Acute angle closure glaucoma

Glaucoma is a group disorders characterised by optic neuropathy due, in the

majority of patients, to raised intraocular pressure (IOP). It is now recognised that
a minority of patients with raised IOP do not have glaucoma and vice versa

In acute angle closure glaucoma (AACG) there is a rise in IOP secondary to an

impairment of aqueous outflow. Factors predisposing to AACG include:

hypermetropia (long-sightedness)

pupillary dilatation

lens growth associated with age

Features

severe pain: may be ocular or headache

decreased visual acuity

symptoms worse with mydriasis (e.g. watching TV in a dark room)

hard, red eye

haloes around lights

semi-dilated non-reacting pupil

corneal oedema results in dull or hazy cornea

systemic upset may be seen, such as nausea and vomiting and even
abdominal pain

Management

urgent referral to an ophthalmologist

management options include reducing aqueous secretions with

acetazolamide and inducing pupillary constriction with topical pilocarpine
Age related macular degeneration

Age related macular degeneration is the most common cause of blindness in the
UK. Degeneration of the central retina (macula) is the key feature with changes
usually bilateral.

Traditionally two forms of macular degeneration are seen:

dry (geographic atrophy) macular degeneration: characterised by

drusen - yellow round spots in Bruch's membrane

wet (exudative, neovascular) macular degeneration: characterised by

choroidal neovascularisation. Leakage of serous fluid and blood can
subsequently result in a rapid loss of vision. Carries worst prognosis

Recently there has been a move to a more updated classification:

early age related macular degeneration (non-exudative, age related

maculopathy): drusen and alterations to the retinal pigment epithelium
(RPE)

late age related macular degeneration (neovascularisation, exudative)

Risk factors

age: most patients are over 60 years of age

smoking

family history

more common in Caucasians

high cumulative sunlight exposure

female sex

Features
 reduced visual acuity: 'blurred', 'distorted' vision, central vision is
affected first

central scotomas

fundoscopy: drusen, pigmentary changes

Investigation and diagnosis

optical coherence tomography: provide cross sectional views of the

macula

if neovascularisation is present fluorescein angiography is performed

General management

stop smoking

high dose of beta-carotene, vitamins C and E, and zinc may help to

slow down visual loss for patients with established macular degeneration.
Supplements should be avoided in smokers due to an increased risk of lung
cancer

Dry macular degeneration - no current medical treatments

Wet macular degeneration

photocoagulation

photodynamic therapy

anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) treatments:

intravitreal ranibizumab

External links

American Academy of Ophthalmology

Age-related Macular Degeneration: Retinal Drusen
American Academy of Ophthalmology
Age-related Macular Degeneration: Submacular Hemorrhage

Angioid retinal streaks

Angioid retinal streaks are seen on fundoscopy as irregular dark red streaks
radiating from the optic nerve head. They are caused by degeneration, calcification
and breaks in Bruch's membrane .

Causes

pseudoxanthoma elasticum

Ehler-Danlos syndrome

Paget's disease

sickle-cell anaemia

acromegaly

Blepharitis

Blepharitis is inflammation of the eyelid margins. It may due to either meibomian

gland dysfunction (common, posterior blepharitis) or seborrhoeic
dermatitis/staphylococcal infection (less common, anterior blepharitis). Blepharitis
is also more common in patients with rosacea

The meibomian glands secrete oil on to the eye surface to prevent rapid
evaporation of the tear film. Any problem affecting the meibomian glands (as in
blepharitis) can hence cause drying of the eyes which in turns leads to irritation

Features

symptoms are usually bilateral

grittiness and discomfort, particularly around the eyelid margins

eyes may be sticky in the morning

 eyelid margins may be red. Swollen eyelids may be seen in
staphylococcal blepharitis

styes and chalazions are more common in patients with blepharitis

secondary conjunctivitis may occur

Management

softening of the lid margin using hot compresses twice a day

mechanical removal of the debris from lid margins - cotton wool buds
dipped in a mixture of cooled boiled water and baby shampoo is often used*

artificial tears may be given for symptom relief in people with dry
eyes or an abnormal tear film

*an alternative is sodium bicarbonate, a teaspoonful in a cup of cooled water that

has recently been boiled

External links

Clinical Knowledge Summaries

Blepharitis guidelines

Cataracts

Majority

age related

UV light

Systemic

diabetes mellitus

steroids

infection (congenital rubella)

 metabolic (hypocalcaemia, galactosaemia)

myotonic dystrophy, Down's syndrome

Ocular

trauma

uveitis

high myopia

topical steroids

Classification

Nuclear: change lens refractive index, common in old age

Polar: localized, commonly inherited, lie in the visual axis

Subcapsular: due to steroid use, just deep to the lens capsule, in the
visual axis

Dot opacities: common in normal lenses, also seen in diabetes and

myotonic dystrophy

Diabetic retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy is the most common cause of blindness in adults aged 35-65
years-old. Hyperglycaemia is thought to cause increased retinal blood flow and
abnormal metabolism in the retinal vessel walls. This precipitates damage to
endothelial cells and pericytes

Endothelial dysfunction leads to increased vascular permeability which causes the

characteristic exudates seen on fundoscopy. Pericyte dysfunction predisposes to the
formation of microaneurysms. Neovasculization is thought to be caused by the
production of growth factors in response to retinal ischaemia

In exams you are most likely to be asked about the characteristic features of the
various stages/types of diabetic retinopathy. Recently a new classification system
has been proposed, dividing patients into those with non-proliferative diabetic
retinopathy (NPDR) and those with proliferative retinopathy (PDR):

Traditional classification New classification

Background retinopathy Mild NPDR

microaneurysms 1 or more microaneurysm

(dots)

blot haemorrhages Moderate NPDR

(<=3)
microaneurysms
hard exudates
blot haemorrhages

Pre-proliferative retinopathy hard exudates

cotton wool spots cotton wool spots, venous

(soft exudates; ischaemic beading/looping and intraretinal
nerve fibres) microvascular abnormalities (IRMA) less
severe than in severe NPDR
> 3 blot
haemorrhages
Severe NPDR
venous
beading/looping blot haemorrhages and
microaneurysms in 4 quadrants
deep/dark cluster
haemorrhages venous beading in at least 2
quadrants
more common in
Type I DM, treat with laser IRMA in at least 1 quadrant
photocoagulation

Proliferative retinopathy

retinal neovascularisation - may lead to vitrous haemorrhage

fibrous tissue forming anterior to retinal disc

more common in Type I DM, 50% blind in 5 years

Maculopathy

based on location rather than severity, anything is potentially serious

 hard exudates and other 'background' changes on macula

check visual acuity

more common in Type II DM

External links

American Academy of Ophthalmology

Diabetes Mellitus: Non-proliferative (Background) Retinopathy

Herpes simplex keratitis

Herpes simplex keratitis most commonly presents with a dendritic corneal ulcer

Features

red, painful eye

photophobia

epiphora

visual acuity may be decreased

fluorescein staining may show an epithelial ulcer

Management

immediate referral to an ophthalmologist

topical aciclovir

Herpes zoster ophthalmicus

Herpes zoster ophthalmicus (HZO) describes the reactivation of the varicella zoster
virus in the area supplied by the ophthalmic division of the trigeminal nerve. It
accounts for around 10% of case of shingles.
Features

vesicular rash around the eye, which may or may not involve the
actual eye itself

Hutchinson's sign: rash on the tip or side of the nose. Indicates

nasociliary involvement and is a strong risk factor for ocular involvement

Management

oral antiviral treatment for 7-10 days, ideally started within 72 hours.
Topical antiviral treatment is not given in HZO

oral corticosteroids may reduce the duration of pain but do not reduce
the incidence of post-herpetic neuralgia

ocular involvement requires urgent ophthalmology review

Complications

ocular: conjunctivitis, keratitis, episcleritis, anterior uveitis

ptosis

post-herpetic neuralgia

Holmes-Adie pupil

Holmes-Adie pupil is a benign condition most commonly seen in women. It is one

of the differentials of a dilated pupil.

Overview

unilateral in 80% of cases

dilated pupil
 once the pupil has constricted it remains small for an abnormally long
time

slowly reactive to accommodation but very poorly (if at all) to light

Holmes-Adie syndrome

association of Holmes-Adie pupil with absent ankle/knee reflexes

Homocystinuria

Homocystinuria is a rare autosomal recessive disease caused by deficiency of

cystathione beta-synthetase. This results in an accumulation of homocysteine
which is then oxidized to homocystine.

Features

often patients have fine, fair hair

musculoskeletal: may be similar to Marfan's - arachnodactyly etc

neurological patients may have learning difficulties, seizures

ocular: downwards (inferonasal) dislocation of lens

increased risk of arterial and venous thromboembolism

also malar flush, livedo reticularis

Diagnosis is made by the cyanide-nitroprusside test, which is also positive in

cystinuria

Treatment is vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) supplements

Horner's syndrome

Features
 miosis (small pupil)

ptosis

enophthalmos* (sunken eye)

anhydrosis (loss of sweating one side)

Distinguishing between causes

heterochromia (difference in iris colour) is seen in congenital

Horner's

anhydrosis: see below

Central lesions Pre-ganglionic Post-ganglionic lesions

lesions
Anhydrosis of the face, arm and Anhydrosis of the face No anhydrosis
trunk
Stroke Pancoast's tumour Carotid artery dissection
Syringomyelia Thyroidectomy Carotid aneurysm
Multiple sclerosis Trauma Cavernous sinus
Tumour Cervical rib thrombosis
Encephalitis Cluster headache

*in reality the appearance is due to a narrow palpebral aperture rather than true
enophthalmos

Lacrimal duct problems

Dacryocystitis is infection of the lacrimal sac

Features

watering eye (epiphora)

swelling and erythema at the inner canthus of the eye

Management is with systemic antibiotics. Intravenous antibiotics are indicated if

there is associated periorbital cellulitis
Congenital lacrimal duct obstruction affects around 5-10% of newborns. It is
bilateral in around 20% of cases

Features

watering eye (even if not crying)

secondary infection may occur

Symptoms resolve in 99% of cases by 12 months of age

Marfan's syndrome

Marfan's syndrome is an autosomal dominant connective tissue disorder. It is

caused by a defect in the fibrillin-1 gene on chromosome 15 and affects around 1
in 3,000 people.

Features

tall stature with arm span to height ratio > 1.05

high-arched palate

arachnodactyly

pectus excavatum

pes planus

scoliosis of > 20 degrees

heart: dilation of the aortic sinuses (seen in 90%) which may lead to
aortic aneurysm, aortic dissection, aortic regurgitation, mitral valve prolapse
(75%),

lungs: repeated pneumothoraces

eyes: upwards lens dislocation (superotemporal ectopia lentis), blue

sclera, myopia

dural ectasia (ballooning of the dural sac at the lumbosacral level)

The life expectancy of patients used to be around 40-50 years. With the advent of
regular echocardiography monitoring and beta-blocker/ACE-inhibitor therapy this
has improved significantly over recent years. Aortic dissection and other
cardiovascular problems remain the leading cause of death however.

Mydriasis

Causes of mydriasis (large pupil)

third nerve palsy

Holmes-Adie pupil

traumatic iridoplegia

phaeochromocytoma

congenital

Drug causes of mydriasis

topical mydriatics: tropicamide, atropine

sympathomimetic drugs: amphetamines, cocaine

anticholinergic drugs: tricyclic antidepressants

Optic atrophy

Optic atrophy is seen as pale, well demarcated disc on fundoscopy. It is usually

bilateral and causes a gradual loss of vision*. Causes may be acquired or
congenital

Acquired causes

multiple sclerosis
 papilloedema (longstanding)

raised intraocular pressure (e.g. glaucoma, tumour)

retinal damage (e.g. choroiditis, retinitis pigmentosa)

ischaemia

toxins: tobacco amblyopia, quinine, methanol, arsenic, lead

nutritional: vitamin B1, B2, B6 and B12 deficiency

Congenital causes

Friedreich's ataxia

mitochondrial disorders e.g. Leber's optic atrophy

DIDMOAD - the association of cranial Diabetes Insipidus, Diabetes

Mellitus, Optic Atrophy and Deafness (also known as Wolfram's syndrome)

*strictly speaking optic atrophy is a descriptive term, it is the optic neuropathy that
results in visual loss

Optic neuritis

Causes

multiple sclerosis

diabetes

syphilis

Features

unilateral decrease in visual acuity over hours or days

 poor discrimination of colours, 'red desaturation'

pain worse on eye movement

relative afferent pupillary defect

central scotoma

Prognosis

MRI: if > 3 white-matter lesions, 5-year risk of developing multiple

sclerosis is c. 50%

Primary open-angle glaucoma

Glaucoma is a group disorders characterised by optic neuropathy due, in the

majority of patients, to raised intraocular pressure (IOP). It is now recognised that
a minority of patients with raised IOP do not have glaucoma and vice versa

Primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG, also referred to as chronic simple

glaucoma) is present in around 2% of people older than 40 years. Other than age,
risk factors include:

family history

black patients

myopia

hypertension

diabetes mellitus

POAG may present insidiously and for this reason is often detected during routine
optometry appointments. Features may include

peripheral visual field loss - nasal scotomas progressing to 'tunnel

vision'

decreased visual acuity

 optic disc cupping

External links

NICE
2009 Glaucoma guidelines

Primary open-angle glaucoma: management

The majority of patients with primary open-angle glaucoma are managed with eye
drops. These aim to lower intra-ocular pressure which in turn has been shown to
prevent progressive loss of visual field.

Medication Mode of action Notes

Prostaglandin analogues (e.g. Increases uveoscleral Once daily administration
Latanoprost) outflow
Adverse effects include brown
pigmentation of the iris
Beta-blockers (e.g. Timolol) Reduces aqueous Should be avoided in
production asthmatics and patients with
heart block
Sympathomimetics (e.g. Reduces aqueous Avoid if taking MAOI or
Brimonidine, an alpha2- production and tricyclic antidepressants
adrenoceptor agonist) increases outflow
Adverse effects include
hyperaemia
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors Reduces aqueous Systemic absorption may
(e.g. Dorzolamide) production cause sulphonamide-like
reactions
Miotics (e.g. Pilocarpine) Increases uveoscleral Adverse effects included a
outflow constricted pupil, headache
and blurred vision

Surgery in the form of a trabeculectomy may be considered in refractory cases.

External links

NICE
2009 Glaucoma guidelines
Red eye

There are many possible causes of a red eye. It is important to be able to recognise
the causes which require urgent referral to an ophthalmologist. Below is a brief
summary of the key distinguishing features

Acute angle closure glaucoma

severe pain (may be ocular or headache)

decreased visual acuity, patient sees haloes

semi-dilated pupil

hazy cornea

Anterior uveitis

acute onset

pain

blurred vision and photophobia

small, fixed oval pupil, ciliary flush

Scleritis

severe pain (may be worse on movement) and tenderness

may be underlying autoimmune disease e.g. rheumatoid arthritis

Conjunctivitis

purulent discharge if bacterial, clear discharge if viral

Subconjunctival haemorrhage
 history of trauma or coughing bouts

Relative afferent pupillary defect

Also known as the Marcus-Gunn pupil, a relative afferent pupillary defect is found
by the 'swinging light test'. It is caused by a lesion anterior to the optic chiasm i.e.
optic nerve or retina

Causes

retina: detachment

optic nerve: optic neuritis e.g. multiple sclerosis

Pathway of pupillary light reflex

afferent: retina --> optic nerve --> lateral geniculate body -->
midbrain

efferent: Edinger-Westphal nucleus (midbrain) --> oculomotor nerve