4/17/2017 Waterliftingdevices

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Title:Waterliftingdevices... PDFversion
Franais Moredetails

2.WATERLIFTINGFORIRRIGATION
2.1GENERALPRINCIPLESOFWATERLIFTING

2.1.1DefinitionsofWork,Power,EnergyandEfficiency

Energyisrequired,bydefinition,todoworktherateatwhichitisusedisdefinedaspower(see
AnnexIfordetaileddefinitionsofunitsandtheirrelationships).Aspecificamountofworkcanbe
donequicklyusingalotofpower,orslowlyusinglesspower,butintheendtheidenticalamountof
energyisrequired(ignoring"sideeffects"likeefficiencies).

Thecostofpumpingorliftingwater,whetherincashorkind,iscloselyrelatedtotherateatwhich
powerisused(i.e.theenergyrequirementinagivenperiod).Sincethereisoftenconfusiononthe
meaningofthewords"power"and"energy",itisworthalsomentioningthattheenergyrequirement
consistsoftheproductofpowerandtimeforexample,apowerofsay,5kWexpendedoveraperiod
ofsay,6h(hours),representsanenergyconsumptionof30kWh(kilowatthours).Thewatt(W),and
kilowatt(kW)aretherecommendedinternationalunitsofpower,butunitssuchashorsepower(hp)
andfootpoundspersecond(ft.lb/s)arestillinuseinsomeplaces.Thejoule(J)istheinternationally
recommendedunitofenergyhoweveritisnotwellknownandisaverysmallunit,beingequivalent
toonly1Ws(wattsecond).ForpracticalpurposesitiscommontouseMJ(megajoulesormillionsof
joules),orintheworldoutsidescientificlaboratories,kWh(kilowatthours).lkWh(whichisone
kilowattforonehouroraboutthepoweroftwohorsesbeingworkedquitehardforonehour)isequal
to3.6MJ.Fuelsofvariouskindshavetheirpotencymeasuredinenergytermsforexamplepetroleum
fuelssuchaskeroseneordieseloilhaveagrossenergyvalueofabout36MJ/litre,whichisalmost
exactly10kWh/litre.Enginescanonlymakeeffectiveuseofafractionofthisenergy,butthepowerof
anenginewillevensoberelatedtotherateatwhichfuel(orenergy)isconsumed.

Thehydraulicpowerrequiredtoliftorpumpwaterisafunctionofboththeapparentverticalheight
liftedandtheflowrateatwhichwaterislifted.

Inotherwords,powerneedsarerelatedproratatothehead(heightwaterislifted)andtheflowrate.
Inreality,theactualpumpingheadimposedonapump,or"grossworkinghead",willbesomewhat
greaterthantheactualverticaldistance,or"statichead",waterhastoberaised.Fig.1indicatesa
typicalpumpinstallation,anditcanbeseenthatthegrosspumpinghead,(whichdeterminesthe
actualpowerneed),consistsofthesumofthefrictionhead,thevelocityheadandtheactualstatic
head(orlift)onboththesuctionsideofthepump(inthecaseofapumpthatsuckswater)andonthe
deliveryside.

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Fig.1Typicalpumpinstallation

Thefrictionheadconsistsofaresistancetoflowcausedbyviscosityofthewater,turbulenceinthe
pumporpipes,etc.Itcanbeaconsiderablesourceofinefficiencyinbadlyimplementedwater
distributionsystems,asitisafunctionwhichishighlysensitivetoflowrate,andparticularlytopipe
diameter,etc.ThisisdiscussedinmoredetailinSection2.1.4.

Thevelocityheadistheapparentresistancetoflowcausedbyacceleratingthewaterfromresttoa
givenvelocitythroughthesystemanyobjectormaterialwithmassresistsanyattempttochangeits
stateofmotionsothataforceisneededtoaccelerateitfromresttoitstravellingvelocity.Thisforceis
"felt"bythepumporliftingdeviceasextraresistanceorhead.Obviously,thehigherthevelocityat
whichwaterispropelledthroughthesystem,thegreatertheaccelerationrequiredandthegreater
thevelocityhead.Thevelocityheadisproportionaltothesquareofthevelocityofthewater.
Therefore,ifthewaterispumpedoutofthesystemasajet,withhighvelocity(suchasisneededfor
sprinklerirrigationsystems),thenthevelocityheadcanrepresentasizeableproportionofthepower
needandhenceoftherunningcosts.Butinmostcaseswherewateremergesfromapipeatlow
velocity,thevelocityheadisrelativelysmall.

2.1.2EfficiencyofComponentstheImportanceofMatching

Thegeneralprinciplethat:

appliestoanywaterliftingtechnique,whetheritisacentrifugalpump,oraropewithabucketonit.
Theactualpowerandenergyneedsarealwaysgreaterthenthehydraulicenergyneed,because
lossesinevitablyoccurwhenproducingandtransmittingpowerorenergyduetofriction.Thesmaller
thefrictionlosses,thehigherthequalityofasystem.Thequalityofasystemintermsofminimizing
lossesisdefinedasits"efficiency":

usingenergyvaluesintheequationgivesthelongertermefficiency,whilepowervaluescouldbe
usedtodefinetheinstantaneousefficiency.

Atrulyfrictionlesspumpingsystemwouldintheorybe100%efficienti.e.alltheenergyappliedtoit
couldreappearashydraulicenergyoutput.However,intherealworldtherearealwaysfrictionlosses
associatedwitheverymechanicalandhydraulicprocess.Eachcomponentofapumpingsystemhas
anefficiency(orbyimplication,anenergyloss)associatedwithitthesystemefficiencyortotal
efficiencyistheproductofmultiplyingtogethertheefficienciesofallthecomponents.Forexample,a
smallelectricallydrivencentrifugalpumpconsistsofanelectricmotor,(efficiencytypically85%),a
mechanicaltransmission(efficiencyifdirectdriveofsay98%),thepumpitself(optimumefficiencysay
70%)andthesuctionanddeliverypipesystem(say80%efficient).Theoverallsystemefficiencywill
betheproductofallthesecomponentefficiencies.Inotherwords,thehydraulicpoweroutput,

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measuredas(statichead)x(flow)(sincepipelosseshavebeenconsideredasapipesystem
efficiency)willinthiscasebe47%,derivedasfollows:

Theefficiencyofacomponentisgenerallynotconstant.Thereisusuallyanoperatingconditionunder
whichtheefficiencyismaximizedorthelossesareminimizedasafractionoftheenergythroughput
forexampleacentrifugalpumpalwayshasacertainspeedatagivenflowrateandheadatwhichits
efficiencyisamaximum.Similarly,apersonordraftanimalalsohasanaturalspeedofoperationat
whichthelossesareminimizedandpumpingiseasiestinrelationtooutput.

Therefore,toobtainapumpingsystemwhichhasahighoverallefficiencydependsverymuchon
combiningachainofcomponents,suchasaprimemover,transmission,pumpandpipes,sothatat
theplannedoperatingflowrateandstatichead,thecomponentsarealloperatingclosetotheir
optimumefficienciesi.e.theyare"wellmatched".Amostimportantpointtoconsideristhatitis
commonforirrigationsystemstoperformbadlyevenwhenallthecomponentsconsideredindividually
arepotentiallyefficient,simplybecauseoneormoreofthemsometimesareforcedtooperatewell
awayfromtheiroptimumconditionforaparticularapplicationduetobeingwronglymatchedorsized
inrelationtotherestofthesystem.

2.1.3IrrigationSystemLosses

Thecompleteirrigationsystemconsistsnotonlyofawatersourceandwaterliftingmechanismand
itsprimemoverandenergysupply,butthentheremustalsobeawaterconveyancesystemtocarry
thewaterdirectlytothefieldorplotsinacontrolledmanneraccordingtothecropwater
requirements.Theremayalsobeafielddistributionsystemtospreadthewaterefficientlywithineach
field.Insomecasestherecouldbeawaterstoragetanktoallowfinitequantitiesofwatertobe
suppliedbygravitywithoutrunningthewaterliftingmechanism.Fig.2indicatesthekeycomponents
ofanyirrigationsystem,andalsoshowssomeexamplesofcommonoptionsthatfulfilthe
requirementsandwhichmaybeusedinavarietyofcombinations.

Fig.2Keycomponentsofanirrigationsystem

Mostoftheirrigationsystemcomponentsinfluencethehydraulicpowerrequirements.Forexample,if
pipesareusedfordistribution,eveniftheytransferwaterhorizontally,pipefrictionwillcreatean
additionalresistance"felt"atthepump,whichineffectwillrequireextrapowertoovercomeit.Ifopen
channelsareused,extrapowerisstillneededbecausealthoughthewaterwillflowfreelybygravity
downthechannel,theinputendofthechannelneedstobehighenoughabovethefieldtoprovide
thenecessaryslopeorhydraulicgradienttocausethewatertoflowatasufficientrate.Sotheoutlet
fromthepumptothechannelneedstobeslightlyhigherthanthefieldlevel,thusrequiringan
increasedstaticheadandthereforeanincreasedpowerdemand.

Forthesamereasonthesecondaryorfielddistributionsystemwillalsocreateanadditionalpumping
head,eitherbecauseofpipefriction,orifsprinklersareusedthenextrapressureisneededtopropel
thejetsofwater.Evenopenchannelsorfurrowsimplyextrastaticheadbecauseoftheneedtoallow
forwatertoflowdownhill.

Thepowerneededistheproductofheadandflow,andanylossesthatcausewatertofailtoreach
theplantsalsorepresentareductionineffectiveflowfromthesystem.Suchlossesthereforeaddto
thepowerdemandandrepresentafurthersourceofinefficiency.Typicalwaterlossesaredueto
leakagefromtheconveyancesystembeforereachingthefield,evaporationandpercolationintothe
soilawayfromcroproots.

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Therefore,incommonwiththeprimemoverandthewaterliftingdeviceanentireirrigationsystem
canbesubdividedintostages,eachofwhichhasa(variable)efficiencyandadiscreteneedfor
power,eitherthroughaddingtotheactualpumpingheadorthroughdecreasingtheeffectiveflowrate
duetolossesofwater(orboth).

Mostcomponentshaveanoptimumefficiency.Inthecaseofpassiveitemslikepipesordistribution
systemsthismightberedefinedas"costeffectiveness"ratherthanmechanicalefficiency.All
componentsneedtobechosensoastobeoptimizedclosetotheplannedoperatingconditionofthe
systemifthemosteconomicalandefficientsystemistobederived.Theconceptof"cost
effectiveness"isanimportantoneinthisconnection,sincemostirrigationsystemsareacompromise
ortradeoffbetweentheconflictingrequirementsofminimizingthecapitalcostofthesystemand
minimizingtherunningcosts.Thispointmaybeillustratedbyacomparisonbetweenearthchannels
andaluminiumirrigationpipesasaconveyancethechannelsareusuallycheaptobuildbutrequire
regularmaintenance,offermoreresistancetoflowand,dependingonthesoilconditions,areprone
tolosewaterbybothpercolationandevaporation.Thepipeisexpensive,butusuallyneedslittleorno
maintenanceandinvolveslittleornolossofwater.

Becausepurchasecostsareobviousandrunningcosts(andwhatcausesthem)arelessclear,there
isatendencyforsmallfarmerstoerronthesideofminimizingcapitalcosts.Theyalsodothisasthey
sooftenlackfinancetoinvestinabettersystem.Thisfrequentlyresultsinpoorerirrigationsystem
efficienciesandreducedreturnsthenmaybepossiblewithamorecapitalintensivebutbetter
optimizedsystem.

2.1.4FlowThroughChannelsandPipes

Theproperdesignofwaterconveyancesystemsiscomplex,andnumeroustextbooksdealwiththis
topicindetail.Itisthereforeonlyproposedheretoprovideanoutlineofthebasicprinciplessofaras
theyareimportanttothecorrectchoiceandselectionofwaterliftingsystem.Usefulreferenceson
thissubjectare[3]and[8].

i.Channels

Whenwaterisatrest,thewaterlevelwillalwaysbehorizontalhowever,ifwaterflowsdownanopen
channelorcanal,thewaterlevelwillslopedownwardsinthedirectionofflow.Thisslopeiscalledthe
"hydraulicgradient"thegreaterthefrictionalresistancetoflowthesteeperitwillbe.Hydraulic
gradientisusuallymeasuredastheratiooftheverticaldroppergivenlengthofchanneleg.lmper
100misexpressedas1/100or0.01.Therateofflow(Q)thatwillflowdownachanneldependson
thecrosssectionalareaofflow(A)andthemeanvelocity(v).Therelationshipbetweenthesefactors
is:

Forexample,ifthecrosssectionalareais0.5m2,andthemeanvelocityislm/s,thentherateofflow
willbe:

Table2SUGGESTEDMAXIMUMFLOWVELOCITIES,COEFFICIENTSOFROUGHNESSAND
SIDESLOPES,FORLINEDANDUNLINEDDITCHESANDFLUMES

Typeofsurface Maximumflowvelocities Coefficientsof Sideslopesor

roughness shape
(n)

Metres Feet

persecond persecond

UNLINEDDITCHES

Sand
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0.30.7 1.02.5 0.0300.040 3:1

Sandyloam
0.50.7 1.72.5 0.0300.035 2:1to21/2:1

Clayloam
0.60.9 2.03.0 0.030 11/2:lto2:1

Clays
0.91.5 3.05.0 0.0250.030 1:1to11/2:1

Gravel
0.91.5 3.05.0 0.0300.035 1:1to11:1

Rock
1.21.8 4.06.0 0.0300.040 1/4:1to1:1

LINEDDITCHES
Concrete
Castinplace
1.52.5 5.07.5 0.014 1:1to11/2:1

Precast 1.52.0 5.07.0 0.0180.022 11/2:1

Bricks
1.21.8 4.06.0 0.0180.022 11/2:1

Asphalt
Concrete
1.21.8 4.06.0 0.015 1:1to11/2:1

Exposedmembrane
0.91.5 3.05.0 0.015 11/2:1to1:1

Buriedmembrane 0.71.0 2.53.5 0.0250.030 2:1

Plastic

Buriedmembrane 0.60.9 2.03.0 0.0250.030 21/2:11

FLUMES
Concrete
1.52.0 5.07.0 0.0125

Metal
Smooth
1.52.0 5.07.0 0.015

Corrugated
1.21.8 4.06.0 0.021

Wood
0.91.5 3.05.0 0.014

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Themeanvelocity(v)ofwaterinachannelcanbedeterminedwithreasonableaccuracyfortypical
irrigationchannelsbytheChezyFormula:

whereCistheChezycoefficientwhichisdependentontheroughnessofthesurfaceofthechannel
(n),itshydraulicradius(r),(whichistheareaofcrosssectionofsubmergedchanneldividedbyits
wettedsubmergedperimeter),andthehydraulicgradient(s)ofthechannel(measuredinunitfallper
unitlengthofchannel).

TheChezycoefficientisfoundfromManning'sFormula:

inthisformulaK=1ifmetricunitsareused,orK=1.486iffeetareusedristhepreviouslydefined
hydraulicradiusandnistheManning'sCoefficientofRoughnessappropriatetothematerialusedto
constructthechannel,examplesofwhicharegiveninTable2.Thistableisalsoofinterestinthatit
indicatestherecommendedsideslopesandmaximumflowvelocitiesforaselectionofcommonly
usedtypesofchannels,rangingfromearthditchestoconcrete,metalorwoodenflumes.Combining
theaboveequationsgivesanexpressionforthequantityofwaterthatwillflowdownachannelunder
gravityasfollows:

whereQwillbeinm3/s,ifAisinm2,risinmetres,andKis1.

Toobtainagreaterflowrate,eitherthechannelneedstobelargeincrosssection(andhence
expensiveintermsofmaterials,constructioncostsandlandutilization)oritneedstohaveagreater
slope.Thereforeirrigationchanneldesignalwaysintroducestheclassicproblemofdeterminingthe
besttradeoffbetweencapitalcostorfirstcost(i.e.constructioncost)andrunningcostintermsofthe
extraenergyrequirementifflowisobtainedbyincreasingthehydraulicgradientratherthanthecross
sectionalarea.Thenatureoftheterrainalsocomesintoconsideration,aschannelsnormallyneedto
followthenaturalslopeofthegroundifextensiveregradingorsupportingstructuresaretobe
avoided.

Obviouslyinreality,thedesignofasystemiscomplicatedbybends,junctions,changesinsection,
slopeorsurface,etc.Thereaderwishingtostudythistopicingreaterdetailshouldrefertoan
appropriatetextbookonthissubject.

Afurtherpointtobeconsideredwithchannelsisthelikelylossofwaterbetweenthepointofentryto
thechannelandthepointofdischargecausedbyseepagethroughthechannelwallsandalsoby
evaporationfromtheopensurface.Anysuchlossesneedtobemadeupbyextrainputsofwater,
whichinturnrequireextrapumpingpower(andenergy)inproportion.Seepagelossesareofcourse
mostsignificantwherethechannelisunlinedorhasfissureswhichcanlosewater,whileevaporation
onlybecomesaproblemforsmallandmediumscaleirrigationschemeswithchannelshavingalarge
surfaceareatodepthratioandlowflowrates,particularlyunderhotanddryconditionsthegreatest
lossesofthiskindoccurgenerallywithinthefielddistributionsystemratherthaninconveyingwaterto
thefield.Themainfactorseffectingtheseepageratefromachannelorcanalare:

i.soilcharacteristics
ii.depthofwaterinthechannelinrelationtothewettedareaandthedepthofthegroundwater
iii.sedimentinwaterinrelationtoflowvelocityandlengthoftimechannelhasbeeninuse

Thislatterpointisimportant[9],asanychannelwillleakmuchmorewhenithasbeenallowedtodry
outandthenrefill.Seepagedecreasessteadilythroughtheseasonduetosedimentfillingthepores
andcracksinthesoil.Therefore,itisdesirabletoavoidlettingchannelsdryoutcompletelytoreduce
waterlosseswhenirrigatingonacyclicbasis.

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Typicalconveyanceefficienciesforchannelsrangeatbestfromabout90%(ormore)withaheavy
claysurfaceoralinedchannelincontinuoususeonsmalltomediumlandholdingsdownto6080%
inthesamesituation,butwithintermittentuseofthechannel.Inlessfavourableconditions,suchas
onasandyorloamysoil,alsowithintermittentuse,theconveyanceefficiencymaytypicallybe50
60%orless(i.e.almosthalfthewaterenteringthechannelfailingtoarriveattheotherend).

Methodsforcalculatingconveyancelosseshavebeenderivedandarediscussedindetailinspecialist
references(suchas[9]).Forexample,anapproachusedbytheIrrigationDepartmentinEgypt[9]
usesanempiricalformulaattributedtoMolesworthandYennidumia:

whereSwillbetheconveyancelossinm3/sperlengthL

ii.Pipes

Apipecanoperatelikeachannelwitharoofoniti.e.itcanbeunpressurized,oftenwithwaternot
fillingit.Theadvantageofapipe,however,isthatitneednotfollowthehydraulicgradientlikea
channel,sincewatercannotoverflowfromitifitdipsbelowthenaturallevel.Inotherwords,although
pipesaremoreexpensivethanchannelsinrelationtotheircarryingcapacity,theygenerallydonot
requireaccuratelevellingandgradingandarethereforemorecheaplyandsimplyinstalled.Theyare
ofcourseessentialtoconveywatertoahigherleveloracrossuneventerrain.Aswithachannel,a
pipealsoissubjecttoahydraulicgradientwhichalsonecessarilybecomessteeperiftheflowis
increasedinotherwordsahigherheadorhigherpressureisneededtoovercometheincreased
resistancetoahigherflow.Thiscanbeclarifiedbyimaginingapipelinewithverticaltappingsofit(as
inFig.3).Whennoflowtakesplaceduetotheoutletvalvebeingclosed,thewaterpressurealong
thepipewillbeuniformandthelevelsintheverticaltappingswillcorrespondtotheheadofthe
supplyreservoir.Ifthevalveisopenedsothatwaterstartstoflow,thenahydraulicgradientwillbe
introducedasindicatedintheseconddiagramandthelevelsintheverticaltappingswillrelatetothe
hydraulicgradient,inbecomingprogressivelylowerfurtheralongthepipe.Thesameappliesifa
pumpisusedtopushwateralongapipeasinthelowestdiagraminthefigure.Herethepumpneeds
toovercomearesistanceequaltothestaticheadofthereservoirindicatedinthetwoupper
diagrams,whichisthepipefrictionhead.Inlowliftapplications,asindicated,thepipefrictionhead
caninsomecasesbeaslargeorlargerthenthestatichead(whichintheexampleisallsuctionhead
sincethepumpismountedatthesamelevelasthedischarge).Thepowerdemand,andhencethe
energycostswillgenerallybedirectlyrelatedtototalheadforagivenflowrate,sothatinthe
example,frictionlossesinthepipecouldberesponsibleforabouthalftheenergycosts.

Thosewishingtoundertakescientificallyrigorousanalysisshouldconsultaspecializedhydraulicstext
book,(eg.[8]or[9])butan

approximatevalueoftheheadlossthroughapipecanbegainedusingtheempiricalequation[8],
[10]:

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Fig.3Theconceptofan'hydraulicgradient'

Theheadlossduetofrictionisexpressedasan"hydraulicgradient",i.e.headperlengthofpipe(m
permorftperft).

Note:useK=10withmetricunits,(LandDinmetresandQincubicmetrespersecond),andK=
4.3withLandDinfeetandQincubicfeetpersecond.ValuesofCaretypically1.0forsteel,1.5for
concrete,0.8forplastics.

Aneasywaytoestimatepipefrictionistousecharts,suchasFig.4.Referencetothisfigure
indicatesthataflow,forexample,of6litres/second(95USgall/minute)throughapipeof80mm(3"
nominalbore)diameterresultsinalossofheadper100mofpipeofjustover2m.,Asanalternative
method,Fig.5givesanomogram(fromreference[10])forobtainingtheheadloss,giveninthiscase
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asm/km,forrigidPVCpipe.Theseresultsmustbemodified,dependingonthetypeofpipe,by
multiplyingtheresultobtainedfromthechartbytheroughnesscoefficientofthepiperelativetothe
materialforwhichthechartofnomogramwasderivedforexample,ifFig.4istobeusedforPVC
pipe,theresultmustbemultipliedbythefactor0.8(asindicatedatthefootofthefigure)because
PVCissmootherthanironandtypicallythereforeimposesonly80%asmuchfrictionhead.

Accountmustalsobetakenoftheeffectsofchangesofcrosssection,bends,valvesorjunctions,
whichalltendtocreateturbulencewhichineffectraisestheeffectivefrictionhead.Ageingofpipes
duetogrowthofeitherorganicmatterorcorrosion,orboth,alsoincreasesthefrictionheadperunit
lengthbecauseitincreasesthefrictionalresistanceanditalsodecreasestheavailablecrosssection
offlow.Thisisacomplexsubjectandvariousformulaearegivenintextbookstoallowthiseffectto
beestimatedwhencalculatingheadlossesinpipes.

Theheadlossduetofrictioninapipelineisapproximatelyrelatedtothemeanvelocityandhencethe
flowratesquaredi.e.:

therefore,thetotalheadfeltbyapumpwillbeapproximatelythesumofthestatichead,thefriction
headand(ifthewateremergesfromtheoutletwithsignificantvelocity)thevelocityhead:

i.e.(totalhead)=(statichead)+(frictionhead)+(velocityhead)

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Fig.4Determinationofheadfrictionlossesinstraightpipes

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Fig.5HeadlossnomogramcalculatedforrigidPVCpipesusingBlasiusformula

Sincethevelocityofflowisproportionaltotheflowrate(Q),theaboveequationcanberewritten:

where

Fig.6illustratestherelationshipbetweenthetotalheadandtheflowrateforapumpedpipeline,and
thepipelineefficiencywhichcanbeexpressedinenergytermsas:

Fig.6Howpipelineandefficiencyvarywithflow

2.1.5SuctionLift:theAtmosphericLimit

Certaintypesofpumparecapableofsuckingwaterfromasourcei.e.thepumpcanbelocated
abovethewaterlevelandwillliterallypullwaterupbycreatingavacuuminthesuctionpipe.Drawing
waterbysuctiondependsonthedifferencebetweentheatmosphericpressureonthefreesurfaceof
thewaterandthereducedpressureinthesuctionpipedevelopedbythepump.Thegreaterthe
differenceinpressure,thehigherthewaterwillriseinthepipe.However,themaximumpressure
differencethatcanbecreatedisbetweensealevelatmosphericpressureonthefreesurfaceanda
purevacuum,whichtheoreticallywillcauseadifferenceoflevelofwaterof10.4m(or34ft).However,
beforeadropinpressureevenapproachingapurevacuumcanbeproduced,thewaterwillstart
gassingduetoreleaseofairheldinsolution(justlikesodawatergasseswhenreleasedfroma
pressurizedcontainer)ifthepressureisreducedfurther,thewatercanboilatambienttemperature.
Assoonasthishappens,thepumplosesitsprimeandthedischargewillcease(duetolossofprime)
oratleastbeseverelyreduced.Inaddition,boilingandgassingwithinthepump(knownascavitation)
cancausedamageifallowedtocontinueforanylengthoftime.

Thesuctionliftsthatcanbeachievedinpracticearethereforemuchlessthan10.4m.Forexample,
centrifugalpumps,whicharepronetocavitationduetothehighspeedofthewaterthroughthe
impeller,aregenerallylimitedtoasuctionliftofaround4.5m(15ft)evenatsealevelwithashort
suctionpipe.Reciprocatingpumpsgenerallyimposelowervelocitiesonthewaterandcantherefore
pullahighersuctionlift,butagain,forpracticalapplications,thisshouldnevernormallyexceedabout
6.5m(21ft)evenundercoolsealevelconditionswithashortsuctionpipe.

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Athigheraltitudes,orifthewateriswarmerthannormal,thesuctionliftwillbereducedfurther.For
example,atanaltitudeof3000m(10000ft)abovesealevel,duetoreducedatmosphericpressure,
thepracticalsuctionliftwillbereducedbyabout3mcomparedwithsealevel,(andproportionatelyfor
intermediatealtitudes,sothat1500mabovesealevelwillreducesuctionliftbyabout1.5m).Higher
watertemperaturesalsocauseareductioninpracticalsuctionheadforexample,ifthewaterisat
say30C,(or86F)thereductioninsuctionheadcomparedwithwateratamorenormal20Cwillbe
about7%.

Extendingthelengthofthesuctionpipealsoreducesthesuctionheadthatispermissible,because
pipefrictionaddstothesuctionrequiredthiseffectdependsonthepipediameter,buttypicallya
suctionpipeofsay80mlengthwillonlyfunctionsatisfactorilyonhalftheabovesuctionhead.

2.1.6DrawdownandSeasonalVariationsofWaterLevel

Groundwaterandriverwaterlevelsvary,bothseasonallyandinsomecasesduetotherateof
pumping.Suchchangesinheadcansignificantlyinfluencethepowerrequirements,andhencethe
runningcosts.However,changesinheadcanalsoinfluencetheefficiencywithwhichthesystem
works,andtherebycancompoundanyextrarunningcostscausedbyaheadincrease.Moreserious
problemscanarise,resultingintotalsystemfailure,ifforexampleasurfacemountedsuctionpumpis
inuse,andthesupplywaterlevelfallssufficientlytomakethesuctionliftexceedthepracticalsuction
liftlimitsdiscussedintheprevioussection.

Fig.7illustratesvariouseffectsonthewaterlevelofawellinaconfinedaquifer.Thefigureshows
thatthereisanaturalgroundwaterlevel(thewatertable),whichoftenriseseithersideofariveror
pondsincegroundwatermustflowslightlydownhillintotheopenwaterarea.Thewatertabletends
todevelopagreaterslopeinimpermeablesoils(duetohigherresistancetoflowandgreatercapillary
effects),andisfairlylevelinporoussoilorsand.

Ifawellisboredtobelowthewatertableandwaterisextracted,thelevelinthewelltendstodrop
untiltheinflowofwaterflowing"downhill"fromthesurroundingwatertablebalancestherateatwhich
waterisbeingextracted.Thisformsa"coneofdepression"ofthewatertablesurroundingthewell.
Thegreatertherateofextraction,thegreaterthedropinlevel.Theactualdropinlevelinagivenwell
dependsonanumberoffactors,includingsoilpermeabilityandtype,andthewettedsurfaceareaof
wellbelowthewatertable(thegreatertheinternalsurfaceofthewellthegreatertheinflowratethat
ispossible).Extrainflowcanbegainedeitherbyincreasingthewelldiameter(inthecaseofahand
dugwell)orbydeepeningit(thebestpossibilitybeingwithaborehole).

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Fig.7Effectsofvariousphysicalconditionsontheelevationofwatersurfacesinwells

Drawdownusuallywillincreaseinproportiontoextractionrate.Adangerthereforeiflargeand
powerfulpumpsareusedonsmallwellsorboreholesistodrawthewaterdowntothepumpintake
level,atwhichstagethepumpgoeson"snore"(touseacommonlyuseddescriptiveterm).Inother
words,itdrawsamixtureofairandwaterwhichinmanycasescausesittoloseitsprimeandcease
todeliver.Aswithcavitation,a"snoring"pumpcansoonbedamaged.Butnotonlythepumpisat
riskexcessiveextractionratesonboreholescandamagetheinternalsurfacebelowthewatertable
andcausevoidstobeformedwhichthenleadstoeventualcollapseofthebore.Evenwhenafully
linedandscreenedboreholeisused,excessiveextractionratescanpullalotofsiltandotherfine
materialoutwiththewaterandblockthescreenandthenaturalvoidsinthesurroundingsubsoil,
therebyincreasingthedrawdownfurtherandputtinganincreasingstrainonthelowermostpartof
thebore.Alternatively,withcertainsubsoils,thescreenslotscanbeerodedbyparticlessuspended
inthewater,whentheextractionrateistoohigh,allowinglargerparticlestoentertheboreand
eventuallythepossiblecollapseofthescreen.

Neighbouringwellsorboreholescaninfluenceeachotheriftheyarecloseenoughfortheirrespective
conesofdepressiontooverlap,asindicatedinFig.7.Similarly,thelevelofriversandlakeswilloften
varyseasonally,particularlyinmosttropicalcountrieshavingdistinctmonsoontypeseasonswith
mostraininjustafewmonthsoftheyear.Thewatertablelevelwillalsobeinfluencedbyseasonal
rainfall,particularlyinproximitytoriversorlakeswithvaryinglevels,(asindicatedinFig.7).

Therefore,whenusingboreholes,thepumpintakeisbestlocatedsafelybelowthelowestlikelywater
level,allowingforseasonalchangesanddrawdown,butabovethescreeninordertoavoid
producinghighwatervelocitiesatthescreen.

Whenspecifyingamechanizedpumpingsystem,itisthereforemostimportanttobecertainofthe
minimumandmaximumlevelsifasurfacewatersourceistobeused,orwhenusingawellor
borehole,thedrawdowntobeexpectedattheproposedextractionrate.Apumpingtestisnecessary
todeterminethedrawdowninwellsandboreholesthisisnormallydonebyextractingwaterwitha
portableenginepump,andmeasuringthedropinlevelatvariouspumpingratesafterthelevelhas
stablized.Inmanycountries,boreholesarenormallypumpedasamatterofroutinetotesttheirdraw

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downandtheinformationfromthepumpingtestiscommonlyloggedandfiledintheofficialrecords
andcanbereferredtolaterbypotentialusers.

2.1.7ReviewofaCompleteLiftIrrigationSystem

Thefactorsthatimposeapowerloadonapumporwaterliftingdeviceareclearlymorecomplicated
thansimplymultiplyingthestaticheadbetweenthewatersourceandthefieldbytheflowrate.The
loadconsistsmainlyofvariousresistancestoflowwhichwhenaddedtogethercomprisethegross
pumpinghead,butitalsoisincreasedbytheneedtopumpextrawatertomakeupforlosses
betweenthewatersourceandthecrop.

Fig.8summarizestheseinageneralway,sothattheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferent
systemsdiscussedlaterinthispapercanbeseeninthecontextoftheirgeneralefficiency.Thetable
indicatesthevariousheadsandlosseswhicharesuperimposeduntilthewaterreachesthefield
actualfieldlossesarediscussedinmoredetailinSection2.2whichfollows.

Thesystemhydraulicefficiencycanbedefinedastheratioofhydraulicenergytoraisethewater
deliveredtothefieldthroughthestatichead,tothehydraulicenergyactuallyneededfortheamount
ofwaterdrawnbythepump:

WhereEstatisthehydraulicenergyoutput,andEgrossishydraulicenergyactuallyapplied.

Finally,Fig.9indicatestheenergyflowthroughtypicalcompleteirrigationwaterliftinganddistribution
systemsandshowsthevariouslosses.

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Fig.8Factorsaffectingsystemhydraulicefficiency

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Fig.9Energyflowthroughtypicalirrigationsystem(showingpercentageoforiginalenergyflowthatis
transmittedfromeachcomponenttothenext).

2.1.8PracticalPowerRequirements

Calculatingthepowerrequirementforwaterliftingisfundamentaltodeterminingthetypeandsizeof
equipmentthatshouldbeused,soitisworthdetailingtheprinciplesforcalculatingit.Ingeneralthe
maximumpowerrequiredwillsimplybe:

wherethemassflowismeasuredinkg/sofwater.1kgofwaterisequalto1litreinvolume,soitis
numericallyequaltotheflowinlitrespersecondgistheaccelerationduetogravityof9.81m/s2(or
32.2ft/s2).Therefore,forexample,5litre/secthrough10mwithasystemhavinganoverallefficiency
of10%requires:

Thedailyenergyrequirementwillsimilarlybe:

eg.for60m3/dayliftedthrough6mwithanaverageefficiencyof5%

Note:60m3=60000litreswhichinturnhasamassof60000kg(=60tonne).Also,since1kWh=
3.6MJ,wecanexpresstheaboveresultinkWhsimplybydividingby3.6:

so

Itfollowsfromtheserelationshipsthatasimpleformulacanbederivedforconvertinganhydraulic
energyrequirementintokWh,asfollows:

Iftheabovecalculationrelatestoagasolineenginepumpirrigationsystem,asitmightwiththe
figureschosenfortheexample,thenweknowthatastheenergyinputis19.6kWh/dayandas
gasolinetypicallyhasanenergycontentof32MJ/litreor8.9kWh/litre,thissystemwilltypicallyrequire
aninputof2.2litreofgasolineperday.

Fig.10illustratesthehydraulicpowerrequirementtoliftwateratarangeofpumpingrates
appropriatetothesmalltomediumsizedlandholdingsthispublicationrelatesto.Thesefiguresare
thehydraulicoutputpowerandneedtobedividedbythepumpingsystemefficiencytoarriveatthe
inputpowerrequirement.Forexample,ifapumpof50%efficiencyisused,thenashaftpowerof
twicethehydraulicpowerrequirementisneeded(pumpefficienciesarediscussedinmoredetailin
Chapter3).ThesmalltableonFig.10indicatesthetypicalhydraulicpoweroutputofvariousprime
moverswhenworkingwitha50%efficientwaterliftingdevicei.e.itshowsabouthalfthe"shaft
power"capability.Therangesasindicatedaremeanttoshow"typical"applicationsobviouslythere
areexceptions.

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Fig.10Hydraulicpowerrequirementstoliftwater

Fig.11Relationshipbetweenpower,headandflow

Thesepowercurves,whicharehyperbolas,makeitdifficulttoshowtheentirepowerrangeof
possibleinterestinconnectionwithlandholdingsfromlessthan1hato25ha,eventhoughtheycover
theflow,headandpowerrangeofmostgeneralinterest.Fig.11isalogloggraphofheadversus
flow,whichstraightensoutthepowercurvesandallowseasierestimationofthehydraulicpower
requirementforflowsupto100l/sandhydraulicpowersofupto16kW.

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Fig.12isperhapsmoregenerallyuseful,beingasimilarlogloggraph,butofdailyhydraulicenergy
requirementtodeliverdifferentvolumesofwaterthrougharangeofheadsofupto32m.Theareaof
landthatcanbecovered,asanexampleto8mmdepth,usingagivenhydraulicenergyoutputover
therangeofheadsisalsogiven.

Fig.12Relationshipbetweenenergy,headanddailyoutput(areasthatcanbeirrigatedtoadepthof
8mmareshowninparentheses)

Finally,Fig.13isanomographwhichallowstheentireprocedureofcalculatingpowerneedsfora
givenirrigationrequirementtobereducedtorulingafewlinessoastoarriveatananswer.The
followingexampleoftheprocedureisindicatedandhelpstoillustratetheprocessstartingwiththe
areatobeirrigated(intheexample3haisused),rulealineverticallyupwardsuntilitintersectsthe
diagonal.Thispointofintersectiongivestherequireddepthofirrigation8mmisusedintheexample
butfieldanddistributionlossesarenotaccountedforinthisnomograph,sotheirrigationdemand
usedmustbethegrossandnotthenettrequirement.Rulehorizontallyfromthepointofintersection,
acrosstheverticalaxis(whichindicatesthedailywaterrequirementincubicmetresperday240in
theexample)untilthelineintersectsthediagonalrelatingtothepumpinghead10mheadisusedin
theexample.Droppingaverticallinefromthepointofintersectiongivesthehydraulicenergy
requirement(6.5kWh(hyd)/day).Thisisconvertedtoashaftenergyrequirementbycontinuingthe
linedownwardstothediagonalwhichcorrespondswiththeexpectedpumpingefficiency50%
efficiencyisassumedfortheexample(theactualfiguredependsonthetypeofpumpingsystem)and
thisgivesashaftpowerrequirementof13kWh/daywhenalineisruledhorizontallythroughtheshaft
poweraxis.Thefinaldecisionisthetimeperdaywhichistobespentpumpingtherequiredquantity
ofwater5hisusedastheexample.Hence,rulingalineverticallyfromthepointofintersectiontothe
averagepoweraxis(whichcoincideswiththestartingaxis),showsthatameanpowerrequirement
(shaftpower)ofabout2.6kWisnecessaryforthedutychosenintheexample.Itshouldbenotedthat
thisismeanshaftpowerasignificantlyhigherpeakpowerorratedpowermaybenecessaryto
achievethismeanpowerforthenumberofhoursnecessary.

Thisnomographreadilyallowsthereadertoexploretheimplicationsofvaryingtheseparametersin
theexampleitisperhapsinterestingtoexploretheimplicationsofcompletingthepumpinginsay3h
ratherthan5handitisclearthatthemeanpowerrequirementthengoesuptoabout4.25kW.

Insomecasesitmaybeusefultoworkbackwardsaroundthenomographtoseewhatapowerunit
ofacertainsizeiscapableofdoingintermsofareasanddepthsofirrigation.

Thenomographhasbeendrawntocovertherangefrom010ha,whichmakesitdifficulttosee
clearlywhattheanswersareforverysmalllandholdingsofunderlha.However,thenomographalso
worksifyoudividetheareascaleby10,inwhichcaseitisalsonecessarytodividetheanswerin
termsofpowerneededby10.Intheexample,ifwewereinterestedin0.3hainsteadof3ha,andif
thesameassumptionsareusedondepthofirrigation,pumpinghead,pumpefficiencyandhoursper
dayforpumping,theresultwillbe0.26kW(or260W)insteadof2.6kWasindicated.Obviouslythe
dailywaterrequirementfromthetopaxiswillalsoneedtobedividedbyten,andintheexamplewill
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be24m3/day.Similarly,itispossibletoscalethenomographupbyafactoroftentolookatthe
requirementsfor10to100hainexactlythesameway.Notethatinmostrealcases,ifthescaleis
changed,factorslikethepumpefficiencyoughttobechangedtoo.Anefficiencyof50%usedinthe
exampleisapoorishefficiencyforapumplargeenoughtodeliver240m3/day,butitisratherahigh
efficiencyforapumpcapableofonlyonetenthofthisdailydischarge.

Fig.13Nomogramforcalculatingpowerneedsforagivenarea,depthofirrigationandhead

2.2OUTLINEOFPRINCIPLESOFSMALLSCALEIRRIGATION

2.2.1IrrigationWaterRequirements

Thequantityofwaterneededtoirrigateagivenlandareadependsonnumerousfactors,themost
importantbeing:

natureofcrop

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cropgrowthcycle

climaticconditions

typeandconditionofsoil

topography

conveyanceefficiency

fieldapplicationefficiency

waterquality

effectivenessofwatermanagement

Fewofthesefactorsremainconstant,sothatthequantityofwaterrequiredwillvaryfromdaytoday,
andparticularlyfromoneseasontothenext.Theselectionofasmallscaleirrigationsystemneedsto
takealloftheabovefactorsintoaccount.

Thecroptakesitswaterfrommoistureheldinthesoilintherootzone.Thesoilthereforeeffectively
actsasawaterstoragefortheplants,andthesoilmoistureneedsreplenishingbeforethemoisture
levelfallstowhatisknownasthe"PermanentWiltingPoint"whereirreversibledamagetothecrop
canoccur.Themaximumcapacityofthesoilforwateriswhenthesoilis"saturated",althoughcertain
cropsdonottoleratewaterloggedsoilandinanycasethiscanbeawastefuluseofwater.Inall
casesthereisanoptimumsoilmoisturelevelatwhichplantgrowthismaximized(seeFig.12).The
artofefficientirrigationistotrytokeepthemoisturelevelinthesoilasclosetotheoptimumas
possible.

Referencessuchas[3],[8],[10]and[11]giveamoredetailedtreatmentofthissubject.

2.2.2NettIrrigationRequirement

Theestimationofirrigationwaterrequirementsstartswiththewaterneedsofthecrop.Firstthe
"ReferenceCropEvapotranspiration"ETisdeterminedthisisastandardizedrateof
evapotranspiration(relatedtoareferencecropoftallgreengrasscompletelyshadingthegroundand
notshortofwater)whichprovidesabaselineandwhichdependsonclimaticfactorsincludingpan
evaporationdataandwindspeed.AfulldescriptiononthedeterminationofET oispresentedin
reference[11].BecauseETodependsonclimaticfactors,itvariesfrommonthtomonth,oftenbya
factorof2ormore.Theevapotranspirationofaparticularcrop(ETcrop)willofcoursebedifferent
fromthatofthereferencecrop,andthisisdeterminedfromtherelationship:

Kcisa"cropcoefficient"whichdependsonthetypeofcrop,itsstageofgrowth,thegrowingseason
andtheprevailingclimaticconditions.Itcanvarytypicallyfromaround0.3duringinitialgrowthto
around1.0(orabitover1.0)duringthemidseasonmaximumrateofgrowthperiodFig.13shows
anexample.Thereforetheactualvalueofthecropwaterrequirement,ETcropusuallyvaries
considerablythroughthegrowingseason.

Theactualnettirrigationrequirementatanytimeisthecropevapotranspirationdemand,minusany
contributionsfromrainfall,groundwaterorstoredmoistureinthesoil.Sincenotallrainfallwillreach

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theplantroots,becauseaproportionwillbelostthroughrunoff,deeppercolationandevaporation,
therainfallisfactoredtoarriveatafigurefor"effectiverainfall".Also,somecropsrequirewaterfor
soilpreparation,particularlyforexample,rice,andthisneedhastobeallowedforinadditiontothe
nettirrigationrequirement.

Togiveanideaofwhatthesetranslateintointermsofactualwaterrequirementsanapproximate
"typical"nettirrigationrequirementundertropicalconditionswithareasonablyefficientirrigation
systemandgoodwatermanagementis4000m3/hapercrop,butunderlessfavourableconditionsas
muchas13000m3/hapercropcanbeneeded.Thisisequalto4001300mmofwaterpercrop
respectively.Sincetypicalgrowingcyclesareintherangeof100150daysinthetropics,theaverage
dailyrequirementwillthereforebeinthe30130m3/harange(313mm/day).Becausethewater
demandvariesthroughthegrowingseason,thepeakrequirementcanbemorethandoublethe
average,implyingthatanettpeakoutputof50200m3/hawillgenerallyberequired(whichgivesan
indicationofthecapacityofpumpingsystemneededforagivenareaoffield).

Inadequateapplicationsofirrigationwaterwillnotgenerallykillacrop,butaremorelikelytoresultin
reducedyield[11].Conversely,excessiveapplicationsofwatercanalsobecounterproductiveapart
frombeingawasteofwaterandpumpingenergy.Accurateapplicationisthereforeofimportance
mainlytomaximisecropyieldsandtogetthebestefficiencyfromanirrigationsystem.

2.2.3GrossIrrigationRequirement

Theoutputfromthewaterliftingdevicehastobeincreasedtoallowforconveyanceandfieldlosses
thisamountisthegrossirrigationrequirement.Typicalconveyanceandfielddistributionsystem
efficienciesaregiveninTable3[11][12],fromwhichitcanbeseenthatconveyanceefficienciesfall
intotherange6590%(dependingonthetypeofsystem),while"farmditchefficiency"orfield
applicationefficiencywilltypicallybe5590%.Therefore,theoverallirrigationsystemefficiency,after
thedischargefromthewaterliftingdevice,willbetheproductofthesetwotypically3080%.This
impliesagrossirrigationwaterrequirementatbestabout25%greaterthanthenettrequirementfor
thecrop,andatworst300%ormore.

Theprevious"typicalpeaknettirrigation"figuresof50200m3/dayperhectareimply"peakgross
irrigation"requirementsof60600m3/dayawidevariationduetocompoundingsomanyvariable
parameters.Clearlythereisoftenmuchscopeforconservationofpumpingenergybyimprovingthe
waterdistributionefficiencyinvestmentinabetterconveyanceandfielddistributionsystemwill
frequentlypaybackfasterthaninvestmentinimprovedpumpingcapacityandwillachievethesame
result.Certainlycostlypumpingsystemsshouldgenerallyonlybeconsideredinconjunctionwith
efficientconveyanceandfielddistributiontechniques.Theonlyrealjustificationforextravagantwater
lossesiswherepumpingcostsarelowandwaterdistributionequipmentisexpensive.

Table3AAVERAGECONVEYANCEEFFICIENCY

IrrigationMethod MethodofWaterDelivery Irrigated Efficiency

Area(ha) (%)

Basinforricecultivation Continuoussupplywithnosubstantialchangein 90
flow

Surfaceirrigation(Basin, Rotationalsupplybasedon 3,0005,000 88

BorderandFurrow predeterminedschedulewitheffective
management

Rotationalsupplybasedon <1,000 70
predeterminedschedulewith
lesseffectivemanagement
>10,000

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Rotationalsupplybasedon <1,000 65
advancerequest

>10,000

BAVERAGEFARMDITCHEFFICIENCY

IrrigationMethod Methodof SoilTypeandDitchCondition BlockSize(ha) Efficiency(%)

Delivery

Basinforrice Continuous Unlined:Claytoheavyclay upto3 90

Linedorpiped

Surface Rotationor Unlined:Claytoheavyclay <20 80

Irrigation Intermittent Linedorpiped >20 90

Rotationor Unlined:Siltclay <20 6070

Intermittent Linedorpiped >20 80

Rotationor Unlined:Sand,loam <20 55

Intermittent Linedorpiped >20 65

CAVERAGEAPPLICATIONEFFICIENCY

IrrigationMethod MethodofDelivery Depthof Efficiency

Soiltype
Application(mm) (%)

Basin Continuous Clay >60 4050

Heavyclay

Furrow Intermittent Lightsoil >60 60

Border Intermittent Lightsoil >60 60

Basin Intermittent Allsoil >60 60

Sprinkler Intermittent Sand,loam <60 70

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Asummaryoftheproceduresofaroutlinedtoarriveatthegrosscropirrigationwaterrequirementis
giveninFig.14.

Fig.14Rateofcropgrowthasafunctionofsoilmoisturecontent

2.2.4PumpingRequirement

Inordertospecifyawaterliftingsystemthefollowingbasicinformationisneeded:

i.theaveragewaterdemandthroughthegrowingseason
ii.thepeakdailywaterdemand(whichgenerallywilloccurwhenthecropcoefficientandrateof
plantgrowthareattheirpeak)

Havingdeterminedthedailyapplicationrequiredbytheplants,afurtherconsiderationisthe"intake
rate"asdifferentsoiltypesabsorbwateratdifferentrates,(seeTable4).Toorapidarateof
applicationonsomesoilscancausefloodingandpossiblelossofwaterthroughrunoff.This
constraintdeterminesthemaximumflowratethatcanusefullybeabsorbedbythefielddistribution
system.Forexample,somesiltyclaysoilscanonlytakeabout7l/secperhectare,butincontrast
sandysoilsdonotimposeaseriousconstraintastheycanoftenusefullyabsorbover100l/sper
hectare.Obviouslylowerratesthanthemaximumareacceptable,althoughtheapplicationefficiency
islikelytobebestatareasonablyhighrateinmostcases,andfarmersobviouslywillprefernotto
takelongerthannecessarytocompletethejob.

Takingaccountoftheaboveconstraintonflowrate,itisthenpossibletocalculatehowmanyhours
perdaythefieldwillrequireirrigating,forexamplebyusingthenomogramgiveninFig.15

Table4AVERAGEINTAKERATESOFWATERINmm/hrFORDIFFERENTSOILSAND
CORRESPONDINGSTREAMSIZE1/sec/ha

SoilTexture IntakeRatemm/hr Streamsizeq1/sec/ha

Sand 50(25to250) 140

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Sandyloam 25(15to75) 70

Loam 12.5(8to20) 35

Clayloam 8(2.5to5) 7

Siltyclay 2.5(0.03to5) 7

Clay 5(1to15) 14

Fig.15ExampleofacropcoefficientcurveforcornplantedinmidMayatCairo,Egypte.g.initial
stageis8.4mm/daywithirrigationfrequencyof7days

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