USER ADAPTATION AND INFUSION

OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS
KELLY J. FADEL
Utah State University
Logan, UT 84322-3515

Abstract framework for understanding the deeper post-adoptive utilization

issues of interest to both organizations and researchers. Early
Todays complex information systems can be used to varying theoretical work suggests that infusion occurs as the result of
degrees by individuals. Information system infusion captures individuals adaptive efforts to modify the system, their work
the degree to which the system is used deeply, or to its fullest tasks, or themselves to more fully integrate the IS into their work
extent, for improving organizational and individual performance. procedures. However, although the concepts of IS adaptation and
Theory suggests that infusion at the individual level depends on infusion have been present in the literature for some time, our
user adaptation to an information system; however, relationship understanding of how specific types of adaptation lead to infusion
between types of user adaptation and infusion has not been of technology in an individuals work system remains limited.
examined in extant research. This study draws on the Coping Most studies of infusion have examined its broad organizational
Model of User Adaptation to explore how various adaptation antecedents rather than focusing on the individual-level adaptive
behaviors employed by information system users influence its processes by which it is attained [23, 33, 2]. More research is
infusion in their work. Results indicate that problem-focused needed that reveals how these processes promote or detract from
adaptation behaviors directed toward changing the work- individual IS infusion itself [14].
system-self dynamic promote infusion, while avoidance-oriented The purpose of this research is to explore how different types
emotion-focused adaptation behaviors tend to diminish infusion. of user adaptation contribute to or detract from IS infusion at the
Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are individual level. Drawing on theories of IS adaptation [5], we
discussed. hypothesize that infusion is influenced by the degree to which
Keywords: Information System Infusion, Adaptation, Post- individuals engage in various types of adaptation behaviors vis--
Adoptive Use, Coping vis the IS. The hypotheses are tested using survey data collected
from an organization that implemented a large-scale enterprise
Introduction system. This work contributes to extant research by integrating
concepts from IS adaptation and infusion literatures that have
Empirical evidence demonstrates that the benefits of been implied by previous work but not formally tested. For
information systems (IS) often fall short of expectations or fail practitioners, results of this study can be used to inform ongoing
to materialize at all. A commonly cited reason for these failures training and user intervention programs that foster higher levels
is that IS are underutilized, thus undermining their benefits to the of infusion among IS users, ultimately helping organizations reap
organization [32, 3]. Although IS use is one of the most frequently more benefit from their IS investments.
studied constructs in the IS literature [3], most extant research has
examined use from a quantitative perspective, operationalizing Theoretical Background
the construct as frequency, intensity, or duration of use behaviors
[10]. However, increased use quantity does not necessarily imply IS infusion has been defined as increased organizational
increased individual or organizational benefit. The growing effectiveness . . . obtained by using the IT application to its
complexity of todays organizational IS has resulted in greater fullest potential [17, pp. 124-125], the degree of [technology]
user discretion over how, as opposed to whether or how often, an integration with existing business processes [23, p. 234], and
IS is used. For instance, an organization may mandate the use of embedding an IT application deeply and comprehensively
a feature-rich enterprise resource planning system, yet users may within an individuals or organizations work systems [50,
still exhibit wide variance in terms of the types of system features p. 79]. The common themes underlying these definitions are
they use and the way they use them to complete their tasks [32, that, 1) technology may be integrated at various levels by both
2, 57]. Hence, research must be devoted to understanding factors organizations and individuals, and, 2) that organizational and
that shape quality or depth of use, particularly with regard to individual benefits derived from technology are contingent upon
complex, mandated organizational IS [17, 50, 3, 57]. the level of this integration. Because a firms return on its IS
One concept that captures the qualitative notion of use investment will be limited if the system is not fully utilized to
is IS infusion, or the degree to which the IS is used within the fulfill its intended purpose [42, 53], there is significant theoretical
organization to its fullest potential [17]. The concept of infusion and practical motivation to better understand how individual-level
goes beyond quantitative measures of use to convey whether IS infusion is realized.
the technology is fully integrated into an organizations (or Prior research has examined infusion from two broad
individuals) work systems. Thus, infusion provides a useful perspectives. The first, herein termed infusion via organizational

Received: July 21, 2011 Revised: September 16, 2011 Accepted: October 25, 2011

Spring 2012 Journal of Computer Information Systems 1

Figure 1. CMUA and Focus of the Present Study

technology configuration, defines and examines infusion in work processes are re-conceptualized and adapted in response to it
terms of subsets of IS features that have been implemented by [50]. Lassila and Brancheau [35] draw on punctuated equilibrium
an organization as a whole. Studies adopting this perspective theory to propose four progressively deeper states of organizational
examine socio-technical structures and technology configurations technology integration characterized by increasingly adaptive
that denote IS infusion at the organizational level [35]. For levels of technology use: low-integration, standard adoption,
example, Cooper and Zmud [17], identified five progressive expanding, and high-integration. In a similar vein, Orlikowski
levels of Material Requirements Planning system use with respect [44] proposes three types of technology enactment that reflect
to the types of functions the system was used to perform as well the degree to which processes, technology, and social structures
as the performance outcomes that emerged, with the top three are changed as a result of the technologys integration within the
levels representing infusion. Other researchers have employed work system: inertia (technology is used within the existing way
similar frameworks for studying organizational infusion of of doing things), application (technology is used to augment or
technologies such as supermarket scanners [59] and intranet refine the existing way of doing things), and change (technology
technology [23]; in each case, successive levels of organizational is used to substantially alter the existing way of doing things).
configuration represent higher levels of use and deeper infusion The consistent message from this body of work is that infusion
of the technology in the organization. is brought about by users efforts to adapt themselves and their
The organizational technology configuration perspective environment to enable deeper use of the IS within a work process.
is valuable from a macro-level, but it does not account for the However, the literature offers limited insight into how particular
individual-level processes by which infusion is realized. This types of individual user adaptation promote or discourage IS
perspective, termed infusion via individual-level technology infusion. Although user adaptation is generally seen as having
use, conceptualizes infusion as the degree to which individual positive effects, adaptive efforts can take many forms, including
technology users employ the full range of features offered by the behaviors that may detract from deeper, infused use [5, 32].
technology, or the degree to which they use the technology to its Research that examines how infusion is enhanced or hindered
fullest extent. Although this type of infusion is a prerequisite for by various types of individual IS adaption behaviors can help
organizational infusion, studies that have adopted this perspective researchers and practitioners better anticipate and manage these
are relatively recent. Most have relied on theories of technology behaviors to achieve desired IS use outcomes. To this end, we
adoption [19, 56] and continuance [6, 8, 29] to explore whether draw on recent work in the domain of IS adaptation to develop
infusion is influenced by such antecedents as perceived usefulness hypotheses regarding how different types of individual-level
[30, 33, 58, 49, 57], facilitating conditions [33], satisfaction [30, adaptation affect IS infusion.
58, 57], and personal innovativeness [33, 57]. However, results
from this work have been mixed [42], and many researchers have Hypotheses
argued that factors leading to adoption of a technology are likely
to be distinct from those leading to extra-role post-adoptive To guide our inquiry, we draw on Beaudry and Pinsonneaults
behaviors such as infusion [e.g., 14, 32, 42]. Coping Model of User Adaptation (CMUA) [5], which provides a
One important precursor to individual-level infusion that has useful theoretical basis for understanding users adaptive reactions
received scant attention is user adaptation, or the degree to which to an IS and their consequent outcomes. Building on coping
the IS user proactively adapts to the IS by changing work habits, theory [36], CMUA, frames users responses to a new workplace
routines, and the technology itself to achieve higher levels of IS in terms of four phases as shown in Figure 1. Initially, the
productivity [14, 32, 37, 43, 55, 54]. Though adaptation has been user becomes aware of a new IS in her work environment. This
conspicuously absent from individual-level IS infusion studies1, awareness leads to appraisal of the IS, wherein the user evaluates
the literature offers abundant evidence that it is likely to be an the likely consequences of the IS (positive or negative) and her
important antecedent to infusion. Early theoretical work suggests options for responding to it. Based on IS appraisal, the user
that infusion occurs as IS use becomes frequent and as IS-enabled then engages in various types of adaptive acts in response to
the IS which, in turn, can produce both external outcomes (e.g.,
improved efficiency or effectiveness using the IS) and internal
1
 ne exception is Bhattacherjee and Harris [7], who found that
O outcomes (e.g., restored emotional equilibrium).
work and IT adaptation influenced post-adaptive IT usage. The latter portion of the CMUA model (right side of Figure 1)
However, this construct was operationalized as frequency/inten- is particularly relevant to this study because it provides theoretical
sity/duration of use rather than deep, infused use as measured groundwork for understanding how an IS-related outcome (i.e.,
here. infusion) is likely to result from certain types of user adaptation

2 Journal of Computer Information Systems Spring 2012

behaviors. CMUA defines adaptation behaviors as the cognitive of the situation. Coping studies vary in the number and types of
and behavioral efforts exerted by users to manage specific emotion-focused adaptation behaviors they identify. However,
consequences associated with a significant IT event that occurs in a synthesis of this literature [51] reveals that common emotion-
their work environment [5, p. 496]. Adaptation behaviors can be focused coping behaviors include seeking social support, positive
targeted toward any of three dimensions of the IS implementation reappraisal, wishful thinking, distancing, and escape/avoidance.
context: the user, the technology itself, and the work task. In the IS domain, these behaviors focus on changing or regulating
Framing these dimensions in terms of coping theory, Beaudry the individuals affective response to the system. According to
and Pinsonneault propose a typology of adaptation behaviors, Beaudry and Pinsonneault [5]:
which, at a broad level, includes problem-focused behaviors and
emotion-focused behaviors. Emotion-focused adaptation is oriented toward ones self
and aims at changing ones perception of the consequences
Problem-Focused Adaptation Behaviors of the IT event or at reducing emotional distress. Emotion-
focused adaptation includes self-deception and avoidance
Problem-focused adaptation behaviors are directed at managing (e.g., denying that the IT affects one, acting as if the IT event
or altering the problem causing the distress and focus on altering had not occurred; [60]), minimization of the consequences
the external environment [36]. Beaudry and Pinsonneault [5] of the IT event, selective attention (e.g. removing thoughts
describe how problem-focused adaptation behaviors in response of the event), positive comparison (e.g. comparing oneself
to a new workplace IS may alter the work task, the user, or the IS to other users who are more badly affected by the event;
itself: [36]), and passive acceptance (e.g. accepting the IT event
as a fact of life by changing beliefs and attitudes; [55, 54])
Problem-focused adaptation aims at managing the issues (p. 500).
associated with the IT event directly by (1) adapting ones
self such as adjusting personal habits to fit the requirements Although emotion-focused adaptation behaviors do not directly
of the technology [55, 43], learning new skills [55], and alter the external environment, their effect on IS infusion is not
adjusting work commitment [38]; (2) adapting the work entirely clear. Emotion-focused behaviors have traditionally been
by modifying procedures and routines [54, 52]; and/or (3) associated with sub-optimal coping adjustment, while problem-
adapting the technology by changing its functionalities and focused behaviors have been linked to more positive results [e.g.
features [47, 37, 15] (p. 500). 12, 22]. For example, behaviors such as avoidance or wishful
thinking, while potentially helpful for regulating emotional
CMUA [5] posits that problem-focused adaptation behaviors response, are not likely to produce positive external outcomes.
will result in increased individual efficiency and effectiveness by However, the restoration of emotional equilibrium afforded by
using the IS in a more productive manner. The concept of infusion some emotion-focused behaviors may establish a foundation for
implies that the user of the IS makes changes in her environment achieving positive coping results. Beaudry and Pinsonneault [5]
to fully integrate its features into her work routines. This suggests observe that restoration of emotional stability may be necessary
that adaptation efforts geared toward changing the work task, IS, to enable a user to perform problem-focused adaptation efforts
or the user herself (i.e. problem-focused adaptation behaviors) that produce increased operational efficiency and effectiveness.
should have a positive impact on the degree to which the To illustrate, seeking social support may not only promote a sense
system becomes infused at the individual level. In other words, of internal well-being, but also empower the individual to respond
users who respond to the IS by actively adapting themselves, to a stressor in productive ways [12].
their work processes, and the IS itself should be more likely to To distinguish the effects of various emotion-focused
reach higher levels of infusion than those who fail to so adapt adaptation behaviors on infusion, we draw upon another well-
[7, 24, 34]. This notion is supported by Saga and Zmud [50], known typology of adaptive behaviors: approach vs. avoidance.2
who identify reconceptualization of work processes as a critical Approach behaviors are oriented toward the source of stress,
infusion enabler. Moreover, a growing body of IS adaptation while avoidance behaviors are oriented away from it [48]. Ebata
literature has demonstrated that progressively higher levels of and Moos [22] describe approach strategies as cognitive attempts
IS integration and individual performance occur as individuals to change ways of thinking about the problem and behavioral
and organizations modify their environments to take advantage of attempts to resolve events by dealing directly with the problem
the ISs capabilities [39, 44, 35, 34] and enhance its fit with the or its aftermath (p. 34). Approach oriented emotion-focused
work task [11] . We therefore hypothesize that problem-focused adaptation strategies include such acts as seeking social support
adaptation behaviors will lead to higher levels of individual-level from others or reappraising the stressor in a positive light. In
IS infusion: contrast, avoidance strategies are described as cognitive attempts
to deny or minimize threat, and behavioral attempts to get away
H1: P
 roblem-focused adaptation behaviors directed toward
changing the work task, the IS, and the individual will
relate positively to individual-level IS infusion 2
 he approach/avoidance distinction is not necessarily confined
T
to emotion-focused adaptation behaviors. For instance, an indi-
Emotion-Focused Adaptation Behaviors vidual may alter the troubled person-environment relationship
by engaging in active resistance or complete withdrawal from
Emotion-focused adaptation behaviors are directed at regulating the situation. However, because this research focuses solely
emotional response to the problem [36]. Unlike problem-focused on approach oriented problem-focused adaptation behaviors
adaptation behaviors, emotion-focused behaviors are directed as identified in CMUA, the distinction is invoked here only for
toward the inner self, and do not directly alter external aspects emotion-focused behaviors.

Spring 2012 Journal of Computer Information Systems 3

from or avoid confronting the situation. . . . [22, p. 34], and and billing. CH had previously relied on paper-based medical
include escape/avoidance, wishful thinking, or distancing. records and stand-alone information systems to support its
Prior research has generally shown that approach-oriented various departments. However, to improve efficiency and quality
behaviors produce better adjustment outcomes than do of medical care, CH management adopted a third-party enterprise
avoidance-oriented behaviors [22, 48]. In the IS domain, Beaudry Electronic Medical System (EMS) to manage the activities of
and Pinsonneault [5] make a similar argument based on their all departments in an integrated way. Because the EMS replaced
observation of users who (a) achieved increasing performance all previous systems and processes across the enterprise, its use
benefits of deeper use sparked by positive reappraisal of the by CH employees was mandatory. At the time of data collection
system (approach-oriented behaviors), or (b) tried to minimize most employees had been using the system for an average of
their learning and use of the IS and, consequently, engaged in approximately one year, allowing them adequate time to adapt to
superficial use yielding few performance benefits (avoidance- the system and infuse it into their work practices. Although CH
oriented behaviors). Correspondingly, this research posits that is a healthcare-specific organization, its structure is similar to that
approach emotion-focused adaptation behaviors with respect to of other organizations that employ both professional employees
a new workplace IS will promote deeper and more integrative (e.g., physicians, nurses) and non-professional employees (e.g.,
IS use (i.e. infusion), while avoidance behaviors will inhibit this receptionists, billing associates) who use an enterprise system.
outcome. Moreover, examining IS infusion at CH is consistent with the
approach of other studies that have explored general IS phenomena
H2: Approach oriented emotion-focused adaptation in the context of a healthcare organization [e.g., 1, 18, 45]. For
behaviors will relate positively to individual-level IS these reasons, CH was deemed an appropriate site for studying
infusion the infusion of a complex, enterprise-wide system.
H3: Avoidance oriented emotion-focused adaptation Data was collected via an online survey administered to
behaviors will relate negatively to individual-level IS CH employees. An online survey was chosen because it was
infusion preferred by CH management and because all CH employees had
convenient access to the Internet at work. Before administering
In summary, research suggests that infusion depends on the survey, interviews were conducted with key CH personnel to
user adaptation behaviors in response to it. Problem-focused ensure that survey items were clear and understandable. Because
and approach-oriented emotion-focused adaptation behaviors nearly all CH employees used the EMS, a census sample was
are expected to promote IS infusion, while avoidance-oriented then solicited via an email invitation sent from management to
emotion-focused adaptation behaviors are expected to detract all employees inviting them to complete the survey. Incentive to
from it. Hypotheses H1-H3 are depicted graphically in Figure 2. participate was offered in the form of a gift certificate drawing
to a popular online retailer. Of 65 targeted participants, a total of
Research Methodology 57 responses were received, constituting a response rate of 87%.
& Data Analysis Survey respondents were 85% female and ranged in age from 22
to 65 years (M = 46 years). Time employed at CH ranged from 4
Data Collection months to 24 years (M = 8 years), with time in current position
ranging from 4 months to 23 years (M = 6.3 years). Forty-four
Data collection took place at the campus health (CH) center of percent of respondents had earned a bachelors degree or higher.
a large public university in the western United States. CH provides Approximately one third of respondents had been involved in at
health and medical services to the university community and least one other technology deployment project besides the EMS.
encompasses several integrated departments such as medicine/
patient care, reception/scheduling, lab, pharmacy, radiology, Measurement

Measurement scales were adapted from prior research and are

shown in the Appendix. Infusion was measured using a reflective
scale used in prior infusion studies [33, 53]. Problem-focused
adaptation scales were taken from literature on innovation
diffusion [47] and IS adaptation and use [3, 4]. These scales
were selected based on the three dimensions of problem-focused
adaptation identified by Beaudry and Pinsonneault [5]: work,
system, and self. Emotion-focused adaptation scales were
adapted from emerging IS coping research [4] and from Lazarus
and Folkmans Ways of Coping Questionnaire [26, 36]. Although
coping research has identified scores of potential emotion-focused
adaptation behaviors [see 51 for a review], in the interest of
parsimony, we focused on four commonly cited emotion-focused
behaviors that are prevalent in the coping literature [51] and that
have been utilized in emerging IS coping research [4]. These
behaviors, defined in Table 1, include seeking social support,
positive reappraisal, avoidance/wishful thinking, and distancing.
Consistent with prior research [3], problem- and emotion-
focused adaptation constructs were conceptualized as formative
Figure 2. Hypotheses constructs according to the criteria established by Jarvis et al.,

4 Journal of Computer Information Systems Spring 2012

[31] and Petter et al., [46]. According to these criteria, a scale modeling (SEM) technique that allows for the simultaneous
should be considered formative if its indicators (a) predict the analysis of both the measurement model (relationships between
construct (rather than being predicted by it), (b) are not omissible latent constructs and their measurement items) and the structural
without changing the meaning of the construct (c) may not be model (relationships between latent constructs). PLS was chosen
interchangeable with other construct items, and (d) may have over covariance-based SEM because it is capable of incorporating
different antecedents and consequences. The adaptation constructs formative constructs and it is more appropriate for predictive
herein meet each of these criteria. For example, problem-focused applications and theory building [28]. A common rule for
adaptation is a composite of several potentially uncorrelated sample size in PLS analysis is that the number of observations
behaviors that together constitute an individuals efforts to should not be less than 10 times the number of indicators on the
change her external environment. A user may, for instance, most complex formative construct or the number of exogenous
eliminate certain tasks performed on the job after adopting an constructs predicting an endogenous construct, whichever is
IS (work adaptation) without significantly changing the IS itself greater [28]. The most complex predictive relationship in this
(system adaptation). However, each of these behaviors denotes study contains three antecedents and the sample size is 57. Hence,
a distinct, non-interchangeable dimension of problem-focused the sample size requirements for testing the model using PLS are
adaptation. Moreover, each of these dimensions may have met under this standard. However, because this rule has met with
different antecedents (e.g., workplace autonomy vs. computer some criticism [e.g., 41, 40], we also conducted a power analysis
self-efficacy), and omitting either would significantly alter the [13], which revealed acceptable power levels (.80, =0.05) for
meaning of the construct. A similar argument applies to emotion- detecting medium-to-large effect sizes as defined by Cohen [16].
focused adaptation behaviors. For example, a user may internally Thus, although our modest sample size warrants some caution
engage in positive reappraisal of the IS but not seek external in interpreting non-significant results, it was deemed adequate in
support from colleagues, though both of these are composite this exploratory study for detecting strong effects that are of most
dimensions of approach-oriented emotion-focused adaptation. interest both practically and theoretically.
Thus, adaptation scales were conceptualized as formative.
Measurement Model
Analysis Methods
As a first step, the measurement model was tested by
Data analysis was conducted using Partial Least Squares evaluating construct reliability and validity. Composite reliability
(PLS: SmartPLS version 2.0.M3). PLS is a structural equation is a measure of a constructs internal consistency reliability and
is calculated as a part of the PLS analysis. Internal consistency
Table 1. Emotion-Focused Adaptation Behaviors reliability is relevant only for reflective scales, for which items are
Type Behavior Description expected to measure the same underlying latent construct [46].
Seeking Efforts to seek informational, This study employs one reflective scale to measure infusion. As
Approach- Social tangible, or emotional support shown in Table 2, the composite reliability score for this scale was
Oriented Support associated with the IS 0.88, which exceeds the commonly cited threshold of 0.7 [27].
Multiple methods were employed to establish construct validity.
Positive Efforts to create or ascribe For reflective scales, convergent and discriminant validity are
Reappraisal positive meaning to the IS demonstrated by examining the average variance extracted (AVE)
Avoidance/ Wishful thinking or behavioral as well as the factor loadings and cross loadings. AVE represents
Wishful efforts to escape or avoid the IS the percentage of variance that is attributable to the construct, and
Avoidance- Thinking (contrasts with distancing, which is expressed as a ratio of the sum of variance captured by the
Oriented emphasizes detachment) construct and measurement variance [28]. Convergent validity is
Distancing Efforts to detach oneself and to demonstrated when the AVE of a construct is greater than or equal
minimize the significance of the to 0.5 i.e., that the measures contain at most 50% error variance
IS while discriminant validity is established when the square-root
of the constructs AVE exceeds its
Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, PLS Composite Reliabilities correlations with other constructs
in the model [27]. Table 3 shows
Construct No. of Items Mean SD Composite Reliability
that both of these criteria were
Infusion 4 5.06 1.10 0.88 met.
Problem-Focused Adaptation Validity of the reflective
Self Adaptation 7 3.99 0.84 N/A infusion scale was also confirmed
by examining the factor loadings
System Adaptation 4 2.35 1.03 N/A
and cross loadings generated in
Work Adaptation 3 5.08 1.24 N/A the PLS analysis. A scale item
Approach-Oriented Emotion-Focused Adaptation possesses adequate convergent
and discriminant validity if
Seeking Social Support 3 3.18 1.12 N/A
it loads at least one order of
Positive Reappraisal 4 2.96 1.34 N/A magnitude higher on its indented
Avoidance-Oriented Emotion-Focused Adaptation construct than on any other
Avoidance 3 1.18 0.44 N/A construct [27]. Table 4 shows
that infusion scale items meet
Distancing 2 2.07 0.95 N/A
this criterion.

Spring 2012 Journal of Computer Information Systems 5

 Table 3. Construct AVEs and Inter-Construct Correlations
(numbers on the diagonal are square-root of AVE for each construct)
# Construct AVE 1 2 3 4
1 Infusion 0.658 0.811
2 Problem-Focused Adaptation N/A 0.341** N/A
3 Approach-Oriented Emotion-Focused Adaptation N/A 0.116 -0.215 N/A
4 Avoidance-Oriented Emotion-Focused Adaptation N/A -0.185 0.022 0.036 N/A
*: p < .05 | **: p < .01

Table 4. Reflective Item-Construct Loadings and Cross Loadings*

Item Infusion Problem-Focused Approach Emotion-Focused Avoidance Emotion-Focused
Adaptation Behaviors Adaptation Behaviors Adaptation Behaviors
INF1 0.867 0.209 0.095 -0.117
INF2 0.795 0.213 0.054 -0.086
INF3 0.699 0.173 0.025 -0.190
INF4 0.872 0.405 0.150 -0.185
* Because factor loadings are relevant only for reflective scales, loadings of formative items measuring problem- and emotion-focused
adaptation are not shown. However, loadings of reflective infusion scale items on these adaptation constructs are included to substantiate
convergent and discriminant validity.

As noted earlier, adaptation behaviors were measured using because prior theory has identified these items as core elements
formative scales. Validation of formative scales differs from that of of the constructs in the model, they were retained in the analysis
reflective scales due to the fundamental difference in the nature of to preserve content validity.
their measurement [31, 9, 20]. This study followed the guidelines Reliability for formative scales was measured by computing
recommended by Petter, et al. [46] for validating formative scales. the variance inflation factor (VIF) of the measurement items.
First, construct validity was assessed by examining the factor Unlike reflective scale items which should demonstrate
weights (as opposed to the factor loadings) produced by the PLS unidimensionality, formative scales may be threatened by very
analysis. Items with non-significant weights can be considered for high correlation, or multicollinearity, among the items [46].
exclusion, but only if exclusion does not undermine the content The highest VIF score observed in our analysis was 1.87 (PR,
validity of the construct [9]. As shown in the Appendix, weights SSS), which is well below the threshold of 3.3 recommended
for two items were non-significant (AWT and SYSAB); however, by Diamantopoulos and Siguaw [21]. Thus, formative scales
exhibited adequate reliability for testing the structural
model.

Structural Model

A bootstrapping resampling procedure (200

samples) was used to test the significance of path
coefficients. To preserve statistical power, summated
scales were calculated for each dimension of problem-
and emotion-focused adaptation (e.g., self adaptation,
work adaptation, seeking social support, avoidance,
etc.) and entered into the model as formative indicators
of each type of adaptation behavior. The results of the
analysis are shown in Figure 3.
Hypothesis 1, which predicted a positive relation-
ship between problem-focused adaptation behaviors
and infusion, was supported (t = 4.23, < 0.01).
The positive relationship between approach-oriented
emotion-focused adaptation behaviors and infu-
sion (H2) was nonsignificant at the =0.05 level.
Hypothesis 3, predicting a negative relationship
between avoidance-oriented emotion-focused adap-
tation behaviors and infusion, was supported (t = 2.02,
Figure 3. Hypotheses Testing Results < 0.05).

6 Journal of Computer Information Systems Spring 2012

 Discussion & Implications have limited options for responding [5]. Thus, managers should
focus on mitigating avoidance behaviors by helping users feel a
This study examines how various types of IS adaptation sense of empowerment over the way they use the system in their
behaviors influence IS infusion at the individual level. Results work tasks.
of our analysis lead to several implications for research. First,
infusion is more likely when users engage in problem-focused Limitations and Future Research
adaptation behaviors (H1), which include efforts to modify
themselves, their work routines, and the system itself to better This study, like all research, is subject to limitations. First,
leverage its capabilities. Early infusion research posited that the use of cross-sectional survey data does not provide definitive
infusion is most dependent on users efforts to engage in adaptive evidence of causal relationships. While the hypotheses tested
modification of the task-system-self dynamic [17, 50, 59]. In a in this study are consistent with existing theory, longitudinal
similar vein, CMUA predicts that users who engage in problem- studies that establish causality through temporal precedence of
focused adaptation behaviors are more likely to achieve individual constructs are needed to substantiate the cause-effect relationship.
efficiency and effectiveness resulting from their deeper use of the A second limitation is that our modest sample size may diminish
system [5]. Our results confirm these hypotheses by showing that statistical power, possibly leading to failure to detect a significant
problem-focused adaptation is the single strongest predictor of effect (type II error). However power analysis [13, 16] revealed
infusion. This implies that problem-focused adaptation efforts adequate power for detecting at least medium-to-large effect
should be a primary focus of continued theory building on how sizes, which are of most interest both theoretically and practically.
and why individual-level infusion occurs. Finally, because data was collected at a single organization,
Second, our results suggest that infusion appears to be hindered generalizability of our findings to other contexts may be limited.
by avoidance-oriented emotion focused adaptation behaviors However, because of their broad and well-established theoretical
such as avoidance and distancing (H3), but is not significantly foundation, we expect the general tenets of our model to hold
influenced by approach-oriented emotion-focused adaptation across many different contexts.
behaviors such as seeking social support or positive reappraisal Future research can build upon this study to explore several
(H2). While non-significant results must be viewed with some remaining questions. One critical area of investigation concerns
caution due to our modest sample size, this pattern may indicate how adaptation behaviors change over time. For example do
that emotion-focused adaptation behaviors have little bearing adaptive acts occur continuously throughout the use lifecycle, or
on users behavioral outcomes unless they prompt some level of during irregular intervals of disequilibrium as suggested by other
withdrawal from the system. In other words, emotion-focused research [e.g. 55, 35]? Furthermore, how do ongoing reappraisals
behaviors such as seeking social support and positive reappraisal direct and re-direct adaptation strategies, and under what
may help users achieve a sense of emotional equilibrium but conditions do these strategies change? A longitudinal perspective
neither enhance nor diminish their degree of system use. CMUA, will help to address questions such as these and develop stronger
which does not distinguish between approach- and avoidance- theory for explaining how an IS is perceived, adapted, and
oriented emotion-focused behaviors, implies that performance infused.
outcomes such as infusion are influenced by problem-focused Another area for future research concerns the antecedents and
behaviors rather than emotion-focused behaviors [5]. Our results consequents of the theoretical model explored in this study. For
offer a more nuanced perspective that shows that while this may instance, what factors influence the type of adaptation behaviors that
be true for approach-oriented behaviors, avoidance-oriented users employ vis--vis a new IS? CMUA suggests that adaptation
behaviors can lead to lower levels of individual IS infusion. This behaviors are determined by the way an individual appraises a
outcome highlights the theoretical importance of preserving new IS, and research that tests these relationships is beginning
the approach/avoidance distinction in exploring how emotion- to emerge [25]. However, more work is needed to substantiate
focused behaviors influence behavioral outcomes. and refine this segment of the nomological chain. Similarly,
Overall, prior research on individual-level infusion has research should explore the outcomes associated with IS infusion,
largely focused on factors relating to technology adoption and particularly at the less-probed individual level. For example, does
continuance [30, 33, 58, 49, 57]. The current study expands the deeper IS use always lead to better performance outcomes, or are
scope of this literature by examining a key theoretical antecedent there cases where it becomes counterproductive?
of infusion user adaptation that has thus far received little Finally, from a practical perspective, future research should
attention in empirical infusion research. Our results suggest investigate ways that companies can encourage (or discourage)
that future inquiry surrounding infusion should account for the adaptation behaviors that lead to (or detract from) desired
divers ways that users adapt (or fail to adapt) to a new IS in the objectives. For example, if an organization wishes to promote
workplace. infusion of an IS, what should be done to stimulate problem-
For IS practitioners, our results suggest that managers who focused adaptation behaviors? Are certain types of training and
wish to promote IS infusion within their organizations should support programs better suited to this goal than others? How
focus first on enhancing users problem-focused adaptation can managers discover and prevent unconstructive emotional
efforts. Initiatives to this end may include ongoing user support responses to the IS? Answers to these questions will help to
programs that help users develop mastery of additional system define the theoretical and practical implications of the adaptation-
features, refine their work processes, and even customize aspects infusion dynamic.
of the system. However, practitioners should also be aware that
certain emotional responses, namely those that lead to emotional Conclusion
withdrawal, avoidance, or distancing, may inhibit individual
infusion. Theory suggests that users are more likely to exhibit Todays organizations rely more than ever on effective use of
these behaviors in cases where they feel threatened by the IS and information systems; however, infusion of an IS into employees

Spring 2012 Journal of Computer Information Systems 7

work practices remains an elusive goal for many companies. [14] Chin, W. W. and Marcolin, B. L., The Future of Diffusion
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[45] Paul, D. L. and McDaniel Jr, R. R., A field study of the effect Reflective Infusion Construct and Measures
of interpersonal trust on virtual collaborative relationship Construct Item PLS
performance, MIS Quarterly, (28:2), 2004, pp. 183-227. Code Item Factor
[46] Petter, S., Straub, D. W. and Rai, A., Specifying formative Loading
constructs in information systems research, MIS Quarterly,
(31:4), 2007, pp. 623-656. INF1 I am using [System] to its 0.87**
[47] Rice, R. E. and Rogers, E. M., Reinvention in the Innovation fullest potential for
Process, Knowledge: Creation, Diffusion, Utilization, (1:4), supporting my own work
1980, pp. 499-514. INF2 I am using all capabilities 0.80**
[48] Roth, S. and Cohen, L., Approach, avoidance, and coping of [System] in the best
with stress, American Psychologist, (41), 1986, pp. 813- Infusion fashion to help me on the
819. (INF) job
[49] Saeed, K. A. and Abdinnour-Helm, S., Examining the
INF3 I doubt that there are any 0.70**
effects of information systems characteristics and perceived
better ways for me to use
usefulness on post adoption stage of information systems,
[System] to support my work
Information & Management (45:6), 2008, pp. 376-386.
[50] Saga, V. L. and Zmud, R. W., The nature and determinants INF4 My use of [System] has 0.87**
of IT acceptance, routinization and infusion, in L. Levine, been integrated and
ed., Diffusion, transfer and implementation of information incorporated into my work
technology, Elsevier Science BV, Amsterdam, 1994, pp. 67- at the highest level
86. *: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01

Spring 2012 Journal of Computer Information Systems 9

Formative Adaptation Constructs and Measures
PLS
Composite Component Item Item Factor
Construct Construct Code Weight
SELFAB1 I communicated with colleagues to better understand how [System] operates
SELFAB2 I communicated with IT specialists to better understand how [System] operates
Self SELFAB3 I researched, on my own initiative, in order to increase my knowledge and mastery
Adaptation of [System] 0.81**
SELFAB4 I explored several information sources, on my own initiative, concerning [System]
SELFAB5 I consulted the in-house [System] support documentation that was available to me
Problem-Focused Adaptation

SELFAB6 I attended [System] training

SELFAB7 I consulted with the [System] superuser(s) in my department
WORKAB1 I started to do things on my job that I couldnt do before [System]
Work WORKAB2 I eliminated tasks that I had to do before but that were no longer required using
Adaptation [System] 0.42*
WORKAB3 Using [System] changed my way of performing some tasks
SYSAB1 I spent time and energy making or recommending improvements to [System]
functionalities (the way the system works)
System SYSAB2 I spent time and energy making or recommending improvements to the [System]
Adaptation interface (the look and feel of the system) 0.03
SYSAB3 I spent time and energy making or recommending improvements to the [System]
hardware (the actual computer equipment you use)
SYSAB4 I spent time and energy making or recommending other modifications to [System]
so that it better fit my task
Seeking SSS1 I asked for moral support from my colleagues to help me deal with [System]
Emotion-Focused Emotion-Focused Adaptation

Social SSS2 I talked about [System] with my spouse or family members -1.26**
Approach-Oriented

Support SSS3 I met with my supervisor to talk about [System]

PR1 I repeated to myself that [System] was an opportunity to learn and develop new
skills
Positive PR2 I told myself that using [System] would get better over time 1.26**
Reappraisal PR3 I told myself that I had to accept [System] since there was nothing I could do
about it
PR4 I tried to change my mind about [System] and have fun
Avoidance/ AWT1 I considered taking a leave of absence from work for a while because of [System]
Avoidance-Oriented

Wishful AWT2 I did not want to hear about [System] -0.25

Adaptation

Thinking AWT3 I did all I could to avoid using [System]

Distancing DIST1 I tried not to worry about difficulties associated with using [System] 1.07**
DIST2 I went out to clear my mind
*: p < 0.05; **: p < 0.01

10 Journal of Computer Information Systems Spring 2012