (copia means plenty or abun-
gument or dialectic.[47] The introduction of Arab schol- dance, as in copious or cornucopia), so both books fo-
arship from European relations with the Muslim empire cus on ways to introduce the maximum amount of vari-
10 3 CANONS

rhetoricsthose written in English rather than in the

Classical languages; adoption of works in English was
slow, however, due to the strong orientation toward Latin
and Greek. Leonard Cox's The Art or Crafte of Rheto-
ryke (c. 15241530; second edition published in 1532)
is considered to be the earliest text on rhetorics in En-
glish; it was, for the most part, a translation of the work
of Philipp Melanchthon.[49] A successful early text was
Thomas Wilson's The Arte of Rhetorique (1553), which
presents a traditional treatment of rhetoric. For instance,
Wilson presents the ve canons of rhetoric (Invention,
Disposition, Elocutio, Memoria, and Utterance or Actio).
Other notable works included Angel Days The English
Secretorie (1586, 1592), George Puttenham's The Arte of
English Poesie (1589), and Richard Rainholde's Founda-
cion of Rhetorike (1563).
During this same period, a movement began that would
change the organization of the school curriculum in
Protestant and especially Puritan circles and led to
rhetoric losing its central place. A French scholar, Pierre
de la Rame, in Latin Petrus Ramus (15151572), dis-
satised with what he saw as the overly broad and re-
dundant organization of the trivium, proposed a new cur-
Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam riculum. In his scheme of things, the ve components
of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of
rhetoric. Instead, invention and disposition were deter-
mined to fall exclusively under the heading of dialectic,
ety into discourse. For instance, in one section of the De while style, delivery, and memory were all that remained
Copia, Erasmus presents two hundred variations of the for rhetoric. See Walter J. Ong, Ramus, Method, and the
sentence Semper, dum vivam, tui meminero. Another of Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art
his works, the extremely popular The Praise of Folly, also of Reason (Harvard University Press, 1958; reissued by
had considerable inuence on the teaching of rhetoric in the University of Chicago Press, 2004, with a new fore-
the later 16th century. Its orations in favour of qualities word by Adrian Johns). Ramus was martyred during the
such as madness spawned a type of exercise popular in French Wars of Religion. His teachings, seen as inimical
Elizabethan grammar schools, later called adoxography, to Catholicism, were short-lived in France but found a fer-
which required pupils to compose passages in praise of tile ground in the Netherlands, Germany and England.[50]
useless things.
One of Ramus French followers, Audomarus Talaeus
Juan Luis Vives (14921540) also helped shape the study (Omer Talon) published his rhetoric, Institutiones Orato-
of rhetoric in England. A Spaniard, he was appointed riae, in 1544. This work provided a simple presentation
in 1523 to the Lectureship of Rhetoric at Oxford by of rhetoric that emphasized the treatment of style, and
Cardinal Wolsey, and was entrusted by Henry VIII to be became so popular that it was mentioned in John Brins-
one of the tutors of Mary. Vives fell into disfavor when ley's (1612) Ludus literarius; or The Grammar Schoole as
Henry VIII divorced Catherine of Aragon and left Eng- being the most used in the best schooles. Many other
land in 1528. His best-known work was a book on edu- Ramist rhetorics followed in the next half-century, and
cation, De Disciplinis, published in 1531, and his writings by the 17th century, their approach became the primary
on rhetoric included Rhetoricae, sive De Ratione Dicendi, method of teaching rhetoric in Protestant and especially
Libri Tres (1533), De Consultatione (1533), and a rhetoric Puritan circles. See Walter J. Ong, Ramus and Talon
on letter writing, De Conscribendis Epistolas (1536). Inventory (Harvard University Press, 1958); Joseph S.
It is likely that many well-known English writers were ex- Freedman, Philosophy and the Art Europe, 15001700:
posed to the works of Erasmus and Vives (as well as those Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities (Ashgate,
of the Classical rhetoricians) in their schooling, which 1999). John Milton (16081674) wrote a textbook in
was conducted in Latin (not English) and often included logic or dialectic in Latin based on Ramus work, which
some study of Greek and placed considerable emphasis has now been translated into English by Walter J. Ong
on rhetoric. See, for example, T.W. Baldwins William and Charles J. Ermatinger in The Complete Prose Works
Shaksperes Small Latine and Lesse Greeke, 2 vols. (Uni- of John Milton (Yale University Press, 1982; 8: 206-407),
versity of Illinois Press, 1944). with a lengthy introduction by Ong (144-205). The intro-
duction is reprinted in Ongs Faith and Contexts (Scholars
The mid-16th century saw the rise of vernacular
3.6 Eighteenth century 11

Press, 1999; 4: 11141). 1660), which in 1664 set up a committee to improve

Ramism could not exert any inuence on the established the English language. Among the committees members
Catholic schools and universities, which remained loyal to were John Evelyn (16201706), Thomas Sprat (1635
Scholasticism, or on the new Catholic schools and univer- 1713), and John Dryden (16311700). Sprat regarded
sities founded by members of the religious orders known ne speaking as a disease, and thought that a proper
as the Society of Jesus or the Oratorians, as can be seen style should reject all amplications, digressions, and
in the Jesuit curriculum (in use right up to the 19th cen- swellings of style and instead return back to a primi-
tury, across the Christian world) known as the Ratio Stu- tive purity and shortness (History of the Royal Society,
1667).
diorum (that Claude Pavur, S.J., has recently translated
into English, with the Latin text in the parallel column on While the work of this committee never went beyond
each page (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2005)). planning, John Dryden is often credited with creating and
If the inuence of Cicero and Quintilian permeates the exemplifying a new and modern English style. His central
Ratio Studiorum, it is through the lenses of devotion and tenet was that the style should be proper to the occasion,
the militancy of the Counter-Reformation. The Ratio was the subject, and the persons. As such, he advocated the
indeed imbued with a sense of the divine, of the incarnate use of English words whenever possible instead of foreign
logos, that is of rhetoric as an eloquent and humane means ones, as well as vernacular, rather than Latinate, syntax.
to reach further devotion and further action in the Chris- His own prose (and his poetry) became exemplars of this
tian city, which was absent from Ramist formalism. The new style.
Ratio is, in rhetoric, the answer to St Ignatius Loyolas
practice, in devotion, of spiritual exercises. This com-
plex oratorical-prayer system is absent from Ramism.
3.6 Eighteenth century

3.5 Seventeenth century Arguably one of the most inuential schools of rhetoric
during this time was Scottish Belletristic rhetoric, exem-
In New England and at Harvard College (founded 1636), plied by such professors of rhetoric as Hugh Blair whose
Ramus and his followers dominated, as Perry Miller Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres saw international
shows in The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Cen- success in various editions and translations.
tury (Harvard University Press, 1939). However, in Eng-
land, several writers inuenced the course of rhetoric dur-
ing the 17th century, many of them carrying forward the
dichotomy that had been set forth by Ramus and his fol- 4 Modern
lowers during the preceding decades. Of greater impor-
tance is that this century saw the development of a mod- At the turn of the 20th century, there was a revival of
ern, vernacular style that looked to English, rather than to rhetorical study manifested in the establishment of de-
Greek, Latin, or French models. partments of rhetoric and speech at academic institutions,
Francis Bacon (15611626), although not a rhetorician, as well as the formation of national and international pro-
[52]
contributed to the eld in his writings. One of the con- fessional organizations. Jim A. Kuypers and Andrew
cerns of the age was to nd a suitable style for the discus- King suggest that the early interest in rhetorical studies
sion of scientic topics, which needed above all a clear was a movement away from elocution as taught in de-
exposition of facts and arguments, rather than the ornate partments of English in the United States, and was an
style favored at the time. Bacon in his The Advance- attempt to refocus rhetorical studies away from delivery
ment of Learning criticized those who are preoccupied only to civic engagement. Collectively, they write, twen-
with style rather than the weight of matter, worth of sub- tieth century rhetorical studies oered an understanding
ject, soundness of argument, life of invention, or depth of rhetoric that demonstrated a rich complexity of how
[53]
of judgment. On matters of style, he proposed that the rhetorical scholars understood the nature of rhetoric.
style conform to the subject matter and to the audience, Theorists generally agree that by the 1930s a signi-
that simple words be employed whenever possible, and cant reason for the revival of the study of rhetoric was
that the style should be agreeable.[51] the renewed importance of language and persuasion in
the increasingly mediated environment of the 20th cen-
Thomas Hobbes (15881679) also wrote on rhetoric. tury (see Linguistic turn) and through the 21st century,
Along with a shortened translation of Aristotle's Rhetoric, with the media focus on the wide variations and analy-
Hobbes also produced a number of other works on the ses of political rhetoric and its consequences. The rise
subject. Sharply contrarian on many subjects, Hobbes, of advertising and of mass media such as photography,
like Bacon, also promoted a simpler and more natural telegraphy, radio, and lm brought rhetoric more promi-
style that used gures of speech sparingly. nently into peoples lives. More recently the term rhetoric
Perhaps the most inuential development in English style has been applied to media forms other than verbal lan-
came out of the work of the Royal Society (founded in guage, e.g. Visual rhetoric.
12 4 MODERN

4.1 Notable modern theorists its remedies,[60] and introduced the inuential con-
cepts tenor and vehicle to describe the components
Cham Perelman was a philosopher of law, who of a metaphorthe main idea and the concept to
studied, taught, and lived most of his life in Brussels. which it is compared.[61]
He was among the most important argumentation
theorists of the 20th century. His chief work is the The Groupe . This interdisciplinary team has con-
Trait de l'argumentation la nouvelle rhtorique tributed to the renovation of the elocutio in the con-
(1958), with Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, which was text of poetics and modern linguistics, signicantly
translated into English as The New Rhetoric: A with Rhtorique gnrale (1970; translated into En-
Treatise on Argumentation, by John Wilkinson and glish as A General Rhetoric, by Paul B. Burrell et
Purcell Weaver (1969). Perelman and Olbrechts- Edgar M. Slotkin, Johns Hopkins University Press,
Tyteca move rhetoric from the periphery to the cen- 1981) and Rhtorique de la posie (1977).
ter of argumentation theory. Among their most
inuential concepts are dissociation, the univer- Stephen Toulmin was a philosopher whose mod-
sal audience, quasi-logical argument, and pres- els of argumentation have had great inuence on
ence. modern rhetorical theory. His Uses of Argument is
an important text in modern rhetorical theory and
Kenneth Burke was a rhetorical theorist, philoso- argumentation theory.[62]
pher, and poet. Many of his works are central to
modern rhetorical theory: A Rhetoric of Motives Richard Vatz is a rhetorician responsible for the
(1950), A Grammar of Motives (1945), Language salience-agenda/meaning-spin conceptualization of
as Symbolic Action (1966), and Counterstatement rhetoric, later revised (2014) to an agenda-spin
(1931). Among his inuential concepts are iden- model, a conceptualization which emphasizes per-
tication, consubstantiality, and the dramatistic suader responsibility for the agenda and spin he/she
pentad. He described rhetoric as the use of lan- creates. His theory is notable for its agent-focused
guage as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation perspective, articulated in /The Only Authentic
in beings that by nature respond to symbols.[54] In Book of Persuasion/ (Kendall Hunt), derived from
relation to Aristotles theory, Aristotle was more in- the Summer, 1973 /Philosophy and Rhetoric/ arti-
terested in constructing rhetoric, while Burke was cle, The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation.
interested in debunking it.
Richard M. Weaver was a rhetorical and cultural
Edwin Black was a rhetorical critic best known for critic well known for his contributions to the new
his book Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method[55] conservatism. He focused on the ethical implica-
(1965) in which he criticized the dominant neo- tions of rhetoric and his ideas can be seen in Lan-
Aristotelian tradition in American rhetorical crit- guage is Sermonic and The Ethics of Rhetoric.
icism as having little in common with Aristotle According to Weaver there are four types of argu-
besides some recurrent topics of discussion and ment, and through the argument a person habitually
a vaguely derivative view of rhetorical discourse. uses the critic can see the rhetoricians worldview.
Furthermore, he contended, because rhetorical Those who prefer the argument from genus or def-
scholars had been focusing primarily on Aristotelian inition are idealists. Those who argue from simili-
logical forms they often overlooked important, al- tude see the connectedness between things and are
ternative types of discourse. He also published sev- used by poets and religious individuals. The argu-
eral highly inuential essays including: Secrecy and ment from consequence sees a cause and eect re-
Disclosure as Rhetorical Forms.,[56] The Second lationship. Finally the argument from circumstance
Persona,[57] and A Note on Theory and Practice considers the particulars of a situation and is an ar-
in Rhetorical Criticism.[58] gument preferred by liberals.
Marshall McLuhan was a media theorist whose
theories and whose choice of objects of study are
important to the study of rhetoric. McLuhans fa- 4.2 Methods of analysis
mous dictum the medium is the message high-
lights the signicance of the medium itself. No 4.2.1 Criticism seen as a method
other scholar of the history and theory of rhetoric
was as widely publicized in the 20th century as Rhetoric can be analyzed by a variety of methods and
McLuhan.[59] theories. One such method is criticism. When those us-
ing criticism analyze instances of rhetoric what they do is
I. A. Richards was a literary critic and rhetorician. called rhetorical criticism (see section below). According
His The Philosophy of Rhetoric is an important text to rhetorical critic Jim A. Kuypers, The use of rhetoric
in modern rhetorical theory. In this work, he de- is an art; as such, it does not lend itself well to scien-
ned rhetoric as a study of misunderstandings and tic methods of analysis. Criticism is an art as well; as
4.3 Strategies 13

such, it is particularly well suited for examining rhetor- Generally speaking, rhetorical analysis makes use of
ical creations. [63] He asserts that criticism is a method rhetorical concepts (ethos, logos, kairos, mediation, etc.)
of generating knowledge just as the scientic method is a to describe the social or epistemological functions of the
method for generating knowledge: The way the Sciences object of study. When the object of study happens to
and the Humanities study the phenomena that surround us be some type of discourse (a speech, a poem, a joke, a
dier greatly in the amount of researcher personality al- newspaper article), the aim of rhetorical analysis is not
lowed to inuence the results of the study. For example, simply to describe the claims and arguments advanced
in the Sciences researchers purposefully adhere to a strict within the discourse, but (more important) to identify the
method (the scientic method). All scientic researchers specic semiotic strategies employed by the speaker to
are to use this same basic method, and successful exper- accomplish specic persuasive goals. Therefore, after a
iments must be 100 percent replicable by others. The rhetorical analyst discovers a use of language that is par-
application of the scientic method may take numerous ticularly important in achieving persuasion, she typically
forms, but the overall method remains the same--and the moves onto the question of How does it work?" That is,
personality of the researcher is excised from the actual what eects does this particular use of rhetoric have on
study. In sharp contrast, criticism (one of many Human- an audience, and how does that eect provide more clues
istic methods of generating knowledge) actively involves as to the speakers (or writers) objectives?
the personality of the researcher. The very choices of There are some scholars who do partial rhetorical analy-
what to study, and how and why to study a rhetorical ar- sis and defer judgments about rhetorical success. In other
tifact are heavily inuenced by the personal qualities of words, some analysts attempt to avoid the question of
the researcher. In criticism this is especially important Was this use of rhetoric successful [in accomplishing the
since the personality of the critic considered an integral aims of the speaker]?" To others, however, that is the pre-
component of the study. Further personalizing criticism, eminent point: is the rhetoric strategically eective and
we nd that rhetorical critics use a variety of means when what did the rhetoric accomplish? This question allows a
examining a particular rhetorical artifact, with some crit- shift in focus from the speakers objectives to the eects
ics even developing their own unique perspective to better and functions of the rhetoric itself.
examine a rhetorical artifact.[63]
Edwin Black (rhetorician) wrote on this point that,
Methods, then, admit of varying degrees of personality. 4.3 Strategies
And criticism, on the whole, is near the indeterminate,
contingent, personal end of the methodological scale. In Rhetorical strategies are the eorts made by authors to
consequence of this placement, it is neither possible nor persuade or inform their readers. Rhetorical strategies
desirable for criticism to be xed into a system, for crit- are employed by writers and refer to the dierent ways
ical techniques to be objectied, for critics to be inter- they can persuade the reader. According to Gray, there
changeable for purposes of [scientic] replication, or for are various argument strategies used in writing. He de-
rhetorical criticism to serve as the handmaiden of quasi- scribes four of these as argument from analogy, argument
scientic theory. [The] idea is that critical method is too from absurdity, thought experiments, and inference to the
personally expressive to be systematized.[64] best explanation.[66]
Jim A. Kuypers sums this idea of criticism as art in the
following manner: In short, criticism is an art, not a sci-
ence. It is not a scientic method; it uses subjective meth- 4.4 Criticism
ods of argument; it exists on its own, not in conjunction
with other methods of generating knowledge (i.e., social Modern rhetorical criticism explores the relationship be-
scientic or scientic). [I]nsight and imagination top sta- tween text and context; that is, how an instance of rhetoric
tistical applications when studying rhetorical action. [65] relates to circumstances. Since the aim of rhetoric is to
be persuasive, the level to which the rhetoric in question
persuades its audience is what must be analyzed, and later
4.2.2 Observation on analytic method criticized. In determining the extent to which a text is
persuasive,one may explore the texts relationship with its
There does not exist an analytic method that is widely rec- audience, purpose, ethics, argument, evidence, arrange-
ognized as the rhetorical method, partly because many ment, delivery, and style.[67] In his Rhetorical Criticism:
in rhetorical study see rhetoric as merely produced by A Study in Method, scholar Edwin Black states, It is
reality (see dissent from that view below). It is impor- the task of criticism not to measure ... discourses dog-
tant to note that the object of rhetorical analysis is typi- matically against some parochial standard of rationality
cally discourse, and therefore the principles of rhetorical but, allowing for the immeasurable wide range of hu-
analysis would be dicult to distinguish from those of man experience, to see them as they really are.[68] While
"discourse analysis. However, rhetorical analytic meth- the language as they really are is debatable, rhetorical
ods can also be applied to almost anything, including critics explain texts and speeches by investigating their
objectsa car, a castle, a computer, a comportment. rhetorical situation, typically placing them in a frame-
14 5 FRENCH

work of speaker/audience exchange. The antithetical criticism[72] operates more through abduction, according
view places the rhetor at the center of creating that which to scholar James Jasinski, who argues that this emerg-
is considered the extant situation; i.e., the agenda and ing type of criticism can be thought of as a back-and-
spin.[69] forth between the text and the concepts, which are be-
ing explored at the same time. The concepts remain
works in progress, and understanding those terms de-
4.4.1 Additional theoretical approaches velops through the analysis of a text.[73]
Following the neo-Aristotelian approaches to criticism, Criticism is considered rhetorical when it focuses
scholars began to derive methods from other disciplines, on the way some types of discourse react to situ-
such as history, philosophy, and the social sciences.[70] ational exigenciesproblems or demandsand con-
The importance of critics personal judgment decreased straints. This means that modern rhetorical criticism is
based in how the rhetorical case or object persuades,
in explicit coverage while the analytical dimension of crit-
icism began to gain momentum. Throughout the 1960s denes, or constructs the audience. In modern terms,
and 1970s, methodological pluralism replaced the singu- what can be considered rhetoric includes, but it is not
lar neo-Aristotelian method. Methodological rhetorical limited to, speeches, scientic discourse, pamphlets, lit-
criticism is typically done by deduction, where a broad erary work, works of art, and pictures. Contemporary
method is used to examine a specic case of rhetoric.[71] rhetorical criticism has maintained aspects of early neo-
These types include: Aristotelian thinking through close reading, which at-
tempts to explore the organization and stylistic struc-
[74]
Ideological criticism critics engage rhetoric as it ture of a rhetorical object. Using close textual analysis
suggests the beliefs, values, assumptions, and inter- means rhetorical critics use the tools of classical rhetoric
pretations held by the rhetor or the larger culture. and literary analysis to evaluate the style and strategy used
Ideological criticism also treats ideology as an arti- to communicate the argument.
fact of discourse, one that is embedded in key terms
(called "ideographs") as well as material resources
4.4.2 Purpose of criticism
and discursive embodiment.
Cluster criticism a method developed by Kenneth Rhetorical criticism serves several purposes or functions.
Burke that seeks to help the critic understand the First, rhetorical criticism hopes to help form or improve
rhetors worldview. This means identifying terms public taste. It helps educate audiences and develops
that are 'clustered' around key symbols in the rhetor- them into better judges of rhetorical situations by rein-
ical artifact and the patterns in which they appear. forcing ideas of value, morality, and suitability. Rhetori-
cal criticism can thus contribute to the audiences under-
Frame analysis when used as rhetorical criticism, standing of themselves and society.
this theoretical perspective allows critics to look for
how rhetors construct an interpretive lens in their According to Jim A. Kuypers, a dual purpose for per-
discourse. In short, how they make certain facts forming criticism should be primarily to enhance our ap-
more noticeable than others. It is particularly useful preciation and understanding. [W]e wish to enhance
for analyzing products of the news media. both our own and others understanding of the rhetorical
act; we wish to share our insights with others, and to en-
Generic criticism a method that assumes cer- hance their appreciation of the rhetorical act. These are
tain situations call for similar needs and expecta- not hollow goals, but quality of life issues. By improving
tions within the audience, therefore calling for cer- understanding and appreciation, the critic can oer new
tain types of rhetoric. It studies rhetoric in dier- and potentially exciting ways for others to see the world.
ent times and locations, looking at similarities in the Through understanding we also produce knowledge about
rhetorical situation and the rhetoric that responds human communication; in theory this should help us to
to them. Examples include eulogies, inaugural ad- better govern our interactions with others. Criticism is a
dresses, and declarations of war. humanizing activity in that it explores and highlights qual-
ities that make us human. [75]
Narrative criticism narratives help organize ex-
periences in order to endow meaning to historical
events and transformations. Narrative criticism fo-
cuses on the story itself and how the construction of 5 French
the narrative directs the interpretation of the situa-
tion. Rhetoric was part of the curriculum in Jesuit and, to a
lesser extent, Oratorian colleges until the French Revolu-
By the mid-1980s, however, the study of rhetorical tion. For Jesuits, right from the foundation of the Society
criticism began to move away from precise method- in France, rhetoric was an integral part of the training of
ology towards conceptual issues. Conceptually driven young men toward taking up leadership positions in the
 15

Church and in State institutions, as Marc Fumaroli has introduction that elucidates the basic denitions involved
shown it in his foundational ge de l'loquence (1980). in the question as set, followed by an argument or thesis, a
The Oratorians, by contrast, reserved it a lesser place, in counter-argument or antithesis, and a resolving argument
part due to the stress they placed on modern language ac- or synthesis that is not a compromise between the for-
quisition and a more sensualist philosophy (like Bernard mer but the production of a new argument, ending with a
Lamy's La Rhtorique ou l'Art de parler (1675), which is conclusion that does not sum up the points but opens onto
an excellent example of their approach). Nonetheless, in a new problem. Hegelianism inuenced the dissertation
the 18th Century, rhetoric was the structure and crown of design. It remains today the standard of writing in French
secondary education, with works such as Rollins Treatise humanities.
of Studies achieving a wide and enduring fame across the By the beginning of the 20th century, rhetoric was fast
Continent.[76] Later, with Nicolas Boileau and Franois
losing the remains of its former importance, and eventu-
de Malherbe, rhetoric is the instrument of the clarity of ally was taken out of the school curriculum altogether at
the comment and speech ; the literature that ensues from
the time of the Separation of State and Churches (1905).
it is named Sublime. The main representative remains Part of the argument was that rhetoric remained the last
Rivarol.
element of irrationality, driven by religious arguments,
The French Revolution, however, turned this around. in what was perceived as inimical to Republican edu-
Philosophers such as Condorcet, who drafted the French cation. The move, initiated in 1789, found its resolu-
revolutionary chart for a peoples education under the rule tion in 1902 when rhetoric was expunged from all cur-
of reason, dismissed rhetoric as an instrument of oppres- ricula. At the same time, Aristotelian rhetoric, owing to
sion in the hands of clerics in particular. The Revolution a revival of Thomistic philosophy initiated by Rome, re-
went as far as to suppress the Bar, arguing that foren- gained ground in what was left of Catholic education in
sic rhetoric did disservice to a rational system of jus- France, in particular at the prestigious Faculty of Theol-
tice, by allowing fallacies and emotions to come into play. ogy of Paris, now a private entity. Yet, rhetoric vanished
Nonetheless, as later historians of the 19th century were substantially from the French scene, educational or intel-
keen to explain, the Revolution was a high moment of lectual, for some 60 years..
eloquence and rhetorical prowess, although set against a In the early 1960s a change began to take place, as the
background of rejecting rhetoric. word rhetoric and the body of knowledge it covers be-
Under the First Empire and its wide-ranging educational gan to be used again, in a modest and almost secret man-
reforms, imposed on or imitated across the Continent, ner. The new linguistic turn, through the rise of semiotics
rhetoric regained little ground. In fact, instructions to the as well as of structural linguistics, brought to the fore a
newly founded Polytechnic School, tasked with training new interest in gures of speech as signs, the metaphor
the scientic and technical elites, made it clear that writ- in particular (in the works of Roman Jakobson, Groupe
ten reporting was to supersede oral reporting. Rhetoric , Michel Charles, Grard Genette) while famed Struc-
reentered secondary curriculum in ts and starts, but turalist Roland Barthes, a classicist by training, perceived
never regained the prominence it had enjoyed under the how some basic elements of rhetoric could be of use in
ancien rgime, although the penultimate year of sec- the study of narratives, fashion and ideology. Knowledge
ondary education was known as the Class of Rhetoric. of rhetoric was so dim in the early 1970s that his short
When manuals were redrafted in the mid-century, in par- memoir on rhetoric was seen as highly innovative. Ba-
ticular after the 1848 Revolution to formulate a national sic as it was, it did help rhetoric regain some currency
curriculum, care was taken to distance their approach to in avant-garde circles. Psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, his
rhetoric from that of the Church, which was seen as an contemporary, makes references to rhetoric, in particular
agent of conservatism and reactionary politics. to the Pre-Socratics. Philosopher Jacques Derrida wrote
By the end of the 1870s, a major change had taken place: on Voice.
philosophy of the rationalist or eclectic kind, generally At the same time, more profound work was taking place
Kantian, had taken over rhetoric as the true end stage of that eventually gave rise to the French school of rhetoric
secondary education (the so-called Class of Philosophy as it exists today.[77]
bridged secondary and university education). Rhetoric
This rhetorical revival took place on two fronts.[78] First,
was then relegated to the study of literary gures of in 17th-century French studies, the mainstay of French
speech, a discipline later on taught as Stylistics within the
literary education, awareness grew that rhetoric was nec-
French literature curriculum. More decisively, in 1890, essary to push the limits of knowledge further, and also
a new standard written exercise superseded the rhetor-
to provide an antidote to Structuralism and its denial of
ical exercises of speech writing, letter writing and nar- historicism in culture. This was the pioneering work of
ration. The new genre, called dissertation, had been in- Marc Fumaroli who, building on the work of classicist
vented in 1866, for the purpose of rational argument in and Neo-Latinist Alain Michel and French scholars such
the philosophy class. Typically, in a dissertation, a ques- as Roger Zuber, published his famed Age de l'Eloquence
tion is asked, such as: Is history a sign of humanitys (1980), was one of the founders of the International So-
freedom?" The structure of a dissertation consists in an
16 7 NOTES

ciety for the History of Rhetoric and was eventually el- (trans. W. Rhys Roberts). I:4:1359.; Aristotle, Rhetoric
evated to a chair in rhetoric at the prestigious College 1.2.1, Archived 16 September 2008 at the Wayback Ma-
de France. He is the editor in chief of a monumental chine.
History of Rhetoric in Modern Europe.[79] His disciples
[3] The denition of rhetoric is a controversial subject within
form the second generation,[80] with rhetoricians such as the eld and has given rise to philological battles over its
Franoise Waquet and Delphine Denis, both of the Sor- meaning in Ancient Greece. See, for instance, Johnstone,
bonne, or Philippe-Joseph Salazar (fr:Philippe-Joseph Henry W. Jr. (1995). On Schiappa versus Poulakos.
Salazar on the French Wikipedia), until recently at Der- Rhetoric Review. 14:2. (Spring), 43840.
ridas College international de philosophie, laureate of
the Harry Oppenheimer prize and whose recent book [4] Perseus.Tufts.edu, Rhetorikos, Henry George Liddell,
on Hyperpolitique has attracted the French medias atten- Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
tion on a re-appropriation of the means of production of [5] Perseus.Tufts.edu, Rhetor, Henry George Liddell, Robert
persuasion.[81] Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
Second, in the area of Classical studies, in the wake of
[6] Perseus.Tufts.edu, Rhema, Henry George Liddell, Robert
Alain Michel, Latin scholars fostered a renewal in Cicero Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
studies. They broke away from a pure literary reading of
his orations, in an attempt to embed Cicero in European [7] Perseus.Tufts.edu, Ero, Henry George Liddell, Robert
ethics. Meanwhile, among Greek scholars, the literary Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus
historian and philologist Jacques Bompaire, the philolo-
[8] John S. Nelson, Allan Megill, and Donald N. McCloskey
gist and philosopher E. Duprel, and later the literature
The Rhetoric of Human Sciences: Language and Argument
historian Jacqueline de Romilly pioneered new studies in Scholarship and Public Aairs, London: University of
in the Sophists and the Second Sophistic. The second Wisconsin Press, 1987. ; In the last ten years, many
generation of Classicists, often trained in philosophy as scholars have investigated exactly how rhetoric works
well (following Heidegger and Derrida, mainly), built on within a particular eld. Theodora Polito, Educational
their work, with authors such as Marcel Detienne (now at Theory as Theory of Culture: A Vichian perspective on
Johns Hopkins), Nicole Loraux, Medievalist and logician the educational theories of John Dewey and Kieran Egan
Alain De Libera (Geneva),[82] Ciceronian scholar Carlos Educational Philosophy and Theory, Vol. 37, No. 4,
Lvy (Sorbonne, Paris) and Barbara Cassin (Collge in- 2005; Deirdre N. McCloskey (1985) The Rhetoric of Eco-
ternational de philosophie, Paris).[83] Sociologist of sci- nomics; JSTOR.org (Madison, University of Wisconsin
ence Bruno Latour and economist Romain Laufer may Press); Nelson, J. S. (1998) Tropes of Politics (Madison,
University of Wisconsin Press); Brown, R. H. (1987) So-
also be considered part of, or close to this group. Also
ciety as Text (Chicago, University of Chicago Press).
French philosophers specialized in Arabic commentaries
on Aristotles Rhetoric.[84] [9] Rosamond Kent Sprague, ed., The Older Sophists: A
Complete Translations by Several Hands of the Fragments
Links between the two strandsliterary and
in Die Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, Edited byDiels-
philosophicalof the French school of rhetoric are
Kranz (Columbia, South Carolina: University of South
strong and collaborative, and bear witness to the revival Carolina Press, 1972), 5054
of rhetoric in France.[85] A recent issue of Philosophy &
Rhetoric presents current writing in the eld.[86] [10] Plato, Gorgias, The Classical Library

[11] Rapp, Christof. Aristotles Rhetoric The Agenda of the

Rhetoric, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
6 See also
[12] George A. Kennedy, Aristotle, On Rhetoric: A Theory
Miscellaneous terms of Civic Discourse (New York: Oxford University Press,
1991).
Political speech resources [13] Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, (Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press, 1969).
List of political slogans
[14] James Boyd White, When Words Lose Their Meaning
List of speeches (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984).

[15] Michael Le, The Habitation of Rhetoric in Contem-

porary Rhetorical Theory: A Reader, ed. John Louis Lu-
7 Notes caites, et al. (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).

[1] See, e.g., Thomas Conley, Rhetoric in the European Tra- [16] Garver, Eugene. Aristotles Rhetoric. Chicago: The Uni-
dition (University of Chicago, 1991). versity of Chicago Press, 1994. Print.

[2] "... rhetoric is a combination of the science of logic and [17] Hariman, Robert. Political Style: The Artistry of Power.
of the ethical branch of politics ... Aristotle. Rhetoric. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. Print.
 17

[18] White, James B. When Words Lose Their Meaning. [33] Borchers, Timothy A. (2006). Rhetorical Theory: An In-
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984. Print. troduction (with InfoTrac). Canada: Wadsworth Publish-
ing. p. 21. ISBN 0-534-63918-6.
[19] Kennedy, George A. Classical Rhetoric & Its Christian
and Secular Tradition. Chapel Hill: The University of [34] William W. Hallo (2004), The Birth of Rhetoric, in
North Carolina Press, 1999. Print: 1. Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before
and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York
[20] Vickers, Brian. Deconstructions Designs on Rhetoric. Press, pp. 2546, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1
Rhetoric and Pedagogy: Its History, Philosophy, and
Practice. Ed. Winifred Bryan Horner and Michael Le. [35] Roberta Binkley (2004), The Rhetoric of Origins and
295-315. the Other: Reading the Ancient Figure of Enheduanna,
in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric be-
[21] cf. Conley, T.M. (1990) Rhetoric in the European Tra- fore and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York
dition. (University of Chicago Press.; Kennedy, G.A., Press, pp. 4764, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1
1994). A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton
University Press. [36] Paul Y. Hoskisson & Grant M. Boswell (2004), Neo-
Assyrian Rhetoric: The Example of the Third Cam-
[22] Rhetoric. Augnet. N.p., 2010. Web. 12 April 2010. paign of Sennacherib (704681 BC)", in Carol S. Lip-
Augnet.org son & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the
Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 6578,
[23] Prill, Paul E. Rhetoric and Poetics in the Early Middle ISBN 0-7914-6099-1
Ages. Rhetorica 5.2 (1987): 12947. JSTOR. Web. 20
February 2010. [37] David Hutto (Summer 2002), Ancient Egyptian
Rhetoric in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, Rhetorica,
[24] Prill, Paul E. Rhetoric and Poetics in the Early Middle University of California Press, 20 (3): 213233,
Ages. Rhetorica 5.2 (1987): 131. JSTOR. Web. 20 doi:10.1525/rh.2002.20.3.213
February 2010. JSTOR.org
[38] George Q. Xu (2004), The Use of Eloquence: The Con-
[25] A Brief History of Rhetoric and Composition. The fucian Perspective, in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A.
Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing. Bed- Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State
ford/St. Martins, n.d. Web. 12 April 2010. University of New York Press, pp. 11530, ISBN 0-
Bedfordstmartins.com Archived 16 May 2010 at the 7914-6099-1
Wayback Machine.
[39] David Metzger (2004), Pentateuchal Rhetoric and the
[26] Zappen, James P. Francis Bacon and the Historiography Voice of the Aaronides, in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta
of Scientic Rhetoric. Rhetoric Review 8.1 (1989): 74 A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State
88. JSTOR. Web. 21 February 2010. JSTOR.org University of New York Press, pp. 16582, ISBN 0-
7914-6099-1
[27] Edwards, Paul C. Elocution and Shakespeare: An
Episode in the History of Literary Taste. Shakespeare [40] cf. Mogens Herman Hansen The Athenian Democracy
Quarterly 35.3 (1984): 30514. JSTOR. Web. 21 Febru- in the Age of Demosthenes (Blackwell, 1991); Josiah
ary 2010. JSTOR.org Ober Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens (Princeton UP,
1989); Jerey Walker, Rhetoric and Poetics in Antiq-
[28] A Brief History of Rhetoric and Composition. The uity;" (Oxford UP, 2000).
Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing. Bed-
ford/St. Martins, n.d. Web. 12 April 2010. [41] cf. Kennedy, G.A. (1994). A New History of Classical
Bedfordstmartins.com Archived 16 May 2010 at the Rhetoric. Princeton University Press. p. 3.
Wayback Machine.
[42] Isocrates. Against the Sophists. In Isocrates with an
[29] Roee JA (2016) Rhetoric, Aboriginal Australians and English Translation in three volumes, by George Norlin,
the Northern Territory intervention: A sociolegal in- Ph.D., LL.D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press;
vestigation into prelegislative argumentation. Interna- London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1980.; Isocrates. An-
tional Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy tidosis. In Isocrates with an English Translation in three
5(1):131147 (PDF). volumes, by George Norlin, Ph.D., LL.D. Cambridge,
MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heine-
[30] Roee, J.A. (2014). Synthetic Necessary Truth Behind mann Ltd. 1980.
New Labours Criminalisation of Incest. Social and Legal
Studies vol.23(1) pp.113 - 130. Social & Legal Studies. [43] Aristotles Rhetoric Book I Chapter 1 [1354a] http://
23: 113130. doi:10.1177/0964663913502068. rhetoric.eserver.org/aristotle/rhet1-1.html

[31] Ray, Angela G. The Lyceum and Public Culture in the [44] Note:This could be any position in which the speaker
Nineteenth-Century United States. (East Lansing: Michi- whether an acknowledged expert on the subject, or an
gan State University Press, 2005), 1415. acquaintance of a person who experienced the matter in
questionknows about the topic. For instance, when a
[32] Hauser, Gerard (2002). Introduction to Rhetorical Theory. magazine claims that An MIT professor predicts that the
Illinois: Waveland Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-57766-221- robotic era is coming in 2050, the use of big-name MIT
1. (a world-renowned American university for the advanced
18 7 NOTES

research in mathematics, science, and technology) estab- (Vanguard Press, 1951). This was a compilation of ex-
lishes the strong credibility. hibits of ads and other materials from popular culture with
short essays involving rhetorical analyses of the ways in
[45] Note: Memory was added much later to the original four which the material in an item aims to persuade and com-
canons. ment on the persuasive strategies in each item. McLuhan
later shifted the focus of his rhetorical analysis and began
[46] Gesine Manuwald, Cicero: Philippics 39, vol. 2, Berlin:
to consider how communication media themselves aect
Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 129f
us as persuasive devices. McLuhan expresses this insight
[47] Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg The Rhetorical Tradi- when he says "The medium is the message". This shift
tion: Readings from Classical Times to the Present, Boston: in focus from his 1951 book led to his two most widely
Bedford / St. Martins, 2nd ed., 2001, p. 486. known books, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Ty-
pographic Man (University of Toronto Press, 1962) and
[48] McLuhans dissertation was scheduled to be published in Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (McGraw-
a critical edition by Gingko Press in April 2006 with the Hill, 1964)'; these books represent an inward turn to at-
title The Classical Trivium: The Place of Thomas Nashe tending to ones consciousness in contrast to the more out-
in the Learning of His Time. ward orientation of other rhetoricians toward sociological
considerations and symbolic interaction.
[49] Frederic Ives Carpenter, Leonard Cox and the First En-
glish Rhetoric, Modern Language Notes, Vol. 13, No. 5 [60] Richards, I. A. (1965)The Philosophy of Rhetoric New
(May 1898), pp. 14647 (available at JSTOR subscrip- York: Oxford.
tion required).
[61] Richards, I. A. (1965) The Philosophy of Rhetoric New
[50] See Marc Fumaroli, Age de l'loquence, 1980, for an ex- York: Oxford. p. 97
tensive presentation of the intricate political and religious
debates concerning rhetoric in France and Italy at the time [62] Toulmin, Stephen (2003). The Uses of Argument.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53483-3.
[51] See Lisa Jardine, Francis Bacon: Discovery and the Art of
Discourse (Cambridge University Press, 1975). [63] Jim A. Kuypers, Rhetorical Criticism as Art, in Rhetor-
ical Criticism: Perspectives in Action, Jim A. Kuypers,
[52] Histories of the emergence of rhetorical studies in 20th- ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009).
century America can be found in Cohen, H. (1994). The
history of speech communication: The emergence of a dis- [64] Edwin Black (rhetorician), Rhetorical Criticism: A Study
cipline, 19141945. Annandale, VA: Speech Communi- in Method (Madison, Wi: University of Wisconsin Press,
cation Association; and Gehrke, P.J. (2009). The ethics 1978), xxi.
and politics of speech: Communication and rhetoric in the
twentieth century. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois Uni- [65] Jim A. Kuypers, Rhetorical Criticism as Art, in Rhetori-
versity Press. cal Criticism: Perspectives in Action, Jim A. Kuypers, ed.
(Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009). See also, Jim A.
[53] Jim A. Kuypers and Andrew King, Twentieth-Century Kuypers, Artistry, Purpose, and Academic Constraints
Roots of Rhetorical Studies (Westpost, CT: Praeger, in Rhetorical Criticism, in Purpose, Practice, and Peda-
2001). gogy in Rhetorical Criticism, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lan-
ham, MD: Lexington Press, 2014).
[54] Borchers, Timothy A. (2006). Rhetorical theory : an in-
troductio. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN 0-
[66] Gray, J. W. Four Argument Strategies. Retrieved 2016-
534-63918-6.
02-19.
[55] Black, Edwin. (1965)Rhetorical Criticism a Study in
[67] Ryan, David (2007). The Speaking/Writing Connection.
Method. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
Berkeley, CA: Parthenon West Books. p. 236. ISBN
[56] Black Edwin (1988). Secrecy and Disclosure as Rhetor- 9780976568490.
ical Forms. Quarterly Journal of Speech. 74 (2): 133.
doi:10.1080/00335638809383833. [68] Black, Edwin. Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method.
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), 131.
[57] Black Edwin (1970). The Second Persona.
Quarterly Journal of Speech. 56 (2): 109. [69] Bitzer, Lloyd F. The Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy
doi:10.1080/00335637009382992. & Rhetoric, Winter (1968). 114. cf. Vatz, Richard
E. The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation. Philosophy &
[58] Black Edwin (1980). A Note on Theory and Rhetoric, Summer (1973) and The Only Authentic Book
Practice in Rhetorical Criticism. Western Journal of Persuasion, (Kendall Hunt, 2012, 2013)
of Speech Communication: WJSC. 44 (4): 33136.
doi:10.1080/10570318009374018. [70] Jansinski, James. The Status of Theory and Method in
Rhetorical Criticism. Western Journal of Communica-
[59] When McLuhan was working on his 1943 Cambridge tion 65, No. 3 (Summer 2001): 249
University doctoral dissertation on the verbal arts and
Nashe, he was also preparing the materials for his book [71] Foss, Sonja. 1989. Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and
The Mechanical Bride: The Folklore of Industrial Man Practice. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, Inc.
 19

[72] Stephanie Houston Grey, Conceptually-Oriented Criti- Aristotle. Rhetoric.

cism, in Rhetorical Criticism: Perspectives in Action,
Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, Cicero. De Inventione. Latin only.
2009).

[73] Jasinski, Status, 256. . De Oratore. Latin only.

[74] Le Michael (2001). Lincoln at Cooper Union: Demosthenes. Orations. Greek. English.
Neo-Classical Criticism Revisited. West-
ern Journal of Communication. 65: 23248. Cornicius. De Ratione Dicendi. Latin only.
doi:10.1080/10570310109374704.

[75] Jim A. Kuypers, Artistry, Purpose, and Academic Con- Isocrates. Against the Sophists.
straints in Rhetorical Criticism, in Purpose, Practice, and
Pedagogy in Rhetorical Criticism, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. Henry Peacham. The Garden of Eloquence.
(Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2014).
George Puttenham. The Arte of Poesie. at Repre-
[76] See Thomas M. Conley, Rhetoric in the European Tra-
sentative Poetry Online
dition, University of Chicago Press, 1990 for insights on
French pre-1789 rhetoricians; for a fuller historical review
with excerpts, Philippe-Joseph Salazar, L'art de parler, Quintilian. Institutio oratoria.
Paris, Klincksieck, 2003.
Johannes Susenbrotus. Epitome troporum.
[77] See also article on Rhtorique in the French Wikipedia
Thomas Wilson. The Arte of Rhetorique.
[78] See Philippe-Joseph Salazars overview, Rhetoric
Achieves Nature. A View from Old Europe, Philosophy
& Rhetoric 40(1), 2007, 71-88 Secondary sources
[79] Histoire de la rhtorique dans l'Europe moderne 1450
1950, Marc Fumaroli ed., Paris, Presses Universitaires de Ralf van Bhren: Die Werke der Barmherzigkeit in
France, 1999. ISBN 2-13-049526-5 der Kunst des 12.18. Jahrhunderts. Zum Wandel
[80] Refer to " De l'loquence la rhtoricit, trente annes eines Bildmotivs vor dem Hintergrund neuzeitlicher
fastes ", Dix-Septime Sicle 236, LIX (3), 2007, 42126 Rhetorikrezeption (Studien zur Kunstgeschichte, vol.
ISBN 978-2-13-056096-8 115), Hildesheim / Zrich / New York: Verlag
Georg Olms 1998. ISBN 3-487-10319-2
[81] idee-jour.fr Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Ma-
chine. Bernard K. Duy and Martin Jacobi: The Politics
[82] L'art des Gnralits, Paris, 1999. of Rhetoric: Richard Weaver and the Conservative
Tradition (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993).
[83] Barbara Cassin,L'eet sophistique, Paris, Gallimard, 1995 ISBN 0313257132
[84] Maroun Aouad, Le Livre De la Rhtorique d'Ibn Tumlus.
Eugene Garver, Aristotles Rhetoric: An Art of Char-
Paris: Vrin. 2006. Le Commentaire Moyen d'Averroes
la Rhtorique d'Aristote. Paris: Vrin. 3 Vol. 2002.
acter (University of Chicago Press, 1994) ISBN
978-0-226-28425-5.
[85] Alongside the French school, the work of Belgians Chaim
Perelman and his disciple Michel Meyer is noteworthy, al- Lisa Jardine, Francis Bacon: Discovery and the Art
though Perelmans foundational work remained generally of Discourse (Cambridge University Press, 1975)
unknown in France until the 1990s.

[86] Project MUSE Philosophy and Rhetoric-Volume 42, Charles U. Larson, Persuasion Reception and Re-
Number 4, 2009. sponsibility Twelfth Edition, Wadsworth Cengage
Learning (2012)

Jacqueline de Romilly, The Great Sophists in Per-

8 References iclean Athens (French orig. 1988; English trans.
Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1992).
Primary sources
William Sare, Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches
The locus classicus for Greek and Latin primary texts on in History (2004) ISBN 978-0-393-05931-1.
rhetoric is the Loeb Classical Library of the Harvard Uni-
versity Press, published with an English translation on the Amelie Oksenberg Rorty, Aristotles Rhetoric Los
facing page. Angeles, United States of America (1996)
20 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

9 Further reading
Andresen, Volker. Speak Well in Public - 10 Steps to
Succeed. ISBN 1-4563-1026-7.
Duy, Bernard K. and Richard Leeman. eds. Amer-
ican Voices: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Or-
ators (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2005). ISBN 0-
313-32790-4

Cox, Leonard. The Art or Crafte of Rhetoryke at
Project Gutenberg.
Garver, Eugene. Aristotles Rhetoric: On Art of
Character. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1995. ISBN 978-0226284255

Jansinski, James. Sourcebook on Rhetoric. Sage

Publications, Inc. 2001.

Kennedy, George A. Aristotle, On Rhetoric. Ox-

ford: Oxford University Press, 1991.

Kuypers, Jim A. ed. Purpose, Practice, and Peda-

gogy in Rhetorical Criticism (Lanham, MD: Lexing-
ton Press, 2014). ISBN 978-0739180181
Kuypers, Jim A. and Andrew King. Twentieth-
Century Roots of Rhetorical Studies (Westport, CT:
Praeger, 2001). ISBN 0-275-96420-5

Rainolde (or Rainholde), Richard. A booke called
the Foundacion of Rhetorike at Project Gutenberg.
Rorty, Amlie Oksenberg (ed.). Essays on Aristo-
tles Rhetoric. Berkeley (CA): University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0520202283

10 External links
American Rhetoric: The Power of Oratory in the
United States.
Brian Vickers on Rhetoric in the Cambridge Com-
panion to English Poetry
Wikibooks: Rhetoric and Composition

Mitchell, Anthony. A Primer for Business Rhetoric.

Discusses how messages are dumbed down to make
them acceptable to wide audiences.
Newall, Paul. An introduction to Rhetoric and
Rhetorical Figures. Aimed at beginners.
 21

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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