CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate

Reactions in Concrete
by James A. Farny and Beatrix Kerkhoff*

Introduction
Aggregates containing certain constituents can react with alkali Alkali-Silica Reaction
hydroxides in concrete. The reactivity is potentially harmful only when
it produces significant expansion (Mather 1975). This alkali-aggre- MECHANISM OF ASR
gate reactivity (AAR) has two formsalkali-silica reaction (ASR) and Concrete consists of aggregatesstone or gravel and sand, in a
alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR, sometimes called alkali-carbonate matrix of cement paste. The cement paste contains interconnected
rock reaction, or ACRR). ASR is more often a concern than ACR microscopic pores through which water or ions in solution can
because the occurrence of aggregates containing reactive silica min- migrate. The pore water in concrete is an alkaline solution; the mea-
erals is more common. Alkali-reactive carbonate aggregates have a sure of alkalinity is pH.
specific composition that is not very common.
The alkali-silica reaction forms a gel that swells as it draws water from
Alkali-silica reactivity has been recognized as a potential source of the surrounding cement paste. Reaction products from ASR have a great
distress in concrete since the late 1930s (Stanton 1940 and PCA affinity for moisture. In absorbing water, these gels can induce pressure,
1940). Even though potentially reactive aggregates exist throughout expansion, and cracking of the aggregate and surrounding paste. The
North America, ASR distress in structural concrete is not common. reaction can be visualized as a two-step process:
There are a number of reasons for this: 1. Alkali + reactive silicapalkali-silica gel
Most aggregates are chemically stable in hydraulic-cement concrete. 2. Alkali-silica gel + moisturepexpansion

Aggregates with good service records are abundant in many areas. The presence of gel does not necessarily indicate destructive ASR.
The concrete in service is dry enough to inhibit ASR. Some gels expand very little or not at all. If a gel is low swelling, it
will not create problems. High-swelling gel may cause pressures
The use of certain pozzolans or ground granulated blast-furnace slags
controls ASR. exceeding the tensile strength of concrete, which results in cracking
of the concrete. Rate of migration of pore fluids to the reaction site
In many concrete mixtures, the alkali content of the concrete is low and temperature also influence swelling pressures (Diamond,
enough to control harmful ASR.
Barneyback, and Struble 1981). Consequently, the presence of gel
Some forms of ASR do not produce significant deleterious expansion. must be linked to destructive cracking for a positive identification of
To reduce ASR potential requires understanding the ASR mechanism; harmfully expansive ASR.
properly using tests to identify potentially reactive aggregates; and, if
needed, taking steps to minimize the potential for expansion and pH is approximately calculated from the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH -) in the solution.
The pH of concrete pore solution is at least 12.5, at which point the solution is in equilibrium
related cracking. with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), an abundant hydration product present in concrete. The pH
of the concrete pore solution increases as the alkali content of the cement increases. Alkalies,
sodium (Na) and potassium (K), in concrete are primarily derived from cementitious materials.
Alkali-carbonate reaction in concrete was not documented until The alkali salts dissolve in the pore solution and increase its alkalinity.
Hydroxide, alkali, and calcium ions react with silica in the aggregate particle to form a gel.
1957. Although ACR is much less common, this report also briefly Reactive silica dissolves in the high-pH solution. The dissolved silica reacts with alkalies and
reviews the mechanism, visual distress symptoms, identification tests, calcium to form a calcium-alkali-silicate-hydrate gel. The gel has a tendency to swell by
absorbing water from the surrounding paste. The swelling gel forms the initial cracks in the
and control measures. aggregate and cement paste. Microcracks form near the reaction sites, which propagate and
join to form large cracks and an overall expansion of the concrete. ASR gels of certain charac-
teristic composition and viscosity have swelling properties. The characteristic composition has
* Program Manager, Masonry and Special Products and Program Manager, Cement and
not been accurately established. Initially, gel containing less calcium, however, will swell to a
Concrete Technology, respectively, Portland Cement Association. greater extent. As the gel moves through concrete, it picks up more calcium, which reduces its
swelling potential.
Factors Affecting ASR reactivity increases, gel reaction products can be formed with lesser concen-
For alkali-silica reaction to occur, three conditions must be present: trations of alkali. That is why use of low-alkali cements alone may not be
reactive forms of silica in the aggregate sufficient to control ASR with highly reactive aggregates.
high-alkali (pH) pore solution As the pH, or alkalinity, of the pore solution increases, potential for
sufficient moisture the alkali-silica reaction increases. At higher concentrations of alkali
The amount of gel formed in the concrete depends on the amount and hydroxides, even the more stable forms of silica are susceptible to
type of reactive silica, and the alkali hydroxide concentration in the con- attack (Xu 1987). If the alkali concentration is great enough, the
crete pore solution. Natural aggregates contain various forms of silica alkali hydroxides break stronger silicon bonds found in less reactive
minerals, which have varying reactivitiesmeasures of the readiness of aggregates to form the gel reaction product. This explains why
the silica to react with alkali. Internal sources of alkali (sodium and potas- aggregates thought to be nonreactive sometimes exhibit ASR.
sium) can come from the cement, pozzolans, aggregates, admixtures, and
mix water. When the alkali and silica react, they form the gel reaction Repeated cycles of wetting and drying can create high localized con-
product. External alkalies can come from a number of sources, but the centrations of alkalies. As moisture travels through concrete, dis-
predominant source is anti-icing or deicing chemicals. Exact composition solved alkalies move in solution, remaining when the moisture
will vary, but the gel always contains alkali, calcium, silica, and water evaporates from the concrete surface. This process, known as alkali
(Xu 1987). migration, can cause high alkali concentrations at an evaporative sur-
face even when the overall concrete alkali content is low.
Reactive silica in the aggregate. Reactivity is a function of the type and
form of constituents composing the aggregate.** Silica minerals in aggre- Sufficient moisture. Moisture allows migration of alkali ions to reaction
gates are generally stable if crystalline and reactive if amorphous, but there sites, and the resulting gel absorbs moisture, leading to expansion. For this
are exceptions. For instance, there are a few common crystalline forms of sil- reason, deleterious ASR does not occur in concretes that are dry in service.
icon dioxide: quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite. Quartz, unless it is microcrys- Research has shown that expansive ASR can occur in concrete having a rel-
talline or highly strained, is stable. Tridymite and cristobalite are crystalline ative humidity above 80% (Stark 1991). However, it is possible for well
also, but are low density, porous materials, and are susceptible to attack cured concrete in arid regions to have a relative humidity constantly at or
from alkali hydroxides. An aggregate that presents a large surface area for above 80% just beneath its surface, even after several decades (see Fig. 1).
reactionpoorly crystalline, many lattice defects, amorphous, glassy, micro-
Any reduction in permeability, by using a low water-cement ratio, supple-
porousis susceptible to reaction (Poole 1992).
mentary cementitious materials (SCMs), or other means, reduces movement
The constituent minerals of an aggregate are obtained from a petrographic of moisture and alkalies into and within the concrete. Stark found that
analysis. The following rock types contain critical amounts of potentially sealed lower water-cement ratio (0.35) concretes expanded less than higher
reactive forms of silica: chert and flint containing chalcedony; acidic and water-cement ratio concretes at ages up to 19 months (Stark 1995a).
intermediate volcanic rocks, such as rhyolite, dacite, latite, and andesite,
Concrete alkali content. The potential for ASR increases as the
and the associated porphyries and tuffs; shale and slate; sandstone, silt-
alkali content of concrete increases. For example, a concept used in
stone, and quartzite; siliceous carbonate rocks; graywackes; argillites;
Canada addresses the total alkali loading in concrete. Using field perfor-
phyllites; granites and grano-diorites; granite and grano-diorite gneisses.
mance as a guide, alkali limits are established in concrete to control ASR.
The list is not all inclusive, and many aggregates listed will perform
The approach is most applicable with concretes using portland cement as
adequately in concrete that contains more than enough alkali to
the sole cementitious material. However, it can also be applicable, with
promote ASR. Fine and coarse aggregate containing more than the
refinement, to concrete containing supplementary cementitious materials.
following quantities of constituents are considered potentially reactive
(adapted from NRMCA 1993): ** Reactive minerals: Silica, SiO2, can exist in a variety of textures and crystalline structures.
Forms of silica are generally related to the rate at which volcanic magma cooled during forma-
opalmore than 0.5% by mass tion of the rock. Forms of siliceous minerals in aggregates range from amorphous or glassy
(non-crystalline) to cryptocrystalline, microcrystalline, and crystalline, listed in order of decreas-
chert or chalcedonymore than 3.0% ing cooling rate. During the formation of quartz crystals, some strain may be introduced. This
strain can be seen under a microscope under polarized light. Aggregate containing strained
tridymite or cristobalitemore than 1.0% quartz tends to be reactive. Cristobalite and tridymite are crystal forms of silica that exist at
higher temperatures and are frozen as such due to rapid cooling. These crystal forms are
optically strained or microcrystalline quartz more than 5.0% (as unstable (metastable) at normal temperatures, and rocks containing them are reactive. Opal is
found in granites, granite gneiss, graywackes, argillites, phyllites, silt- an amorphous form of silica with a variable amount of water in its structure. It is a very reac-
tive form of silica. ASTM C 294 contains a description of silica minerals.
stones, and some natural sands and gravels)
The reactivity of silica is related to the degree of order in the crystal structure. The forms vary
natural volcanic glassesmore than 3.0% from very reactive silica glass or opal to nonreactive unstrained quartz. One of the convenient
ways of classifying silica minerals is as follows:
See also ASTM C 33 (AASHTO M 6/M 80), C 294, C 295, and Table 1 of metastable group: opal, tridymite, cristobalite, intermediate glass (52%-66% SiO 2), acid glass
(more than 66% SiO2)
this document. quartz: cryptocrystalline quartz; microcrystalline quartz; chalcedony group, which includes
chalcedony, agate, chert, flint, and jasper; and optically strained or fractured quartz.
Aggregates containing silica minerals in the metastable group typically react more rapidly than
High-alkali-content pore solution. Alkali hydroxides in solution will those in the quartz group.
react readily with reactive forms of silica in aggregate. As the aggregate

2
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

0
Pavement wearing surface Ideally, the concept of total alkali loading should include the alkalies from all of the
0
concrete ingredients. However, it is common to include only the alkalies from the
20 B H J F cement, and sometimes other cementitious materials, in the determination because
1 alkali contribution from other ingredients is usually small. Therefore, total alkali content
40 of concrete is calculated as follows:
Depth into pavement, mm

Depth into pavement, in.

HB J F
60 (kg cement/m3) x (% Na2O equivalent in cement)/100 = kg alkali/m3

80
3 (lb cement per yd3) x (% Na2O equivalent in cement)/100 = lb alkali/yd3
B California
Note: If supplementary cementitious materials are present, a portion of their alkalies may be
100 4
J Georgia
HBJF
added to this equation. In certain European countries, such as the United Kingdom, the effec-
tive alkali content is the summation of the total sodium oxide equivalent for portland cement,
120 H New Mexico
5 natural pozzolan, and silica fume, and a percentage of the total sodium oxide equivalent for fly
140 F South Dakota ash and slag (17% for fly ash and 50% for slag). Other countries, such as Canada, do not
6 include the alkalies in supplementary cementitious materials in the calculation. See also the
160 BH F section on limiting concrete alkalies.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Relative humidity, percent
When potential for ASR exists, the accepted allowable limits for alkali content of concrete
Figure 1. Relative humidity versus depth of concrete used in Canada range between 1.8 kg/m3 and 3.0 kg/m3 (3.0 lb/yd3 and 5.0 lb/yd3),
for pavement in various climates. (Stark 1993). based on aggregate reactivity, size of concrete element, and environment (CSA-A23.1
7 12 2004). Fig. 2 shows the total alkali content of concrete for various cement alkali levels
Cement content
and cement contents, along with a 3.0 kg/m3 (5.0 lb/yd3) limit.
Alkalies, kilograms per cubic meter of concrete

Alkalies, pounds per cubic yard of concrete

6 400 kg/ m 3
10
(700 lb/yd3 )
In the United States, the method often used to control the concrete alkali content is to
5 350 kg/ m 3 specify a low-alkali cement (defined in ASTM C 150 [AASHTO M 85] as having an equivalent
(600 lb/yd3 ) 8
sodium oxide content of no more than 0.60%). However, concrete made with low-alkali
4
6
cement can still exhibit expansive ASR if moisture movement concentrates the alkalies
3 kg/m 3 in one location (Perenchio, Kaufman, and Krause 1991); if the aggregate is extremely
3
(5 lb/yd 3 )
4
reactive; if alkalies are provided by certain supplementary cementitious materials and
2 chemical admixtures, as well as from the aggregates and mixing water; or if total alkali
300 kg/m3
(500 lb/yd3 )
2
content of concrete is high due to a high cement content. Alkalies from external sources
1
250 kg/ m3 (discussed below) can also contribute significantly to the concrete alkali content.
(400 lb/yd3 )
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
External alkalies. External alkalies may increase expansion due to ASR, especially
Cement alkalies when concrete is cracked or is highly permeable (Grattan-Bellew 1992). Common
(Na2 O equivalent), percent sources of external alkalies are deicing salts, seawater, groundwater, and water from
Figure 2. Alkalies (as Na2O equivalent) per cubic meter industrial processes. In particular, use of pavement deicers can contribute significantly
(cubic yard) of concrete as a function of cement alkali to alkalies. Sodium chloride deicing salt solutions and seawater can provide virtually
and cement content. unlimited amounts of alkali (Helmuth 1993). Immersing concrete prisms containing
reactive aggregates in a sodium chloride solution has demonstrated increases in
expansion and deterioration of the concrete, especially at elevated temperatures
(Swamy and Al-Asali 1987, and Stark 1995). Certain nonchloride anti-icers and
deicers, such as potassium acetate or sodium formate, are currently being investigat-
ed regarding their effect on ASR.

There are ways to reduce the ingress of external alkalies. In addition to proper handling,
placing, and curing of concrete, the use of supplementary cementitious materials and a
low water-cementitious materials ratio will reduce concrete permeability, slow the
entrance of external alkalies, and reduce potential ASR expansion. Protective coatings
and sealers provide a barrier to seawater, deicing salts, and other alkali sources. In
some cases, regular cleaning of the structure might be worthwhile so that unwanted

The total (acid soluble) alkali content of portland cement includes both sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide (K2O),
Figure 3. This parapet wall has been severely but is conventionally expressed as equivalent sodium oxide as follows: Na2O equivalent = Na2O + 0.658(K2O). Sodium and
affected by ASR. Notice the cracking, joint closing, potassium oxides may be determined as part of chemical tests by methods in ASTM C 114. The Na2O equivalent is typically
spalling of concrete surfaces, and lateral offset reported on a mill test report.
that have developed. (IMG12295)

3
salts are carried away before they have a chance to enter the con-
crete and contribute to reaction. Unfortunately, some of these may
not be practical solutions for structures such as pavements.

Wetting and drying. Dry exposures reduce potential for expansive

cracking due to alkali-silica reactivity. Indoor concrete is usually drier
than exterior concrete. Concrete that has high initial water content,
however, may maintain a high internal relative humidity if not permit-
ted to dry. High humidities can sustain the ASR reaction. Its unknown
whether continuous saturation or cycles of wetting and drying cause
more damage (Palmer 1992). It is known, however, that alkali migra-
tion can occur with alternate wetting and drying, concentrating alkalies
near the drying zone and inducing reaction there (Perenchio, Kaufman,
and Krause 1991). It is desirable to minimize both available moisture
and wet-dry cycles by providing good drainage. Figure 4. Longitudinal cracks induced by ASR in a concrete pave-
ment. (IMG21371)
Temperature. Structures in warmer exposures are more susceptible
which then exacerbates ASR. Some of the more serious concerns
to ASR than those in colder exposures because the ASR rate usually
regarding in-service concrete expansion relate to hydro-electric dams.
increases with increasing temperature (Perenchio, Kaufman, and
High-speed rotating equipment requires that strict tolerances be
Krause 1991). For the majority of aggregates, higher temperatures
maintained between the machinery and the concrete to which it is
also mean larger ultimate expansions. However, there are studies
anchored (Danay 1994 and U.S. Committee on Large Dams 1995).
showing that lower temperatures, 13C and 20C (55F and 68F)
compared to 38C (100F), resulted in significantly larger ultimate Cracking
expansions with certain aggregates (Wood, Young, and Ward 1987, Concrete deleteriously affected by expansive ASR is characterized by
and Jones and Poole 1987). The effect of high or low temperatures a network of cracks (see Figs. 4 and 5). A visual inspection should
on ultimate expansion is aggregate dependent, with most aggregates note the location, length, width, apparent depth, and continuity of
reacting more at higher temperatures. cracks, and whether the cracks go through or around the aggregate.
Any other associations with stress directions, reinforcement, restraint
conditions, or discolorations should also be made in order to accu-
Visual Symptoms of Expansive ASR rately describe the cracking. Stark (1991a) has numerous illustrations
of ASR in highway structures.
Harmful ASR expansion does not occur without reaction products. But
reaction products can occur without harmful ASR expansion. Since ASR
products have been observed in good quality undamaged concrete and
the presence of reaction products does not necessarily indicate that
destructive ASR is occurring, a cause-and-effect relationship must link
the presence of reaction products to harmful expansion.

The British Cement Association outlines a procedure for diagnosing

ASR and assessing its impact on a structure. The procedure includes
the following steps: (1) site inspection and testing, (2) sampling,
(3) laboratory investigation, (4) evaluation, and (5) risk assessment of
future reaction (Palmer 1992). Visual observation of the structure is a
major component of this program.

Expansion
Typical indicators of ASR presence are longitudinal cracks, map (ran-
dom pattern) cracking, and in advanced cases, closed joints, spalled Figure 5. Close-up view of well developed cracking in a pavement, a typ-
ical pattern associated with ASR. The prominent cracks are in a longitu-
concrete surfaces, or relative displacements of different portions of a
dinal direction as there is less restraint to lateral expansion. (IMG13049)
structure (see Fig. 3). Because ASR deterioration is slow, the risk of
catastrophic failure is low. ASR can cause serviceability problems and Wide cracks are easy to see. Fine cracks arent always visible, but
can exacerbate other deterioration mechanisms such as those that they may be easier to see on a wet concrete surface that is begin-
occur in freeze-thaw, deicer, or sulfate exposures. For instance, a con- ning to dry. Drying occurs unevenly and provides a contrast that
crete pavement might experience map cracking, and with subsequent makes fine cracks more prominent (see Fig. 6). For this reason, some
freeze-thaw damage, begin to break apart. Likewise, cracking from inspectors prefer to examine a concrete structure as it is drying, such as
other mechanisms can allow an ingress of alkalies and/or moisture, after a rainfall.

4
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

Expansive ASR begins with the restraint. These cracks often progress to a map pattern. Continuously
formation of gel either in or on reinforced pavements will typically have ASR cracks parallel to the
a reactive aggregate particle reinforcement. Traffic loads aggravate crack formation. Fig. 9 illus-
within the concrete. As the gel trates the progression of ASR cracking in concrete pavements
absorbs water, it can exert a (Helmuth 1993). Though this model is developed specifically for
fairly uniform pressure up to 10 pavements, the sequence of events is similar in other structures.
MPa (1450 psi) or more in all These cracks should be differentiated from D-cracks (typically associ-
directions (Figg 1987). This ated with freeze-thaw distress). Freeze-thaw damage usually results
pressure exceeds the tensile in cracks parallel to transverse joints and free edges.
strength of conventional con-
cretes, which is generally about
10% of compressive strength.
The concrete cracks in a 3- or 4-
pronged star pattern. This crack-
ing is usually enough to relieve
the pressure and accommodate
the resulting volume increase
Figure 6. Cracks can be more easily
(see Fig. 7) (Figg 1987). As
seen when the concrete has been
more particles react, cracks radi- wetted and is starting to dry.
ating from these stars join (Stark 1991a). (IMG12986)
with others to form a pattern
resembling a map (see Fig. 8) (Poole 1992). ASR is not the only
mechanism to cause map cracking; cycles of freeze-thaw or other
mechanisms causing shrinking or swelling of the concrete mass can
cause similar patterns.

Figure 7 . ASR often induces three or more cracks at each reacted

aggregate particle location to relieve pressure caused by expan-
sive forces (Figg 1987). Figure 9. Model for ASR cracking in unrestrained slabs on ground.
Drying shrinkage occurs in Stage One, reaction and expansion of
the interior concrete in Stage Two, and continued drying at the
Pavement and slabs on grade. In surface accompanied by continued reaction in the interior during
pavements and slabs on grade, Stage Three. Relative humidity vs. depth is shown on the left
(Helmuth 1993).
cracking from expansive ASR
often begins near free edges
and joints where moisture is Stark (1991a) illustrates the difference between cracking caused by
abundant (Figg 1987). The ASR ASR versus freeze-thaw damage in pavements. In the first stage,
cracks are usually perpendicular moisture is lost at the top surface of the slab. This results in a slight
to transverse joints, and parallel drying shrinkage and some very fine cracking at the concrete surface.
to free edges along the road- At this point, there is no appreciable alkali-silica reaction or expan-
side, and against asphalt pave- sion. Concrete can remain in this stage indefinitely.
ment, where there is less
Stage two might begin only months after concrete placement or
Figure 8. Cracks caused by a many years later. Reactive aggregates and high-pH pore solutions
reacted particle will often speed progress to stage two, the onset of which is marked by gel for-
join other cracks of nearby
mation and subsequent swelling. Usually, gel forms in cracks inside
reacted particles. This leads
eventually to a pattern of the aggregate particle, but sometimes it forms on the rim of the par-
cracks resembling lines on a ticle. Formation of the gel may represent an initial reduction in vol-
map (Stark 1991a). (IMG13068) ume, but as the gel absorbs moisture, it swells and exerts a force on

5
the surrounding concrete. The unrestrained concrete surface has no Surface Deposits (Efflorescence)
way of resisting the swelling, so the surface cracks begin separating. Deposits of ASR gel or calcium carbonate (from carbonated pore solu-
Widening cracks are an indication that ASR is occurring. The widened tion) can be found along cracks in concrete, leaving a deposit on the
cracks then allow easier moisture access to the concrete interior, sus- surface ranging in color from white to dark gray. These deposits are
taining additional gel formation and swelling. During this phase, gel sometimes called efflorescence or exudations. The material exuding
may exude from the widening cracks. from the cracks can be white, yellowish, or colorless, and viscous, fluid,
waxy, rubbery, or hard. Surface deposits may or may not accompany
In stage three, continued drying slows reaction in the zone near the expansive ASR. However, their presence is not indicative of ASR, as
surface. But reaction continues in the moist interior concrete, con- other mechanisms (such as frost action) or the transmission of water
tributing to formation and expansion of gel, exerting pressure on the through concrete can also cause efflorescence (without the presence of
surface, and widening the surface cracks. ASR gel). It is good investigative practice during a site survey, however,
to record the extent and location of surface deposits along with their
ASR continues until the silica is depleted, until the alkali ion concen-
color, texture, dampness, and hardness. A chemical analysis is also
tration or pH is sufficiently reduced, or until sufficient drying occurs
helpful to determine if ASR gel is present in the deposit.
to stem the formation and swelling of gel. The process represented
by this three-step model can be temporarily or indefinitely interrupted, Popouts
for instance, during periods of dry weather. However, if conditions A popout is caused by a fragment breaking out of the surface of the
again become conducive to ASR, the reaction will resume. concrete, leaving a hole that may vary in size, but is usually 25 mm
to 50 mm (1 in. to 2 in.) wide. Popouts caused by sand-sized parti-
Other structures. Observed cracking is usually most strongly devel- cles can be much smaller (see Fig. 11). A fractured aggregate particle
oped in areas of structures where the concrete has a constantly can be found at the bottom of the hole.
renewable supply of moisture, such as close to the waterline in piers,
from the ground behind retaining walls, beneath pavement slabs, or
by wick action in piers or columns (Liu 1981).

Figure 11. Popouts caused by sand-sized particles. Inset shows

close-up of such a popout. (IMG12318, IMG12983)
Figure 10. Cracking associated with stress directions. Predominant
cracks are oriented longitudinally in this column. (IMG12421)

In the absence of directional restraint, concrete cracks in a random The number, size, and location of popouts provide valuable informa-
pattern when ASR damage occurs. If the concrete is restrained, as tion about the quality of aggregates in a concrete. Most commonly a
most concrete structures are, cracks will be oriented along the stress popout is caused by the expansion and contraction of porous aggre-
direction (Poole 1992): for example, vertical cracks form in piers (Fig. 10). gate during freezing and thawing cycles. Another cause of popouts is
Since reinforcement parallels the major stress direction, linear ASR expansive ASR: popouts occur to relieve pressure created by gel
cracks occur roughly parallel to the steel bars. Unlike steel corrosion formed just beneath the concrete surface. Locating gel at the site of
cracks that appear directly over the bars, linear ASR cracks commonly a popout is a strong indication of ASR.
appear between the bars. A roughly rectangular cracking pattern
Floor coverings may play a role in development of ASR popouts at
results when the reinforcement is configured fairly evenly in two
later ages. Especially on slabs placed over wet cohesive soils,
directions (Figg 1987).
condensation can occur under the covering to develop popouts.
In unreinforced concrete, external restraint influences the orientation Examination of the aggregate at the bottom of the resulting pit can
of major cracks. In gravity dams, expansion is less restrained in an usually explain the cause of the popout.
upward direction and cracking is thus predominantly horizontal.

6
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

Popouts are a cosmetic nuisance and usually do not affect the

serviceability or durability of the concrete. Still, there are ways to
minimize their occurrence from ASR (Landgren and Hadley 2002):

Do not use hard steel troweled surfaces where not needed,

such as on most exterior slabs.
Choose wet curing methods, such as continuous sprinkling
with water, fogging, or covering with wet burlap instead of
poly films, curing papers, or curing compounds. Flush the sur-
face with water before final drying.
Use blended cement or a supplementary cementitious material
such as fly ash that has been demonstrated to control ASR.
The presence of ASR-induced popouts is not necessarily an indication
that the concrete structure will expand and have map cracking or
other signs of ASR distress.
Figure 12. Reacted particles are identified by dark areas that indi-
Popouts can also be caused without ASR by freezing and thawing of cate ASR gel (either inside the particle, or along edges of particles),
cracks extending from aggregate particles into the surrounding
low-density porous aggregate at or near the concrete surface. For
paste, and ASR gel reaction products. (IMG13650)
example, porous chert can absorb water and upon freezing, expand
and form a popout.
A petrographic examination (ASTM C 856 or AASHTO T 299) is the
Color Change most positive method for identifying ASR distress in concrete. Prepared
Surface discoloration is common in conjunction with cracking (Poole sections of concrete are examined under a microscope by an experi-
1992). Darkened or blotchy areas are often associated with ASR. enced petrographer to determine the presence and location of reac-
Areas along cracks may be bleached, pinkish, or brownish in color, tive aggregates and gel. Silica gel appears as a darkened area in the
extending several millimeters (tenths of an inch) from the crack. aggregate particle or around its edges. Petrography, when used to
study a known reacted concrete, can confirm the presence of reaction
products and verify ASR as an underlying cause of deterioration.
Methods For Identifying ASR Distress
A second method for detecting alkali-silica gel in concrete is the
It is important to distinguish between the ASR reaction and damage uranyl-acetate treatment procedure, discussed in the Annex to
resulting from the reaction. In the diagnosis of concrete deteriora- ASTM C 856 (AASHTO T 299). A freshly exposed concrete surface is
tion, it is most likely that a gel product will be identified. In some sprayed with a solution of uranyl acetate, rinsed with water, and then
cases, significant amounts of gel are formed without causing dam- viewed under ultraviolet light (Stark 1991a and Natesaiyer and Hover
age to concrete. It is therefore important that in analysis of deterio- 1992). Reacted particles and gel appear as bright yellow or green areas.
rated concrete, signs of distress, such as microcracks and separation
of aggregate from the paste, be accurately attributed to ASR gel for- The uranyl-acetate treatment procedure requires experienced technicians
mation if the damage is to be associated with ASR. Other causes of for correct interpretation. The test does not differentiate between a harm-
distress should not be precluded. less presence of gel or reactivity and that which is detrimental. Not all
fluorescence is an indication of ASR gel. For instance, some aggregates
To pinpoint ASR as the cause of damage, the presence of ASR gel fluoresce naturally. Also, uranyl ions can be absorbed on cement hydra-
must be verified. However, other characteristics of the concrete tion products and appear as broad, faint areas of fluorescence. Neither of
should be studied, as ASR may only be a result of other concrete dis- these conditions is an indication of ASR gel. The uranyl-acetate solution is
tress. A site of expansive reaction can be defined as an aggregate slightly radioactive. While the level of radioactivity presents minimal risk,
particle that is recognizably reactive or potentially reactive and is at its use is regulated and care must be taken in removing all materials that
least partially replaced by gel (see Fig. 12). ASR-affected coarse have been in contact with the uranium.
aggregates usually exhibit internal fracturing, with cracks extending
into the surrounding concrete matrix. If only fine aggregate is react- The third and newest procedure for detecting gel in concrete is the Los
ing, cracks can form in the matrix without affecting coarse aggregate Alamos staining method, which is used in the field as well as the labora-
particles. Gel can be present in cracks and voids and may also be tory. It is a modified staining procedure traditionally used to identify
present in the area around aggregate particle edges. A network of potassium feldspar in rocks using a solution of sodium cobaltinitrite. In
internal cracks connecting reacted aggregate particles is a strong this method, the reagent is applied to a fresh concrete surface and
indication that ASR is responsible for cracking. viewed for yellow staining, which indicates gel containing potassium. A
second reagent, rhodamine B, provides contrast for the yellow stain. The

7
rhodamine B solution is applied to the rinsed surface and allowed to than 0.50%; or, when SCMs are used, expansion is less than that of a
react. The surface is again rinsed with water. The rhodamine B stain control with low-alkali cement [between 0.40% and 0.60%]; or, when
produces a pink background with darker pink stain in the vicinity of the low-alkali cements are used, expansion at 14 days is at least 55% lower
yellow stain. The darker pink stain corresponds to calcium-rich ASR gel. than a control mixture with high-alkali cement [1.00% 0.05%]); (2)
According to test developers, the dark pink stain indicates an advanced AASHTO T 303 [ASTM C 1260] (expansion limit of 0.08% at 14 days for
or advancing state of degradation (Powers 1999). metamorphic aggregates and 0.10% for all others); or (3) ASTM C 1293
(expansion limit of 0.04% at 2 years).
A positive identification of gel by both the uranyl-acetate treatment and the
Los Alamos staining procedure does not necessarily mean that destructive
ASR has occurred. Both tests are ancillary to more definitive petrographic Identification of Potentially Reactive
examinations and physical tests for determining concrete expansion. The Aggregate
uranyl-acetate treatment procedure and the Los Alamos staining method
must not be used alone to diagnose ASR (Powers 1999).
Field performance history is the best method of evaluating the sus-
ceptibility of an aggregate to ASR. When evaluating past field perfor-
Control of ASR in New Concrete mance, the following should be determined: (1) are the cement
content of the concrete, the alkali content of the cement, and the
water-cement ratio of the concrete similar to that proposed for future
The best way to avoid ASR is to take appropriate precautions before use, (2) is the field concrete at least 15 years old, (3) are the expo-
concrete is placed. Standard concrete specifications may require sure conditions for the field concrete at least as severe as anticipated
modification to address ASR. These modifications should be carefully for new construction, and (4) are pozzolans or slags used in the field
tailored to avoid unnecessarily limiting specifiers options. This concrete and are content and properties similar to those proposed for
requires careful analysis of cementitious materials and aggregates future use? In addition, the current aggregate supply should be exam-
and choosing a control strategy that optimizes effectiveness and eco- ined petrographically to be sure that it is representative of that used in
nomic selection of materials. the field concrete. When field history is not available, laboratory tests
can be used to evaluate the potential reactivity of aggregate. Fig. 13
Because different geographic regions have different needs and materials illustrates the process of evaluating an aggregate.
available, PCA developed a guide specification for concrete subject to
alkali-silica reactions (PCA 2007). It is based on a document (NRMCA Several tests to identify potentially reactive cement-aggregate combina-
1993) written for a region on the East Coast of the United States. Fig. 13 tions were developed in the 1940s and 1950s, while newer tests were
illustrates a guide specification process in determining if potential reactiv- developed in the 1990s. Each test has advantages and disadvantages, as
ity exists and in selecting materials to control ASR. well as limitations, that are outlined below. A description of each test fol-
lows. See Table 1 at the end of this document for details of test condi-
AASHTO Guide Specification. The American Association of State tions, required samples, and measurement criteria.
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has also developed
guidelines and technologies for treating and preventing ASR. Available is
Mortar-Bar Method (ASTM C 227)
a Transition Plan (http://leadstates.transportation.org/asr/transition/), which
The Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of Cement-Aggregate
includes: (1) A survey of State Highway Agencies to assess the extent of ASR;
Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method), ASTM C 227, measures the
(2) an updated Handbook for the Identification of ASR in Highway Structures,
expansion of mortars made with the test aggregate. The aggregate
SHRP-C-315 (http://leadstates.transportation.org/asr/library/C315/); and
should conform to a standard grading, and may require crushing to
(3) an AASHTO Guide Specification on ASR-Resistant Concrete
meet the grading. Either a job cement or reference cement may be
(http://leadstates.transportation.org/asr/library/gspec.stm).
used. Alkali content of the reference cement should be at least 0.6%
The Guide Specification on ASR-Resistant Concrete proposes the Na2Oeq, and, preferably, have the highest alkali content representative
following tests for aggregates: AASHTO T 303 [ASTM C 1260] of the cement use intended. At least four mortar bars, two from each
(expansion limit of 0.08% at 14 days for metamorphic aggregates of two batches using this aggregate and cement are prepared to
and 0.1% for all others), and ASTM C 1293 (expansion limit of standard dimensions: 25x25x285 mm (1x1x111/4 in.).
0.04% at 1 year) and ASTM C 295, petrographic examination.
The bars are stored over water at 100% RH at 37.8C (100F). Length
Suggested materials to prevent ASR in new concrete include: (1) low
measurements are taken periodically beginning at 14 days and extending
alkali and/or blended cements; (2) minimum 15% Class F fly ash,
to 12 months or longer. According to ASTM C 33 (AASHTO M 6 / M 80),
30% Class C ash, 25% slag, or 5% silica fume cement replacement;
the maximum allowable expansion for an aggregate to be considered
and (3) lithium admixtures.
potentially nonreactive is 0.10% at six months, or 0.05% at three months
Methods to demonstrate prevention of deleterious ASR using project if longer testing periods arent feasible. Longer test periods are preferred
materials include: (1) ASTM C 441 (expansion limit of 0.10% at 56 days for differentiating the reactivity of an aggregate. The method is usually not
or 0.15% at 56 days, when AASHTO T 303 aggregate test result was less applicable for testing carbonate aggregates.

8
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

Is there
an adequate
field performance NO
history for the
aggregate?

YES

Based
YES on field history,
is the aggregate
potentially
reactive?

NO

Will new
concrete contain
NO
materials similar to
those used in
the field?

YES
Test the aggregate
Will the YES
environment be
more severe than Petrography ASTM C 295 and Mortar-bar test
that in the field ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303)
history?

NO

NO Does testing
No special indicate reactive
requirements aggregate?

OPTIONAL

YES
Concrete-prism test
ASTM C 1293

NO Does testing YES

indicate reactive
aggregate?

Use special requirements

Are
Prove effectiveness using YES pozzolans, slags, NO
ASTM C 1567 or blended cements
available?

Does testing YES

indicate successful ASR
mitigation?

NO

OPTIONAL 2-year
Concrete-prism test
ASTM C 1293

NO Does testing YES

indicate successful ASR Use mitigation
mitigation? option

Limit concrete alkalies to

a level determined to
control ASR

Figure 13. Flow chart listing steps to be taken to control ASR.

9
One positive aspect of this test is that it measures the ASR susceptibili- gate sample. The ASTM practice provides guidance on megascopic
ty of cement-aggregate combinations. Unless very reactive materials and microscopic methods of analyzing an aggregate sample.
are being tested, though, obtaining meaningful results may require a Descriptive nomenclature for minerals is found in ASTM C 294.
year or more (Stark 2006). It is frequently impractical to wait a year for
test results. Lack of time to run an adequate test is one of the major In a megascopic analysis, the aggregate sample is separated into
drawbacks associated with C 227. Even after long test periods, not all groups of similar rock types. Potentially reactive rock types are quan-
deleterious aggregates will exhibit expansive behavior. Sometimes, the tified on the basis of the total aggregate sample.
C 227 test fails to distinguish between slowly reacting aggregates and
A microscopic analysis is a more involved and time-consuming
innocuous ones because the test conditions arent severe enough or
procedure. Hence this analysis will typically use a smaller aggregate
the test would have to be run for several years (Stark 1993). A petro-
sample. A petrographic microscope is most commonly used, and thin
graphic analysis of the aggregate is helpful in determining if this test is
sections of aggregates are evaluated under polarized light. Refractive
suitable for testing particularly slowly reactive aggregates. Problems
index and specific gravity of powdered aggregate samples are also
with the test setup have also been identified. The test method requires
evaluated. More exotic types of electron microscopes, such as a
the inside of the container to be lined with wicks to maintain a high
transmission electron microscope (TEM) and scanning electron micro-
relative humidity. The wicks cause water to condense on the bars thus
scope (SEM), can also be used to characterize the mineral composition
leaching alkalies from the mortar. Reduced expansions have been
of an aggregate sample. Analytical techniques, like X-ray diffraction
observed in some containers using wicks. Although not a perfect test, it
and infrared spectroscopy, may be used to characterize the crystalline
is a useful method for studying the ASR susceptibility of cement-aggre-
form of silica in the aggregate particles.
gate combinations.
A petrographic analysis of aggregates can be time consuming. Since small
Chemical Method (ASTM C 289)
samples are evaluated, precautions must be taken to ensure the sample is
The Test Method for Potential Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical
representative of the product source. Correlating the results of a petro-
Method), ASTM C 289, commonly called the quick chemical test,
graphic analysis with service record of the aggregate in concrete is very
estimates the potential reactivity of siliceous aggregate. An aggregate is
useful. The results of a petrographic analysis will not reveal whether an
crushed and sieved to yield three samples of 25 grams each. This material
aggregate will cause deleterious expansion in concrete; this needs to be
is then reacted with an alkaline solution (1 N sodium hydroxide) at 80C
evaluated using other test methods (see below).
(176F). At 24 hours, the amount of dissolved silica from the aggregate
and the reduction in alkalinity of the solution are measured. By plotting Rapid Mortar-Bar Test (ASTM C 1260 or AASHTO T 303)
these data against a provided curve, its possible to estimate reaction Assessing aggregate reactivity by accelerated methods is increasingly
potential. The aggregate falls into one of three ranges: innocuous, delete- common. The shortcomings of ASTM C 227 and C 289 prompted
rious, or potentially deleterious. development of a rapid test method for assessing potential reactivity of
aggregate. ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303), Test Method for Potential
ASTM C 289 identifies highly reactive aggregates fairly reliably; how-
Alkali Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method), offers a relatively
ever, it fails to identify slowly reactive aggregates. Also, certain
rapid test to supplement lengthier test methods. It involves measuring
aggregates have high amounts of soluble silica present, but produce
the length change of mortar bars made with the sample aggregate
only small expansions in service. Thus, the test does not always give
stored in a strongly alkaline solution at an elevated temperature.
reliable results (Stark 1993 and 1994). The method also is usually not
applicable for testing carbonate aggregates. This test is a helpful This test measures potential aggregate reactivity, not reactivity of
research tool and may be useful for initial screening of aggregate; specific cement-aggregate combinations. A nonmandatory appendix
however, other tests should be relied upon to better define which to C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) classifies an expansion of 0.10% or less
aggregates are potentially reactive. at 14 days as innocuous behavior. Expansions of more than 0.20%
are indicative of potentially deleterious expansion. Between 0.10%
Petrographic Examination (ASTM C 295)
and 0.20%, aggregates may exhibit either innocuous or deleterious
Mineral composition is a good indicator of potential aggregate reac-
behavior in field performance. Various organizations use different cri-
tivity. The Guide for Petrographic Examination of Aggregates for
teria depending on local experience; however, unless testing and field
Concrete, ASTM C 295, is used to determine mineral composition
experience demonstrate that modifications to the procedure are justi-
and form (page 2 of this document discusses aggregate sources and
fied for local materials, the standard test conditions and criteria
mineral compositions that are prone to ASR). Petrographic examina-
should be used to provide the most meaningful results (Thomas et al.
tion should be used as a screening method for aggregates. It gives
2005). The expansion level of the aggregate may determine what
quick results to help predict possible aggregate reactivity but cant
materials are used in concrete.
give quantitative information about the aggregates actual behavior
in concrete. ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) should be used as a screening test
in conjunction with other tests to determine the potential reactivity
A petrographic evaluation of an aggregate sample, by an experienced
of an aggregate. Due to the severe test conditions, aggregates with
petrographer, will identify potentially reactive minerals in an aggre-

10
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

good field performance and no history of ASR can sometimes test 60C (140F). Research on this modified procedure is still in
to be reactive. This is because aggregates in field concrete are rarely progress. Exact test criteria have not been established.
exposed to the severe alkali and temperature conditions of the
Accelerated Mortar-Bar Test (ASTM C 1567)
test method. Thus, aggregates identified as potentially reactive by
ASTM C 1567, Test Method for Determining the Potential Alkali-
ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) may perform well in practice when
Silica Reactivity of Combinations of Cementitious Materials and
exposed to more reasonable alkali levels and temperature conditions.
Aggregate (Accelerated Mortar-Bar Method), assesses expansion of
ASTM C 1260s (AASHTO T 303s) severity makes it useful for identi-
specimens made with the aggregate in question and blended cement
fying slowly reacting aggregates, which may not be identified by
or cement plus pozzolan or slag under the same accelerated test
ASTM C 227.
conditions as ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303). It tests the effective-
A variation of ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) evaluates the effective- ness of cement-pozzolan-aggregate combinations. It may be required
ness of supplementary cementitious materials. This procedure has been to test different levels of pozzolan and ground granulated blast-fur-
standardized as ASTM C 1567 (see below). Thomas et al. (2005) show nace slag to determine the amount required to reduce expansion to
a good relationship between rapid mortar-bar testing at 14 days and an acceptable level. Pozzolans and ground granulated blast-furnace
expansion of outdoor specimens. They note a marked increase in false slag may be tested separately or in combination. It is recommended
positives and false negatives (compared to concrete testing) with a to test the same aggregate and hydraulic cement (without pozzolans
28-day version of the test (42%), compared to the standard 14-day and slag) using Test Method C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) for a compara-
test (23%). tive control. Results obtained using this test method may overesti-
mate the reactivity of some types of aggregates if used in service
Concrete Prism Test (ASTM C 1293) with the same pozzolans or slag and low-alkali cement. In addition,
The Standard Test Method for Concrete Aggregates by Determination
of Length Change of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction ,
0.3
ASTM C 1293, measures the expansion of concrete prisms made with Lab A
the fine or coarse aggregate in question and a Type I high-alkali ASTM C 1293, Expansion after 2 years, %
Lab B
(0.90%0.10% Na2O-equivalent) cement plus added NaOH to simu-
Lab C
late a 1.25% Na2O equivalent cement. Concrete proportions are
strictly defined, including a water-cement ratio of 0.42 to 0.45. At
0.2
these proportions, concrete has an alkali content of 5.25 kg/m 3
(8.85 lb/yd3). At least three concrete prisms are prepared to standard
dimensions: 75x75x285 mm (3x3x111/4 in.). An additional prism can
be made for petrographic examination. All prisms are stored in a
sealed container over water at 100% RH at 38C (100F). Length
0.1
change measurements are compared to the reading taken at one day
and are calculated to the nearest 0.001%. Measurements are taken
at 7, 28, and 56 days, and 3, 6, 9, and 12 months. Additional read-
ings, if required, are at 6-month intervals. Appendix X1 of the stan-
dard offers the following interpretation of results: potentially 0.0
deleterious behavior is indicated if the one-year expansion is greater
than or equal to 0.04%. 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

ASTM C 1567, Expansion after 14 days, %

ASTM C 1293 is similar to C 227 in that both involve cement-aggre-
gate combinations, and both can require a year or more to obtain Figure 14. Comparison of 2-year expansion of the concrete prism
meaningful results. C 1293 is currently considered the most represen- test (ASTM C 1293) with expansion of the same SCM-aggregate
tative test method when compared to structures in the field. C 1293 combinations in the accelerated mortar-bar test (ASTM C 1567) at
should be used to supplement results obtained from C 227, C 295, 14 days (Thomas et al. 2005).
C 289, C 1260 (AASHTO T 303), or C 1567 and has the potential to
this test method may underestimate the expansion of cementitious
resolve uncertainties about results obtained with C 227, C 1260
systems containing pozzolans with an alkali content > 4.0 % Na2Oeq.
(AASHTO T 303), and C 1567, when no additional alkalies are
Such materials should be tested using Test Method C 1293. Similar to
expected to become available to the system. In Canada, the equiva-
ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303), a nonmandatory appendix to C 1567
lent to ASTM C 1293 is CSA A23.2-14A, Potential Expansivity of
classifies an expansion of 0.10% or less at 14 days (16 days after
Aggregates (Procedure for Length Change Due to Alkali-Aggregate
casting) as innocuous behavior. Thomas et al. (2005) show a good
Reaction in Concrete Prisms). In a variation to C 1293, Touma,
relationship between rapid mortar-bar testing at 14 days and expan-
Fowler, and Carrasquillo (2001) suggest that the duration of the test
sion of outdoor specimens. They note a marked increase in false posi-
be shortened from 12 months to 3 months (91 days) by increasing
tives and false negatives (compared to concrete testing) with a 28-day
the storage temperature of the concrete prisms from 38C (100F) to
version of test (42%), compared to the standard 14-day test (23%).
11
Comparison between Accelerated Mortar-Bar Test (ASTM C 1567) 0.30
and Concrete Prism Test (ASTM C 1293)

%%
days,
Thomas et al. (2005) show comparisons of the two methods for vari- 0.25

days,
ous aggregate types. Fig. 14 shows that using the 14-day expansion

1414
limit of 0.10% in the ASTM C 1567 test to assess combinations of

after
0.20

after
reactive aggregate and supplementary cementitious materials pro-

expansion
vides a reasonable prediction of the same aggregate-SCM combina-

1567expansion
0.15
tions when tested in accordance with the 2-year ASTM C 1293 test
using a 0.04% expansion limit. The researchers found only a small 0.10

ASTMCC1567
risk associated with using the 14-day limit of 0.10% in ASTM C
1567 tests to accept SCM-aggregate combinations for use in con-
0.05

ASTM
struction. Thirteen of the 182 combinations tested expanded by more
than 0.040% when tested in concrete, but passed the 0.10% criteri-
0
on when tested in mortar. The (relatively low) risk of expansion asso-
ciated with relying on the outcome of this test has to be balanced
against the quicker time frame for obtaining results. Figure 15. Influence of different amounts of fly ash, slag, and silica
fume by mass of cementitious material on mortar-bar expansion
(ASTM C 1567) after 14 days when using reactive aggregate
Designing Mixtures to Control ASR (Fournier 1997).

Most concrete is not affected by ASR and special requirements are not and Duchesne 1992). This may also apply to ASTM C 227. Brub and
needed. However, if historical experience or the tests discussed above Duchesne (1992) provide comparison between test methods.
demonstrate that ASR is a potential concern, then concrete mixtures Materials and Methods to Inhibit ASR
must be specifically designed to control ASR. The concrete mixture A variety of locally available materials can be used to control ASR.
should be designed with a safe and economic combination of locally Using the above tests where applicable to demonstrate effectiveness
available materials. Historical guidance or tests must be used to estab- in controlling ASR, the supplementary cementitious materials listed
lish the ASR resistance of selected material combinations. Fig. 13 illus- below can be included either as a concrete ingredient added at
trates what steps should be taken to assist in the mixture design. batching or as a component of a blended hydraulic cement, or both.
Blended hydraulic cements should conform to ASTM C 595 (AASHTO
When pozzolans, slags, or blended cements are used to control ASR
M 240) or ASTM C 1157.
expansion, their effectiveness must be determined. The limits on
expansion referenced in ASTM C 595 (AASHTO M 240), ASTM C 989 SCMs added directly to concrete are governed by ASTM C 618 or
(AASHTO M 302), and ASTM C 1157 may not be applicable. The AASHTO M 295 (fly ash and natural pozzolans), ASTM C 989 or
tests do not use job aggregate, and the limits may be more restric- AASHTO M 302 (slag), or ASTM C 1240 or AASHTO M 307 (silica
tive than is necessary or achievable. An alternative comparative fume). Specifiers should invoke the optional physical and chemical
procedure is described in ASTM C 311, whereusing the ASTM C 441 ASR requirements in these standards.The following options are not list-
test procedureexpansions of fly ash and natural pozzolan are ed in priority and can be used in combination with one another.
compared to a control mixture with low-alkali portland cement.
Fly ash. Decades of laboratory and field research demonstrate that
Where possible, different amounts of pozzolan or slag should be certain fly ashes can control ASR. Generally, this works through one
tested to determine the optimum dosage. Some materials exhibit a (or more) of the following three mechanisms (Detwiler 2002):
pessimum effect: dosages that are too low may actually result in
1. Reduction of concrete permeability and diffusivity due to the
higher ASR-related expansions than if no pozzolan or slag were used
pozzolanic reaction of the fly ash with the calcium hydroxide
(Chen et al. 1993 and Carrasquillo and Farbiarz 1989). Fig. 15 illus-
produced by the hydration of the cement
trates the need for optimization of dosage of pozzolan or slag to
control ASR. ASTM C 1567 results at 14 days are considered to be 2. Removal of some of the alkalies from the pore solution by
conservative when compared to ASTM C 1293 results at 2 years. binding them into the low CaO/SiO2 ratio hydration products
Therefore, lower replacements may have been recommended, if the 3. Dilution of the cement alkalies by a fly ash with a lower alkali
2-year ASTM C 1293 test had been used. content, or at least a lower available alkali content
The type of ash, its alkali content, chemical composition, and dosage all
ASTM C 1293 and CSA A 23.2-28A recommend a 2-year test period for
affect how effectively it will control expansion. In general, Class F fly
the concrete prism test to evaluate supplementary cementitious materials.
ashes work better than Class C ashes. Class F ashes have higher silicon
Petrographic examination of the test specimens is also helpful. Although
dioxide contents and lower lime contents, properties that increase the
a limit of 0.04% is used by ASTM and CSA to establish effectiveness, some
ability to control expansive reactivity. In general, ASR expansion decreases
researchers suggest a comparison against a low-alkali control (Brub
as the ash content increases (see Fig.15). Ashes require different dosages

12
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

0.7
days,%%
14days,

No pozzolan
at 14

0.6
after
expansion
expansion

0.5
1567

ASTM C 441
ASTMCC1567

Expansion, %
0.4 Cement: 0.92% alkali
Pyrex glass
ASTM

0.3

Figure 16. Effect of different fly ashes and slag on alkali-silica reactivity. 0.2
Note that some ashes are more effective than others in controlling the
reaction and that dosage of the ash or slag is critical. A highly reactive 20% Calcined shale
natural aggregate was used in this test. A less reactive aggregate would 20% Calcined clay
require less ash or slag to control the reaction. A common limit for eval-
0.1
uating the effectiveness of pozzolans or slags is 0.10% expansion using H
this rapid mortar-bar test (Detwiler 2002). H
0 H
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
depending on their chemical composition, the alkali content of the con-
crete, and the reactivity of the aggregate. Laboratory results show that Age, months
certain high-alkali/high-calcium fly ashes are not effective at normal
dosages to control ASR (see Fig. 16). Some of these materials may even Figure 18. ASR mortar-bar expansion versus calcined natural poz-
exacerbate ASR expansion when used at lower amounts (pessimum zolan additions used with Pyrex glass aggregate (Lerch 1950).
effect) (Chen et al. 1993 and Carrasquillo and Farbiarz 1989). Generally,
the amount of fly ash required to control ASR will increase as any of the (2) reactivity of the aggregate, or (3) amount of alkali available in the
following parameters increase: (1) lime or alkali content of the fly ash, concrete for reaction (Shehata and Thomas 2000).

Slag. In some parts of the country it is common to control ASR by

0.40 using slag cement (ground granulated blast-furnace slag). Slag is usu-
B
ally used at higher dosages (25% to 50%) than fly ash to be effective
0.35 (see Figs. 15 and 17) (Buck 1987). In one concrete mixture, for exam-
ASTM C 441 ple, about 50% slag might be needed to control expansion in concrete
0.30 Cement alkali: 1.19% with highly reactive aggregate, while only 25% to 35% slag may be
14-day data required to control expansion in concrete with moderately reactive
0.25 aggregate. Generally, the amount of slag required to control expansion
Expansion, %

increases as either the reactivity of the aggregate or the amount of

0.20 alkali in the mixture increases (Thomas and Innis 1998).

0.15 Silica fume. Silica fume is also an effective supplementary cementi-

B tious material for controlling ASR. Compared to fly ash and slag, only
0.10 small dosages of silica fume are needed (Fig. 15) (Buck 1987). However,
the amount of silica fume required to control expansion with a highly
B
reactive aggregate is around 10% or more. This amount of silica fume is
0.05
higher than that typically used in concrete and can lead to problems
B B with placing and finishing. The use of silica fume is perhaps most
0.00
beneficial and practical when used as part of a ternary system (see
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
page 14).
Slag content, percent
Natural Pozzolans. Raw or calcined natural pozzolans are some-
Figure 17. ASR mortar bar expansion versus slag content (Buck
times used to control ASR (see Fig. 18) (Lerch 1950). Metakaolin, a
1987).

13
highly reactive calcined clay, is almost as effective as silica fume in 1.0
controlling ASR. It typically requires a replacement level of some-
0.9 B 1 Normal NaOH solution
where between 10% to 15% to control expansion.

Ternary systems. Laboratory data (Fournier et al. 2004) show the 0.8
Highly reactive
beneficial effect of silica fume in combination with fly ash or slag to 0.7 volcanic aggregate
control ASR. Also, combining two or more supplementary cementitious

14-day expansion, %
materials may reduce the quantities needed to control ASR compared 0.6
to using the materials individually. For example, 4% to 6% silica fume
combined with moderate levels of slag (20% to 35%) or fly ash (Class 0.5
Slowly reactive
F or Class C), were found to be very effective in controlling the expan- 0.4 granite gneiss
sion of highly reactive aggregates (Folliard et al. 2006).
0.3 J B
Low-alkali portland cement. Low-alkali portland cement
(ASTM C 150 or AASHTO M 85), with an alkali content not exceeding 0.2
0.60% Na2Oeq., can be used to reduce ASR. Its use has been successful J
with slightly reactive to moderately reactive aggregates. Higher alkali lev-
0.1
els (between 0.65% and 0.80%) also have been safely used with certain 0 B
J B
J B
J
moderately reactive aggregates. However, low-alkali cements are not
1:0 1:2/3 2/3:1 0:1
available in all areas. Also, deleterious reactivity has been observed with
1:1/3 1:1 1/3:1
certain highly reactive glassy volcanic aggregates, especially andesite and
Molar sodium to lithium
rhyolite rocks, even when low-alkali cements (alkali contents of 0.35% to
Figure 19. Fourteen-day expansion of mortar bars versus sodium-
0.60%) were used (Stark 1981 and Kosmatka and Fiorato 1991). Thus,
to-lithium ratio. The effective molar ratio was about 1 to 2/3 for
the use of locally available cements in combination with pozzolans, slags, these two reactive aggregates (Stark 1993).
or blended cements is preferable for controlling ASR.

Limiting concrete alkalies. Canadian experience indicates that

the concrete will be exposed to external alkali sources
deleterious expansion usually does not take place when reactive highly reactive aggregates are used
aggregates are used in concrete containing less than 3 kg of As an alternative to the 3-kg limit, specifiers can determine the effec-
alkali/m3 (5 lb/yd3) in mixtures containing 100% portland cement as tive alkali burden from tests on properly performing field structures
the cementitious material. in a locality. Then they can specify the historically established limit for
new structures built with similar materials in a similar environment.
In Canada, CSA Standard A23.2-27A, Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, dictates
the requirements for supplementary cementitious materials used to con- ASR-inhibiting compounds. Certain chemical admixtures or
trol ASR. A supplementary cementitious material may be used to control cement additives can control ASR (Stark 1992 and 1993, Gajda 1996
ASR provided it meets two criteria: (1) it must conform to certain chemical and Lane 2002). For example, lithium compounds can effectively
requirements and (2) it must be used at or above the minimum dosage reduce ASR expansion in concrete. When lithium hydroxide or lithium
specified. If less than the required minimum amounts are to be used, the nitrate is added to concrete, a lithium-bearing ASR gel is formed.
concrete prism expansion test (CSA Test Method A23.2-14A) or the Lithium-bearing gels have a greatly reduced potential for expansion;
mortar-bar accelerated expansion test (CSA Test Method A23.2-25A) is some are even non-expansive. Also, less gel is formed in the presence
conducted to verify the materials effectiveness in controlling expansion. of lithium.
Per the chemical requirements, blast-furnace slag can have a maximum
1.0% total alkali content (as Na2O equivalent). Fly ash can have a maxi- The degree to which lithium compounds suppress expansive ASR
mum total alkali content of between 3.0% and 4.5%, and silica fume can depends on two factors: aggregate reactivity and concrete alkali con-
have a maximum total alkali content of 1.0%. A minimum SCM dosage tent. Fig. 19 shows the reduction in expansion with two highly reac-
is required depending on the reactivity of the aggregate, the service life tive aggregates and varying proportions of sodium to lithium (Stark
and size of the structural element, the exposure environment, and the 1993). The optimum level of lithium hydroxide monohydrate to control
composition of the fly ash or slag. The minimum silica fume dosage is expansive ASR appears to be equal to that of the equivalent alkali con-
calculated based on total alkali content of the concrete. tent of the cement (Gajda 1996). It has been shown that insufficient
quantities of certain lithium compounds may actually increase expansion.
Appendix B of CSA A23.1 (2004) cautions that restricting concrete This is related to the increased hydroxyl ion concentration in the pore
alkali content to 3 kg/m3 (5 lb/yd3) may not be an effective strategy, solution, as many lithium compounds combine with calcium hydroxide,
however, when: producing insoluble calcium salt and lithium hydroxide. Lithium nitrate
the concrete will be used in mass concrete structures that does not behave in this manner due to the high solubility of calcium
cannot tolerate even slight expansions nitrate (Stokes et al. 1997). The efficient molar ratio [Li]/[Na+K] to sup-

14
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

press expansion may vary from as low as 0.56 to over 1.11 depending on Recycled Concrete as Aggregate
the aggregate source. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has
published Interim Recommendations for the Use of Lithium to Mitigate or
When recycled concrete is used as coarse aggregate in new concrete, it
Prevent Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) (Folliard et al. 2006), which provides
should be evaluated in the same manner as virgin aggregate (see Fig.13).
information and guidance to test, specify, and use lithium compounds in
new concrete construction. Recycling concrete for use as coarse aggregate in new construction
can be economical, saving disposal costs of old concrete and reduc-
Neither ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) nor ASTM C 1567 should be
ing the need for virgin aggregate. Increased environmental concerns
used to test the effectiveness of lithium compounds. ASTM C 1293, with
and diminishing quarry resources may make recycling even more pop-
a test duration of two years, should be used to assess lithium com-
ular in the future (ACPA 1993 and ECCO 1999).
pounds (Folliard et al. 2006).
There are two main uses for recycled aggregate in new pavement
Aggregate selection and beneficiation. Using a nonreactive aggre-
construction: as a granular subbase material and as coarse aggregate
gate is ideal but not always practical. The surest way of predicting aggre-
for the new concrete pavement.
gate performance is a good service record, but this information is not
always available. Instead, it is frequently necessary to investigate aggregate Research was undertaken to study expansion of new concrete made
quality through the tests that measure potential reactivity. with recycled ASR-affected concrete as aggregate (Stark 1996). It
was determined that potential for ASR in the new concrete is affected
It may be possible to improve aggregate quality by selective processing
by the old concretes original alkali level, extent of expansion, and
known as beneficiation. Processes that have been used are heavy media
the remaining potential reactivity of the aggregate. Also, the alkali
separation, jigging, rising-current classification, and crushing. In some cases,
content of new concrete had a significant effect on subsequent
one of these steps may be able to remove a large portion of the reactive
expansions due to ASR. The use of a low-lime Class F fly ash greatly
aggregate, but also may remove some of the good aggregate.
reduced expansions due to ASR in new concrete.
It may be possible to blend reactive aggregate with nonreactive
The research demonstrated that with appropriate selection of cemen-
aggregate to mitigate the effects of ASR. This blending sometimes
titious materials, even recycled concrete containing highly reactive
occurs as part of the quarrying process, when only small amounts of
aggregate can be used safely. The engineer must know the ASR
reactive aggregate are present. Nonreactive aggregates can be pur-
potential of the recycled aggregate. If information is not available
posefully blended with known reactive aggregates. In some cases,
about the cementitious materials and aggregates contained in the
this means of diluting aggregates can adequately control expansive
old concrete, even if the old concrete has not experienced ASR deteri-
ASR. An example of this method is limestone sweetening.
oration, its ASR potential should be petrographically evaluated prior
Limestone sweetening, or replacing up to 30% of a reactive sand-gravel to recycling. Laboratory expansion tests may also be helpful.
aggregate with crushed limestone, is effective in preventing deterioration in
some sand-gravel aggregate concretes. The resulting combination of materi-
als should be tested in accordance with ASTM C 227, ASTM C 1260 Alkali-Carbonate Reaction
(AASHTO T 303), ASTM C 1567, or ASTM C 1293 to verify control of delete-
rious expansion. MECHANISM OF ACR
Reactions observed with certain dolomitic rocks are associated with
Controlling Existing ASR alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR). Reactive rocks usually contain larger
Lithium salts have also been applied topically to treat ASR in existing
Channel for
concrete. Laboratory studies show that treating small samples with lithi- migration of
water and ions
Calcite (K+ and OH+) Mg(OH)2
um can reduce expansion (Stokes et al. 2000). In the field however,
Matrix

grains
K2CO3
Network
lithium may not penetrate sufficiently into the structure to mitigate the of clay CaCO3

reaction below the surface, allowing continuous deterioration (Folliard et

Ratio Ca/Mg
al. 2006). Tuan (2005) found that insufficient amounts of lithium penetra- Dolomite
crystal reduced
gradually
tion into hardened concrete may even enhance ASR expansion. Methods
of driving lithium ions into the concrete using electrical fields or vacuum
impregnation are being studied to improve penetration. FHWA (2006a
and 2006b) has published guidance for selecting ASR-affected structures Reactive
carbonate
rock
for lithium treatment. They identify ideal structures for lithium treatment KOH
solution
as those for which, (1) ASR has been confirmed as the principal cause for
Original Immersed in Expansion
deterioration; (2) the deterioration has reached a certain severity, and sample alkali solution and cracking

(3) laboratory testing or in-situ monitoring indicates a potential for signifi-

Figure 20. Schematic diagram of the mechanism of alkali-carbonate reac-
cant further expansion if the structure is left untreated. tion. A dolomite crystal combines with alkalies in solution to form
brucite, and potassium and calcium carbonates (Tang, Liu, and Han 1987).
15
crystals of dolomite scattered in and surrounded by a fine-grained
matrix of calcite and clay. Calcite is one of the mineral forms of calci-
um carbonate; dolomite is the common name for calcium-magnesium
carbonate. ACR is relatively rare because aggregates susceptible to
this reaction are usually unsuitable for use in concrete for other rea-
sonsstrength potential, etc.

Argillaceous dolomitic limestone contains calcite and dolomite with

appreciable amounts of clay and can contain small amounts of
reactive silica. Alkali reactivity of carbonate rocks is not usually
dependent on clay mineral composition (Hadley 1961). Aggregates
have potential for expansive ACR if the following lithological charac-
teristics exist (Ozol 2006 and Swenson and Gillott 1967):
clay content, or insoluble residue content, in the range of 5% to 25%
dolomite content (percentage in carbonate fraction) in the range of
Figure 21. Map cracking pattern caused by ACR (IMG12982).
40% to 60%
interlocking dolomite grains (late expansion) and Gillot 1960). Concrete can contain a certain percentage of carbonate
small size (25 to 30 m) , discrete dolomite crystals (rhombs) reactive aggregates without experiencing detrimental expansion.
suspended in a clay matrix
Alkali-carbonate reaction is also affected by pore solution alkalinity.
Dedolomitization ACR can occur in a solution with a relatively low pH. As the pH of
Dedolomitization, or the breaking down of dolomite, is normally associat- the pore solution increases, potential for the alkali-carbonate reac-
ed with expansive ACR (Hadley 1961). Concrete that contains dolomite tion increases. During ACR, calcium hydroxide produced by portland
and has expanded also contains brucite (magnesium hydroxide, cement hydration can combine with the alkali carbonate produced in
Mg(OH)2), which is formed by dedolomitization. Dedolomitization pro- the initial reaction (see equation above) to regenerate alkali hydrox-
ceeds according to the following equation (Hadley 1961): ide and calcium carbonate. This reaction not only regenerates alkali,
but also reduces the concentration of carbonate ions and aggravates
CaMg(CO3)2 (dolomite) + 2MOH (alkali hydroxide solution)p the dedolomitization reaction. Low-alkali cements and supplemen-
Mg(OH)2 (brucite) + CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) + M2CO3 (alkali tary cementitious materialseven at high levelsare thus ineffec-
carbonate) tive at reducing ACR to acceptable limits (Tang, Deng, and Lon 1994).

where M represents an alkali element, such as potassium, sodium, or

lithium. Visual Symptons of Expansive ACR
Fig. 20 illustrates this process. Expansion may be due to a combina-
ACR, like ASR, is a chemical process that can induce physical dam-
tion of migration of alkali ions and water molecules into the restrict-
ageexpansion and cracking of concrete (Fig. 21). Information
ed space of the fine-grained matrix surrounding the dolomite rhomb,
obtained from a site inspection should be evaluated along with test-
migration of these materials into the rhomb, and the growth and
ing to determine the destructive mechanism.
rearrangement of the dedolomitization products, especially brucite,
which exerts pressures as it crystallizes (Tang, Liu, and Han 1987). ACR-affected concrete does not exhibit telltale features to distinctly
identify alkali-carbonate reaction as the cause of cracking. The crack
The dedolomitization reaction and subsequent crystallization of
pattern will be influenced by restraint conditions and moisture avail-
brucite may cause considerable expansion. Whether dedolomitization
ability. In slabs, decks, and footings, when a top-to-bottom or side-
causes expansion directly or indirectly, its usually a prerequisite to
to-side moisture gradient exists, map cracking is likely to occur. This
other expansive processes (Tang, Deng, and Lon 1994). In one inves-
growth can cause closed joints, misalignment of adjoining members,
tigation of pavement deterioration, dolomite did not appear to be
crushed concrete, and pavement blowups (Ozol 2006). Because low
altered, as no brucite was found. Cracking was due to expansive
levels of alkali can initiate ACR and higher levels can exacerbate it,
forces arising from a chemical reaction and expansion of the clay
the use of deicer salts that contain alkalies can increase damage.
minerals in the aggregate matrix (Wong 1996).

Other Factors
The nominal maximum size of the reactive aggregate influences the Test Methods for Identifying ACR Distress
amount and extent of reaction. Testing done with a particular ACR rock and
Brucite is usually formed during destructive ACR and is evident in
high-alkali cement showed that both the rate and degree of expansion
expanded concrete. Its presence must be determined through petro-
decreased with a decrease in nominal maximum aggregate size (Swenson

16
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

graphic or other analysis. The concrete and carbonate rocks must be or more than 0.03% at one year, 0.025% at 6 months, or 0.015% at
examined petrographically in accordance with ASTM C 856 and 3 months indicates potentially deleterious aggregate (ASTM C 1105,
C 295 respectively. Physical expansion tests, such as ASTM C 586, Appendix).
performed in a laboratory are also helpful to verify the presence of ACR.
This test makes it possible to measure expansive tendencies of
cement-aggregate combinations rather than expansive characteristics
Test Methods for Identifying of the rock alone, but the year-long test duration is a drawback. If
Potentially Reactive Aggregate this test has been performed on a cement-aggregate combination
involving an aggregate that has not been examined petrographically
ACR is rather uncommon because the carbonate rocks containing using C 295, or has not been measured by the rock prism expansion
proportions of dolomite, calcite, and insoluble material that will lead test (C 586), one or both of those tests should also be performed.
to dedolomitization do not often compose a major portion of the
aggregate supply (Mather 1975). The three tests commonly used to The Canadian Standards Association CSA A23.2-14A, Potential
identify potentially alkali-carbonate reactive aggregate are described Expansivity of Aggregates (Procedure for Length Change Due to
below and in Table 2 at the end of this document. Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Concrete Prisms), is similar to C 1105,
as both tests require similar specimens and storage conditions.
Petrographic Examination (ASTM C 295)
Cement alkali levels, aggregate gradation, and limits that indicate
Petrographic examination, ASTM C 295, can be used to establish the
expansive behavior differ slightly for the two methods. The Canadian
character of rock. Potentially alkali-carbonate reactive aggregates
version of the test stipulates the cement alkali level to be used, mak-
have a characteristic lithology that makes them easy to identify. The
ing the test more standardized and allowing comparison among test
rock is considered to be reactive if the physical make-up is a fine-
results. The higher cement alkali content in A23.2-14A makes it a
grained matrix of calcite and clay surrounding rhombic crystals of
more aggressive test than C 1105, so it should identify potentially
dolomite. With no known exceptions, all rocks with the characteristic
reactive rocks that might pass C 1105.
lithology have expanded in an alkaline environment, and all rocks in con-
crete that have expanded due to ACR exhibit the characteristic lithology
(Ozol 2006). Petrographic testing identifies ACR-susceptible rocks.
Control of Alkali-Carbonate Reaction
Rock Cylinder Method (ASTM C 586)
ASTM C 586, Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity of ACR-susceptible aggregate has a specific composition that is readily
Carbonate Rocks for Concrete Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method) , identified by petrographic testing. If a rock indicates ACR-susceptibility,
can determine the expansive characteristics of carbonate rocks. A preventive measures must be taken. Its difficult to arrest alkali-car-
small rock cylinder 35 mm long by 9 mm dia. (1.38 in. x 0.35 in.) is bonate reaction once expansion has begun.
immersed in an alkaline (1 N NaOH) solution at room temperature.
Length change of the specimen may be monitored for up to or over a Selective Quarrying
year, but expansive tendencies are usually evident after about 1 Quarries are routinely mapped and tested to define the rock group-
month. A 28-day expansion of 0.10% or more indicates potential for ings and stratification. Reactive rock may be naturally isolated in
deleterious expansion in a service environment. layers or by other physical features. In this case, selective quarrying
can be used to completely avoid the reactive strata. Small portions of
This test procedure has a few disadvantages. Obtaining a representa- reactive aggregate may become naturally diluted when the rock is
tive sample may be difficult and test duration may be long. Furthermore, processed.
this test is intended only as a supplement to other test procedures.
Expansive behavior of aggregate can be predicted by the rock Blended Aggregate
cylinder method. But since expansion of concrete depends on other Another option is blending reactive aggregate with aggregate proven
variables that include water-cement ratio, water-soluble alkalies, and by testingand service record, if possibleto be nonreactive. This
the paste-to-aggregate ratio, ASTM C 586 alone should not be used can mitigate the reactive aggregates detrimental effects on concrete.
as an acceptance test for aggregate (Ozol 2006). Accordingly, the Appendix in ASTM C 1105 limits the safe proportion
of reactive aggregate to 20% for either the coarse or fine sizes when
Concrete Prism Tests (ASTM C 1105 and CSA A23.2-14A) used alone, or a limit of 15% total when used in combination. Test
ASTM C 1105, Test Method for Length Change of Concrete Due to the resulting diluted or blended aggregate using ASTM C 1105 to be
Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reaction, is best used to verify potential reactiv- certain it is acceptable for use in portland cement concrete.
ity of an aggregate that is known to contain ACR-susceptible rock. Six
concrete prism specimens are fabricated with the aggregate in ques- Aggregate Size
tion and the job cement. If the job cement is not known, a Type I or Limiting the nominal maximum size of aggregate is another way to
Type II cement conforming to ASTM C 150 (AASHTO M 85) should be minimize expansion due to ACR. Use the smallest practical nominal
used. The test should preferably run for one year, but 3 or 6 months maximum size of aggregate to minimize detrimental expansion
can be used if longer test times are not feasible. An expansion equal to (Swenson and Gillott 1967).

17
Low-Alkali Cement A: No. First, deleterious behavior must be confirmed by field history or
Low-alkali cement is not generally effective in controlling expansive ASTM C 1293 before an aggregate is classified as potentially reactive.
ACR. Even cements with alkali levels as low as 0.40% can produce Even then, aggregates that are classified as potentially reactive can be
pore solutions with sufficient alkalinity to initiate reaction. Due to the safely used with pozzolans, slags, or ASR-inhibiting compounds, blend-
chemistry of the alkali-carbonate reactions, alkalies are regenerated ed cements, or by limiting the total alkali content of the concrete.
rather than consumed. They undergo a series of reactions with aggre- Another option would be to blend the aggregate with a nonreactive
gates and are then available to react again with more aggregate aggregate to a level that is not harmfully reactive.
(Hadley 1961). The cement alkali level is of less concern than the
alkali content of concrete, which should be kept as low as possible Q: Is it possible for ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) to give a false negative?
when using alkali-carbonate reactive aggregate. A false positive?

Pozzolans A: Yes to each. False negatives, where a reactive aggregate is identified as

Supplementary cementitious materials are not very effective in controlling nonreactive, are not common with ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303).
ACR. Pozzolans tie up alkalies by reacting with them, but ACR can be ini- Most reactive aggregates will be identified by this test because it is so
tiated with low levels of alkali, and pozzolans may not consume enough severe. False positives, where a nonreactive aggregate is identified as
alkalies to limit the reaction. Pozzolans do reduce paste porosity, which being reactive, are more common, again because the test method is so
helps limit the moisture available for reaction. The reduced concrete severe. The alkali hydroxide concentration of most field concretes is
porosity is beneficial, but concrete in most environments contains enough much lower than that of the test method and is at a level that does
moisture to sustain alkali-carbonate reaction. Larger amounts of poz- not induce harmful reactivity for many aggregates that fail
zolans could possibly control ACR, but these amounts are generally too C 1260 (AASHTO T 303). It cannot be stressed enough that supple-
high to be practical. ACR is more effectively controlled by processing the mental information should be developed to evaluate an aggregate.
aggregate to minimize particle size or the amount of reactive aggregate
in the concrete. Q: If a pozzolan is required in a given concrete mixture, should the
aggregate be tested alone to determine its potential for ASR? Should
ACR-Inhibiting Compounds all of ASTM tests C 227, C 289, C 295, C 1260 (AASHTO T 303),
While some researchers have found that lithium compounds appear C 1293, and C 1567 be performed?
to control ACR (Gajda 1996), others found that lithium hydroxide
and lithium carbonate increase expansion of alkali-carbonate reactive A: If the concrete is required to contain a pozzolan anyway, consider using
rock (Wang, Tysl, and Gillott 1994). ASTM C 1567 to investigate expansive tendencies of the combination of
aggregates and cementitious materials. Note that some pozzolans at some
dosages can increase ASR potential, so the mixture design should be strictly
defined and adhered to in order for the combination of materials to work
Common Questions about AAR effectively. It is not necessary to require every test to prove effectiveness
and its not very efficient. Choose one test, such as C 1567, that uses the
Q: If an aggregate has good field performance, why test the aggre- proposed cementitious materials to evaluate their effectiveness at control-
gate for deleterious behavior? ling expansion. If one or two years are available, C 227 or C 1293 can be
performed using the pozzolan.
A: This requires a two-part answer. Field history is a valuable source of
information that indicates an aggregates behavior in service. If condi- Q: Isnt the easiest way to control ASR to avoid using potentially
tions of service and the ingredients, including total alkali content of the reactive aggregate and require use of a low-alkali cement?
concrete, are the same in the existing and proposed concrete structures,
A: Though this can effectively control ASR, it would not be efficient.
there is no need to test an aggregate that has a good record of service.
Not all geographical areas have nonreactive aggregates or low-alkali
If, however, the aggregate varies significantly within the quarry, or if
cements. Requiring these materials would probably result in extra
exposure conditions of the proposed structure will be more severe than
costs and lost time. Concrete mixtures should be designed to be eco-
in structures exhibiting good performance, or if the concrete ingredients
nomical in addition to being safe from ASR potential. Local materials
are significantly different, the aggregate should be tested.
usually provide the greatest availability and best economy.
Q: If an aggregate passes ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) and other
Q: Are all fly ashes and slags equal at controlling expansion from ASR,
ASR requirements, should there be restrictions on cementitious mate-
and is there one single dosage that will always be effective?
rials, such as limits on cement alkalies?
A: All fly ashes and slags are not equal at controlling expansion due to
A: No. Nonreactive aggregate can be used without undue restrictions
ASR. Class F ashes (typically low CaO) as a group are usually more effec-
on cementitious materials.
tive than Class C ashes. And within a group, one ash can be more effec-
Q: Should an aggregate be eliminated from use if it fails ASTM C 1260 tive than another. Slags are generally less variable in composition than fly
(AASHTO T 303) or other ASR tests? ashes due to their origin. Also, aggregates of different degrees of

18
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

reactivity and different cement alkali levels require different dosages of fly Development of a Cement to Inhibit Alkali-Silica Reactivity
ash or slag. Since no one dosage is effective with all fly ashes or slags, it (RD115)
is necessary to investigate any fly ashs or slags ability to control ASR by
Developments in Alkali-Silica Gel Detection, Concrete
testing. Concurrent testing of various dosages helps determine the appro-
Technology Today (PL991)
priate fly ash dosage. Use ASTM C 1293 or ASTM C 1567.
(http://www.cement.org/pdf_files/pl991.pdf)
Q: Can I use ASTM C 1260 (AASHTO T 303) or ASTM C 1567 to test Substitution of Fly Ash for Cement or Aggregate in Concrete:
the effectiveness of a portland cement to control ASR? Strength Development and Suppression of ASR (RD127)
Surface Popouts Caused by Alkali-Aggregate Reaction (RD121)
A: No. The standard tests as written are not designed to test the
effect of different portland cements on ASR. The test specimen alkali
content rises to approach that of the solution in which it is sub- To order by Web site, mail, phone, or fax:
merged, regardless of the original alkali content of the cement. Customer Service
Portland Cement Association
Q: A pavement engineer wants to replace some of the cement in a 5420 Old Orchard Road
standard mixture with fly ash to control ASR but is concerned about Skokie, IL 60077-1083
poor strength gain in cold weather. Any solutions? Phone: 800.868.6733
Fax : 847.966.9666
A: Yes. Use the fly ash as an addition or partial replacement to the
Web site: www.cement.org/bookstore
standard mixture instead of replacing the cement. The fly ash will still
control ASR, and the mix will gain strength in cold weather similar to
that of the cement-only mixture. Chemical admixtures or Type III
cement can also be used to accelerate strength gain.

Related Publications

The publications cited in this text, as well as other related publica-

tions, are available from Portland Cement Association.
The following are particularly useful:

Guide Specification for Concrete Subject to Alkali-Silica

Reactions (IS415)
Alkali-Silica Reactivity: An Overview of Research (LT177)
Handbook for the Identification of Alkali-Silica Reactivity
(LT165)
Detecting and Avoiding Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity, Concrete
Technology Today (PL913)
(http://www.cement.org/pdf_files/pl913.pdf)
Cornells Gel Fluorescence Test Identifies ASR Products in
Concrete, Concrete Technology Today (PL922)
(http://www.cement.org/pdf_files/pl922.pdf)
Lithium-Based AdmixturesAn Alternative for Preventing Expansive
Alkali-Silica Reaction, Concrete Technology Today (PL931)
(http://www.cement.org/pdf_files/pl931.pdf)
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures (EB001)
Alkali-Silica Reactivity: Some Reconsiderations (RD076)
Lithium Salt AdmixtureAn Alternative Method to Prevent
Expansive Alkali-Silica Reactivity (RP307)
Field and Laboratory Studies on the Reactivity of Sand-Gravel
Aggregates (RX221)
The Use of Recycled-Concrete Aggregate from Concrete
Exhibiting Alkali-Silica Reactivity (RD114)

19
 Table 1. Test Methods for Alkali-Silica Reactivity
Test name Purpose Type of test Type of sample Duration of test Measurement Criteria Comments
Potential Alkali To test the susceptibility of Mortar bars stored over At least 4 mortar bars; Varies: first Length change Per ASTM C 33, maximum 0.10% Test may not produce significant
Reactivity of Cement- cement-aggregate water at 37.8C (100F) standard dimensions: measurement at 14 days expansion at 6 months, or if not expansion, especially for carbonate
Aggregate combinations to expansive and high relative 25x25x285 mm then 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, and available for a 6-month period aggregate
Combinations reactions involving alkalies humidity (1x1x111/4 in.) 12 months and every 6 maximum of 0.05% at 3 months Long test duration
(Mortar-Bar Method) months after that as Expansions may not be from AAR
(ASTM C 227) necessary
Potential Alkali To test the potential for Immersion of mortar At least 3 mortar bars 16 days Length change If greater than 0.10%, go to Very fast alternative to C 227
Reactivity of Aggregates deleterious alkali-silica bars in alkaline solution supplementary test procedures; if Useful for slowly reacting aggregates
(Mortar-Bar Method) reaction of aggregate in at 80C (176F) greater than 0.20%, indicative of or ones that produce expansion
(ASTM C 1260/ mortar bars potentially deleterious expansion late in the reaction
AASHTO T 303)
Potential Alkali-Silica To determine potential Sample reacted with 3-25 gram samples of 24 hours Drop in alkalinity and Point plotted on graph falls in Quick results
Reactivity of Aggregates reactivity of siliceous alkaline solution at 80C crushed and sieved amount of silica deleterious or potentially Some aggregates give low
(Chemical Method) aggregates (176F) aggregate solubilized deleterious area expansions even though they have
(ASTM C 289) high silica contentNot reliable
Determination of To determine the potential Concrete prisms stored 3 prisms per cement- Varies: first measurement Length change Per Appendix XI, potentially Preferred method of assessment
Length Change of ASR expansion of cement- over water at 38C aggregate combination, at 7 days, then 28 and deleteriously reactive if expansion Best represents the field
Concrete Due to aggregate combinations (100.4F) standard dimensions: 56 days, then 3, 6, 9, and equals or exceeds 0.04% at 1 year Long test duration for meaningful results
Alkali-Silica Reaction 75x75x285mm 12 months and every (or 0.04% at 2 years if SCMs are to Use as a supplement to C 227,
(Concrete Prism Test) (3X3X111/4 in.) 6 months after that as be evaluated) C 295, C 289, C 1260, and C 1567
(ASTM C 1293) necessary Similar to CSA A23.2-14A
Potential Volume To determine the potential Mortar bars stored in 3 mortar bars per 52 weeks Length change Per ASTM C 33, unsatisfactory Primarily used for aggregates
Change of Cement- ASR expansion of cement- water at 23C (73.4F) cement-aggregate aggregate if expansion equals or from Oklahoma, Kansas,
Aggregate aggregate combinations combination, standard exceeds 0.200% at 1 year Nebraska, and Iowa
Combinations dimensions 25x25x285mm
(ASTM C 342) (1x1x111/4 in.)
Effectiveness of To determine effectiveness Mortar barsusing Pyrex At least 3 mortar bars Varies: first Length change Per ASTM C 989, minimum 75% Highly reactive artificial
Pozzolans or GBFS in of pozzolans or glass as aggregate and also 3 mortar bars of measurement at 14 days, reduction in expansion or 0.020% aggregate may not represent
Preventing Excessive slag in controlling stored over water at control mixture then 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, and 12 maximum expansion or per C 618, real aggregate conditions
Expansion of Concrete expansion from ASR 37.8C (100F) and high months and every 6 comparison against low-alkali Pyrex contains alkalies

20
Due to the Alkali-Silica relative humidity months after that as control
Reaction necessary
(ASTM C 441)
Constituents of To give descriptive nomen- Visual Identification Varies, but should be Short durationas long Description of type and Not applicable These descriptions are used to
Natural Mineral clature for the more common representative of entire as it takes to visually proportion of minerals characterize naturally-occuring
Aggregates or important natural source examine the sample in aggregate minerals that make up common
(ASTM C 294) mineralsa good starting aggregate sources
point to predict behavior
Petrographic To evaluate possible aggregate Visual and microscopic Varies with knowledge of Short durationvisual Particle characteriastics, Not applicable Usually includes optical
Examination of reactivity through petrographic examination of prepared quarry: cores 53 to 100mm examination does not like shape, size, texture, microscopy; may include XRD
Aggregates for examination samplessieve analysis in diameter (21/8 to 4 in.), involve long test periods color, mineral composition, analysis, differential thermal
Concrete microscopy, scratch or 45 kg (100 lb) or 300 pieces, physical condition analysis, or infrared spectroscopy
(ASTM C 295) acid tests or 2 kg (4 lb) see C 294 for descriptive nomenclature
Petrographic To outline petrographic Visual (unmagnified) At least one core 150 mm Short durationincludes Is the aggregate known See measurementthis examination Specimens can be examined with
Examination of examination procedures of and microscopic diameter by 300 mm long preparation of samples to be reactive? determines if ASR reactions have stereomicroscopes, polarizing
Hardened Concrete hardened concreteuseful in examination of prepared (6 in. diameter by 12 in. and visual and microscopic Orientation and taken place and their effects upon microscopes, metallographic
(ASTM C 856/ determining condition or samples long) examination geometry of cracks the concrete microscopes, and SEM
AASHTO T 299) performance Is there any gel present? Used in conjunction with other tests
Uranyl-Acetate To identify products of ASR Staining of a freshly Varies: core, lapped Immediate results Intensity of fluorescence Lack of fluorescence Identifies small amounts of ASR
Treatment Procedure in hardened concrete exposed concrete surface, broken surface gel whether they cause
(ASTM C 856 Annex) surface and viewing expansion or not
under UV light Opal, a natural aggregate, and
carbonated paste can glow
interpret results accordingly
Text must be supplemented by
petrographic examination and physical
tests for determining concrete expansion

Potential Alkali-Silica To test the potential for Immersion of mortar At least 3 mortar bars 16 days Length change If greater than 0.10%, indicative of Very fast alternative to C 1293
Reactivity of Combinations deleterious alkali-silica bars in alkaline solution for each cementitious potential deleterious expansion; use Allows for evaluation of supplementary
of Cementitious Materials reaction of cementitious at 80C (176F) materials and aggregate C 1293 (2-year test) to confirm cementing materials and determination
and Aggregate materials and aggregate combination of optimum dosage
(Accelerated Mortar-Bar combinations in mortar bars
Method) bars
(ASTM C 1567)
 Table 2. Test Methods for Alkali-Carbonate Reactivity
Test name Purpose Type of test Type of sample Duration of test Measurement Criteria Comments
Potential Alkali To determine the expansive Immersion of rock One rock cylinder, 35 mm Up to or over 1 year, but Length change Not applicable Securing representative sample
Reactivity of Carbonate characteristics of carbonate cylinders in alkaline long and 9 mm in expansive tendencies may be difficult
Rocks for Concrete rocks solution at 23C (73.4F) diameter (1.38 in. long are usually evident after Can be a long test period
Aggregates and 0.35 in. diameter) 28 days Intended as supplement to other
(Rock Cylinder Method) test procedures
(ASTM C 586)
Length Change of To determine susceptibility Concrete prisms stored 6 concrete prisms 1 year Length change Aggregate is most likely reactive if Long test period
Concrete Due to of cement-aggregate at 23C (73.4F) and 75x75x285mm (3X3X111/4 in.) length change at 1 year (preferred Best used as a verifier of
Alkali-Carbonate combinations to expansive high relative humidity or 100 mm (4 in.) square measurement) is greater than or potential reactivity for a rock
Rock Reaction ACR for 50 mm (2 in.) maximum equal to 0.030% (0.025% at 6 months known to contain a potentially
(ASTM C 1105) size aggregate or 0.015% at 3 months) deleterious alkali-carbonate rock
see Appendix
Potential Expansivity To evaluate the potential Concrete prisms stored 3 prisms 75x75x285mm 1 year Length change Aggregate is most likely reactive if Long test period
of Aggregates expansivity of both coarse over water at 38C (3X3X111/4 in.) and an length change is greater than 0.04% Use in conjunction with other
(Procedure for Length and fine aggregates (100.4F) additional (fourth) prism at 1 year information such as
Change Due to Alkali may be cast for petrographic examination
Aggregate Reaction in petrographic examination Similar to ASTM C 1293
Concrete Prisms)
(CSA A23.2-14A)
Constituents of To give descriptive Visual identification Varies, but should be Short durationas long Description of type and Not applicable These descriptions are used to
Natural Mineral nomenclature for the more representative of entire as it takes to visually proportion of minerals characterize naturally
Aggregates common or important source examine the sample in aggregate occurring minerals that make
(ASTM C 294) natural mineralsa good up common aggregate sources
starting point to predict
behavior
Petrographic To evaluate possible aggregate Visual and microscopic Varies with knowledge of Short durationvisual Particle characteristics, Not applicable Usually includes optical
Examination of reactivity through petrographic examination of prepared quarry: cores 53 to 100 mm examination does not like shape, size, texture, microscopy; may include XRD
Aggregates for examination samplessieve analysis, in diameter (21/8 to 4 in.), involve long test periods color, mineral composition, analysis, differential thermal analysis,
Concrete microscopy, scratch or 45 kg (100 lb) or 300 pieces, physical condition or infrared spectoscopysee C 294 for
(ASTM C 295) acid tests or 2 kg (4 lb) descriptive nomenclature

21
Petrographic To outline petrograhic Visual (unmagnified) At least one core 150 mm Short durationincludes CaOH crystals are See measurementthis examination Specimens can be examined with
Examination of examination procedures of and microscopic diameter by 300 mm long preparation of samples smaller than in determines if ACR reactions have stereomicroscopes, polarizing
Hardened Concrete hardened concreteuseful in examination of prepared (6 in. diameter by 12 in. and visual and undamaged concrete taken place and their effects upon microscopes, metallographic
(ASTM C 856) determining condition or samples, acid etching long) microscopic examination Are rims or partial rims the concrete microscopes, and SEM
performance depleted in CaOH? Used in conjunction with other tests
Pale color of rims may
indicate gel
Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete
 ASTM and AASHTO Standards

ASTM International and equivalent AASHTO documents related to

ASTM C 33 Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates
alkali-aggregate reactivity that are relevant to or referred to in the text
(AASHTO M 6 / M 80)
are listed as follows. The latest edition of these documents can be
obtained at www.astm.org and www.aashto.org respectively. Note ASTM C 114 Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of
Hydraulic Cement
that AASHTO standards may not exactly replicate ASTM standards.
ASTM C 150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement
(AASHTO M 85 )
ASTM C 227 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali
Reactivity of Cement-Aggregates
Combinations (Mortar-Bar Method)
ASTM C 289 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali-Silica
Reactivity of Aggregates (Chemical Method)
ASTM C 294 Standard Descriptive Nomenclature for
Constituents of Concrete Aggregates
ASTM C 295 Standard Guide for Petrographic
Examination of Aggregates for Concrete
ASTM C 311 Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing
Fly Ash or Natural Pozzolans for Use in Portland-
Cement Concrete
ASTM C 441 Standard Test Method for Effectiveness of
Pozzolans or Ground Blast Furnace Slag in
Preventing Excessive Expansion of Concrete Due
to the Alkali-Silica Reaction
ASTM C 586 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali
Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks as Concrete
Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method)
ASTM C 595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic
(AASHTO M 240) Cements
ASTM C 618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw
(AASHTO M 295) or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete
ASTM C 856 Standard Practice for Petrographic
(AASHTO T 299) Examination of Hardened Concrete

ASTM C 989 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag for

(AASHTO M 302) Use in Concrete and Mortar

ASTM C 1105 Standard Test Method for Length Change of

Concrete Due to Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reaction
ASTM C 1157 Standard Performance Specification for
Hydraulic Cement
ASTM C 1240 Standard Specification for Silica Fume Used in
(AASHTO M 307) Cementitious Mixtures

ASTM C 1260 Standard Test Method for Potential Alkali

(AASHTO T 303) Reactivity of Aggregates (Mortar-Bar Method)

ASTM C 1293 Standard Test Method for Concrete Aggregates

by Determination of Length Change of Concrete
Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction
ASTM C 1567 Standard Test Method for Determining the
Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Combinations
of Cementitious Materials and Aggregate
(Accelerated Mortar-Bar Method)

22
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

References Fournier, B.; Nkinamubanzi, P. C.; Ferro, A.; Chevier, R., Feasibility of Ternary Blends
with Class C Fly Ash for High Performance Concrete, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, ICON/CAN-
AASHTO, Guide Specification for Portland Cement Concrete Resistant to MET, Ottawa, ON, Canada, the International Center for Aggregate Research (ICAR),
Excessive Expansion Caused by Alkali-Silica Reaction, American Association Austin ,TX, Minnesota Department of Transportation, Maplewood, MN, and the
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 2001. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, 2004.
http://leadstates.transportation.org/asr/library/gspec.stm Fournier, B., and Malhotra, V. M., Reducing Expansion Due to Alkali-Silica
ACI Committee 234, Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete, ACI Committee Reactivity, Concrete International, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
234 Report, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1996. Michigan, March 1996, pages 55 to 59.

ACPA, Recycling Concrete Pavement, TB014, American Concrete Pavement Gajda, John, Development of a Cement to Inhibit Alkali-Silica Reactivity ,
Association, Skokie, Illinois, 1993. Research and Development Bulletin RD115, Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, Illinois, 1996.
Brub, M. A., and Duchesne, J., Evaluation of Testing Methods Used for Assessing
the Effectiveness of Mineral Admixtures in Suppressing Expansion Due to Alkali- Grattan-Bellew, P. E., Alkali-Silica Reaction Canadian Experience, in The
Aggregate Reaction, Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag, and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete, Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete, edited by Swamy, R.N., Van Nostrand
Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference, SP132, edited by Malhotra,V. M., Reinhold, New York, 1992, pages 223 to 248.
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1992, pages 549 to 575. Hadley, D.W., Alkali Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks Expansion and
BRE, Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete, Parts 1-4, Building Research Dedolomitization, Research Department Bulletin RX139, Portland Cement
Establishment Digest 330, 2004. Association, Skokie, Illinois, 1961.

Buck, A., Use of Cementitious Materials Other Than Portland Cement, Concrete Hadley, D. W., Field and Laboratory Studies on the Reactivity of Sand-Gravel
Durability, Katharine and Bryant Mather International Conference, SP100, American Aggregates, Research Department Bulletin RX221, Portland Cement
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1987, pages 1863 to 1881. Association, Skokie, Illinois, 1968.

Carrasquillo, R. L., and Farbiarz, J., Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Concrete Hawkins, M. R., Alkali-Aggregate Reaction: Minimising the Risk of Alkali-Silica
Containing Fly Ash: Final Report, Research Report 450-3F, Center for Reaction, Guidance Notes, Report of a Working Party, Ref. 97-304, Cement and
Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, October 1989. Concrete Association, Wexham Springs, Slough, UK, 1983.

Chen, H.; Soles, J.A.; and Malhotra, V.M., Investigations of Supplementary Helmuth, R., Alkali-Silica Reactivity: An Overview of Research, SHRP-C-342,
Cementing Materials for Reducing Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, Cement & Strategic Highway Research Program, Washington, D. C., 1993. Also PCA
Concrete Composites, Vol. 15, No. 1-2, 1993, pages 75 to 85. Publication LT177.

CSA-A23.1, Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete Construction , Hobbs, D. W., Effect of Mineral and Chemical Admixtures on Alkali-Aggregate
Appendix B, Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, CAN/CSA-A23.1, Canadian Standards Reaction, Eighth International Conference on Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, British
Association, Toronto, Canada, 2004. Cement Association, Wexham Springs, Slough, UK, 1989.

CSA A23.2, Methods of Test and Standard Practices for Concrete , CAN/CSA- Johnston, C. D., Alkali-Silica Reactivity in ConcreteImportance of Cement Content
A23.2, Canadian Standards Association, Toronto, Canada, 2004. and Alkali Equivalent, in Concrete Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference, edited by Grattan-Bellew, Patrick E., Noyes Publications, Park
Danay, A., Structural Mechanics Methodology in Diagnosing and Assessing Ridge, New Jersey, 1987, pages 477 to 482.
Long-Term Effects of Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity in Reinforced Concrete
Structures, ACI Materials Journal, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Jones, T. N., and Poole, A. B., Alkali-Silica Reaction in Several U. K. Concretes: The
Hills, Michigan, JanuaryFebruary 1994, pages 54 to 62. Effect of Temperature and Humidity on Expansion, and the Significance of Ettringite
Development, in Concrete Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, Proceedings of the 7th
Detwiler, R. J., Substitution of Fly Ash for Cement or Aggregate in Concrete: International Conference, edited by Grattan-Bellew, Patrick E., Noyes Publications,
Strength Development and Suppression of ASR, RD127, Portland Cement Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1987, pages 446 to 450.
Association, Skokie, Illinois, 2002, 28 pages.
Kosmatka, S. H., and Fiorato, A. E., Detecting and Avoiding Alkali-Aggregate
Diamond, S., Barneyback, R. S. Jr., and Struble, L. J., On the Physics and Reactivity, Concrete Technology Today, PL913, Portland Cement Association,
Chemistry of Alkali-Silica Reactions, Proceedings of the Fifth Conference on Skokie, Illinois, November 1991.
Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Concrete, National Building Research Institute,
Pretoria, South Africa, 1981, pages 1 to 11. Landgren, R., and Hadley, D. W., Surface Popouts Caused by Alkali-Aggregate
Reactions, RD121, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, 2002,
ECCO (Environmental Council of Concrete Organizations), Recycling Concrete and 20 pages.
Masonry, EV 22, Skokie, Illinois, 1999, 12 pages.
Lane, D.S., Laboratory Investigation of Lithium-Bearing Compounds for Use in
FHWA, Protocol for Selecting ASR-Affected Structures for Lithium Treatment, Concrete, VTRC 02-R16, Virginia Transportation Research Council,
Publication No. FHWA-HRT-06-071, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, 2002, 18 pages.
2006a.
Lane, D.S., and Ozyildirim, C., Combinations of Pozzolans and Ground, Granulated,
FHWA, Selecting Candidate Structures for Lithium Treatment: What to Provide the Blastfurnace Slag for Durable Hydraulic Cement Concrete, VTRC 00-R1, Virginia
Petrographer Along with Concrete Specimens, Publication No. FHWA-HRT-06-069, Transportation Research Council, Charlottesville, Virginia, 1999.
Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia, 2006b. http://www.virginiadot.org/vtrc/main/online_reports/pdf/00-r1.pdf
Figg, J., ASRInside Phenomena and Outside Effects (Crack Origin and Pattern), Lerch, W., Studies of Some Methods of Avoiding the Expansion and Pattern Cracking
Concrete Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, Proceedings of the 7th International Associated with the Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, Research Department Bulletin
Conference, edited by Grattan-Bellew, Patrick E., Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, RX031, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, February, 1950.
New Jersey, 1987, pages 152 to 156.
Liu, T. C., Causes of Deterioration, Lesson 201, Maintenance and Repair of
Folliard, K. J.;Thomas, M. D.A.; and Kurtis, K. E., Interim Recommendations for the Use Concrete Structures, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment
of Lithium to Mitigate or Prevent Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR), FHWA-HRT-06-073, Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi, 1981.
Federal Highway Administration, McLean, Virginia, 2006, 94 pages.
Mather, B., New Concern over Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, Joint Technical Paper by
Fournier, B., CANMET/Industry Joint Research Program on Alkali-Aggregate National Aggregates Association and National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, NAA
ReactionFourth Progress Report, Canada Centre for Mineral and Energy Circular No. 122 and NRMCA Publication No. 149, Silver Spring, Maryland, 1975.
Technology, Ottawa, Canada, 1997.

23
 Stark, D., Effects of Chloride Solutions on Expansion Due to ASR, Concrete
References (continued) Technology Today, PL953, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois,
November 1995.
Natesaiyer, K., and Hover, K., Cornells Gel Fluorescence Test Identifies ASR
Stark, D., Effects of Water-Cement Ratio on Expansion Due to ASR,
Products in Concrete, Concrete Technology Today, PL922, Portland Cement
Concrete Technology Today, PL951, Portland Cement Association, Skokie,
Association, Skokie, Illinois, July 1992.
Illinois, March 1995a.
Newlon, H. H. Jr., Sherwood, W. C., and Ozol, M. A., Potentially Reactive
Stark, D., The Use of Recycled-Concrete Aggregate from Concrete Exhibiting
Carbonate Rocks, Progress Report No. 8, A Strategy for Use and Control of
Alkali-Silica Reactivity, Research and Development Bulletin RD114, Portland
Carbonate Rocks Including an Annotated Bibliography of Virginia Research, VHRC
Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, 1996.
71-R41, Virginia Highway Research Council, Charlottesville, Virginia, June 1972.
Stokes, D.B., Wang, H.H., and Diamond, S., A Lithium Based Admixture for ASR
NRMCA, Guide Specifications for Concrete Subject to Alkali-Silica Reactions ,
Control That Does Not Increase the Pore Solution pH, (ACI SP-173-42), American
Mid-Atlantic Regional Technical Committee, [Available through NRMCA,
Concrete Institute Special Publication 173, 1997, pages 855 to 868.
Silver Spring, Maryland], June 1993.
Swamy, R.N., and Al-Asali, M.M., New Test Methods for Alkali-Silica
Ozol, M. A., Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reaction, Significance of Tests and Properties
Reaction, in Concrete Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, Proceedings of the 7th
of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, ASTM STP 169D, edited by Lamond,
International Conference, edited by Grattan-Bellew, Patrick E., Noyes
J. F. and Pielert, J. H., American Society for Testing and Materials, West
Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1987, pages 324 to 329.
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, 2006, pages 410 to 424. Also PCA publication LT205.
Swenson, E. G., and Gillot, J. E., Characteristics of Kingston Carbonate Rock
Palmer, D. (chairman), The Diagnosis of Alkali-Silica Reaction, Report of a
Reaction, Concrete Quality Control, Aggregate Characteristics, and the Cement-
Working Party, 2nd edition, British Cement Association, Slough, Great Britain,
Aggregate Reaction, Bulletin No. 275, Highway Research Board, Washington, D. C.,
1992. Also PCA Publication LT166.
1960, pages 18 to 31.
PCA, Guide Specification for Concrete Subject to Alkali-Silica Reactions ,
Swenson, E. G., and Gillott, J. E., Alkali Reactivity of Dolomitic Limestone
IS415, Portland Cement Association/ American Concrete Pavement
Aggregate, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 19 No. 59, Cement and
Association/National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Skokie, Illinois, 2007.
Concrete Association, London, June 1967, pages 95 to 104.
PCA, Tests of Concrete Road Materials from California, Major Series 285, Research
Tang, M.; Deng, M.; and Lon, X.; and Han, S., Studies on Alkali-Carbonate
Reports, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, April 1940.
Reaction, ACI Materials Journal, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Perenchio, W. F., Kaufman, I., and Krause, R. J., Concrete Repair in a Desert Michigan, JanuaryFebruary 1994, pages 26 to 29.
Environment, Concrete International, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Tang, M.; Liu, Z.; and Han, S. Mechanism of Alkali-Carbonate Reaction, in Concrete
Hills, Michigan, February 1991, pages 23 to 26.
Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference, edited
Poole, A. B., Introduction to Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Concrete, The by Grattan-Bellew, Patrick E., Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1987,
Alkali-Silica Reaction in Concrete, edited by Swamy, R.N., Van Nostrand, R., pages 275 to 279.
New York, New York, 1992.
Thomas, M. D. A.; Fournier, B.; Folliard, K.; Shehata, M.; Ideker, J.; and Rogers,
Powers, L. J., Developments in Alkali-Silica Gel Detection, Concrete C.,Performance Limits for Evaluating Supplementary Cementing Materials Using the
Technology Today, PL991, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, Accelerated Mortar Bar Test, R&D Serial No. 2892, Portland Cement Association,
April 1999. Skokie, Illinois, 2005, 22 pages.
Shehata, M.H. and Thomas, M.D. A. "The Effect of Fly Ash Composition on Thomas, M. D. A., Innis. F. A., Use of the Accelerated Mortar Bar Test for
the Expansion of Concrete Due to Alkali-Silica Reaction." Cement and Evaluating the Efficacy of Mineral Admixtures for Controlling Expansion due to
Concrete Research, Vol. 30, 2000, pages 1063 to 1072. Alkali Silica Reaction, Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates, Vol. 21, No. 2,
Stanton, T. E., Expansion of Concrete Through Reaction Between Cement 1999, pages 157 to 164.
and Aggregate, Proceedings, American Society of Civil Engineers , Vol. 66, Thomas, M.D.A. and Innis, F.A. "Effect of slag on expansion due to alkali-aggregate
New York, 1940, pages 1781 to 1811. reaction in concrete" ACI Materials Journal, American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Stark, D., Alkali-Silica Reactivity: Some Reconsiderations, RD076, Portland Cement Hills, Michigan, Vol. 95, No. 6, 1998.
Association, Skokie, Illinois, 1981. Touma, W.E., Fowler, D.W., and Carrasquillo, R. L., Alkali-Silica Reaction in
Stark, D., Handbook for the Identification of Alkali-Silica Reactivity in Highway Portland Cement Concrete: Testing Methods and Mitigation Alternatives .
Structures, SHRP-C/FR-91-101, Strategic Highway Research Program, Washington, Research Report ICAR 301-1F, International Center for Aggregates Research,
D.C., 1991a. Also PCA Publication LT165. Austin, Texas, 2001.
Stark, D., The Moisture Condition of Field Concrete Exhibiting Alkali-Silica Tuan, C.; Kelly, M. T.; Sun, H.; and Buss, M. E, Evaluation of the Use of Lithium
Reactivity, CANMET/ACI Second International Conference on Durability of Nitrate in Controlling Alkali-Silica Reactivity in an Existing Concrete Pavement,
Concrete, SP-126, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1991, Proceedings of Transportation Research Board Annual Meetings, Washington, D. C.,
pages 973 to 987. 2005.
Stark, D., Lithium Salt AdmixtureAn Alternative Method to Prevent Expansive U.S. Committee on Large Dams, Second International Conference on Alkali-
Alkali-Silica Reactivity, Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Alkali- Aggregate Reactions in Hydroelectric Plants and Dams , U. S. Committee on
Aggregate Reaction in Concrete, The Concrete Society, London, July, 1992. Also Large Dams, Denver, Colorado, 1995, page 8.
PCA Publication RP307. Wang, H.; Tysl, S.; and Gillott, J.E., Practical Implications of Lithium Based Chemicals
Stark, D., Eliminating or Minimizing Alkali-Silica Reactivity , SHRP-C-343, and Admixtures in Controlling Alkali-Aggregate Reactions, (ACI SP-148-20).
Strategic Highway Research Program, Washington, D. C., 1993. Also PCA American Concrete Institute Special Publication 148, American Concrete Institute,
Publication LT178. Farmington Hills, Michigan,1994, pages 353 to 366.
Stark, D., Alkali-Silica Reactions in Concrete, Significance of Tests and Properties Wong, S., Investigation of Concrete from I-20 Near Monroe, Louisiana , Army
of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, ASTM STP 169D, edited by Lamond, Corps of Engineers Report to Louisiana Transportation Research Center, PCA
J. F. and Pielert, J. H., American Society for Testing and Materials, West R & D Serial No. 2059, 1996.
Conshocken, Pennsylvania, 2006, pages 401 to 409. Also PCA Publication LT205.

24
 Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete

References (continued) Acknowledgments

Wood, J. G. M.; Young, J. S.; and Ward, D. E., The Structural Effects of Alkali- Many individuals and organizations within the cement and concrete
Aggregate Reaction on Reinforced Concrete, in Concrete Alkali-Aggregate industries have contributed to the first and second editions of
Reactions, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference, edited by
Diagnosis and Control of Alkali-Aggregate Reactions in Concrete . We
Grattan-Bellew, Patrick E., Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey,
1987, pages 157 to 162. are particularly grateful for reviews by the following individuals:
Xu, H., On the Alkali Content of Cement in AAR, in Concrete Alkali- Greg Barger (Ash Grove), Bruce Blair (LaFarge), Rachel Detwiler
Aggregate Reactions, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference, edited (Braun Intertec Corp.), Wendell Dubberke (Iowa Department of
by Grattan-Bellew, Patrick E., Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, New Jersey, 1987, Transportation), Bernard Erlin (The Erlin Company), Anthony E.
pages 451 to 455.
Fiorato (CTLGroup), Jose Garcia (Capitol Cement), Richard D. Gaynor
(formerly National Ready Mixed Concrete Association), Al Innis
(Holcim), Colin Lobo (National Ready Mixed Concrete Association),
Ward Malisch (ACI International), Claudio Manissero (FMC
Corporation), Bryant Mather (Army Corps of Engineers), Richard C.
Meininger (Federal Highway Administration), Jon Mullarky (Salut),
Bill O'Brien (Essroc), Nick Popoff (St. Marys), Matt Ross (Missouri/Kansas
ACPA), Oscar Tavares (LaFarge), Paul Tennis (Consultant), Gerald Voigt
and Leif Wathne (American Concrete Pavement Association). This
acknowledgment does not necessarily imply approval of the text by
these individuals, since final editorial prerogatives have necessarily
been exercised by the authors.
WARNING: Contact with wet (unhardened) concrete, mortar,
cement, or cement mixtures can cause SKIN IRRITATION, SEVERE
CHEMICAL BURNS (THIRD DEGREE), OR SERIOUS EYE DAMAGE.
Frequent exposure may be associated with irritant and/or allergic
contact dermatitis. Wear waterproof gloves, a long-sleeved shirt, full-
length trousers and proper eye protection when working with these
materials. If you have to stand in wet concrete, use waterproof boots
that are high enough to keep concrete from flowing into them. Wash
wet concrete mortar, cement, or cement mixtures from your skin
immediately after contact. Indirect contact through clothing can be
as serious as direct contact, so promptly rinse out wet concrete, mor-
tar, cement, or cement mixtures from clothing. Seek immediate medi-
cal attention if you have persistent or severe discomfort.
Portland Cement Association (PCA) is a not-for-profit organization
and provides this publication solely for the continuing education of
qualified professionals. THIS PUBLICATION SHOULD ONLY BE USED
BY QUALIFIED PROFESSIONALS who possess all required license(s),
who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of
the information provided herein, and who accept total responsibility
for the application of this information. OTHER READERS SHOULD
OBTAIN ASSISTANCE FROM A QUALIFIED PROFESSIONAL BEFORE
PROCEEDING.
PCA and its members make no express or implied warranty in
connection with this publication or any information contained herein.
In particular, no warranty is made of merchantability or fitness for a
particular purpose. PCA and its members disclaim any product liability
(including without limitation any strict liability in tort) in connection
with this publication or any information contained herein.

25
American Concrete Pavement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Road, Suite A100, Skokie, IL 60077-1059 www.pavement.com 847.966.2272
A national organization with the mission to increase the use of concrete pavement in
construction and rehabilitation of transportation facilities in North America, by continu-
ally providing a quality product that is safe, cost effective, and environmentally sound.

National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, 900 Spring Street, Silver Spring, MD 20910-4015 www.nrmca.org 301.587.1400
NRMCA supports continued expansion and improvement of the ready mixed concrete industry
through leadership, advocacy, professional development, promotion and partnering.

Portland Cement Association, 5420 Old Orchard Road, Skokie, IL 60077-1083 www.cement.org 847.966.6200
An organization of cement companies to improve and extend the uses of portland
cement and concrete through market development, engineering, research, education,
and public affairs work.

PCA R&D Serial No. 2071b

ISBN 0-89312-146-0
2007 Portland Cement Association IS413.02