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1K views410 pagesBlyth T.S. Module Theory.. An Approach To Linear Algebra (OUP, 1977) (ISBN 0198531621) (600dpi) (K) (T) (O) (410s) - MAa - PDF
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Module
theory
AN APPROACH TO
LINEAR ALGEBRA
T. S. BLYTH
CLARENDON PRESS - OXFORD
1977 Oxford University Press, Walton Street, Oxford ox2 6pP
OXFORD LONDON OLASGOW NEW YORK
TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON CAFE TOWN
IBADAN NAIROBE DAR ES SALAAM LUEARA ADDIS ABABA,
KUALA LUMPUR SINOAPORE JAKARTA HONO KONO TOKYO
DELHI BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACRI
ISBN 0 19 853162 1
© Oxford University Press 1977
All rights reserued. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior permission of Oxford University Press
Printed in Great Britain
by Thomson Litho Ltd,
East Kilbride, Scotland Preface
Many branches of algebra are linked by the theory of modules.
Since the notion of a module is obtained essentially by a
modest generalization of that of a vector space, it is not
surprising that it plays an important role in the theory of
linear algebra. Modules are also of great importance in the
higher reaches of group theory and ring theory and are funda-
mental to the study of advanced topics such as homological
algebra, category theory, and algebraic topology. The aim of
this text is to develop the basic properties of modules and
to show their importance in the theory of linear algebra. We
have chosen the linear algebra aspect since it appeals to us
as being the most natural place to develop such a theory.
We have divided the text into two parts. The first of
these, which comprises Sections 1 to 11, is intended as a
self-contained course for first-year honours students. Here
we cover all the basic material on modules and vector spaces
that is required for embarkation on advanced courses. The
second part of the text, comprising Sections 12 to 17, may be
considered as such a course. It is suitable for final-year
honours students and deals with what is often called ‘advanced
linear algebra'. This includes the foundations of multilinear
and exterior algebra and in particular we show how exterior
powers lead to determinants, which is surely the most satis-
fying way of covering this topic. We also discuss the struc-
ture of finitely generated modules over a principal ideal
domain and apply the structure theorems to obtain important
decomposition theorems for vector spaces (often called 'the
theory of a single linear transformation').
At the end of each section we have supplied a number of
exercises. These exercises provide ample opportunity to con-
solidate the knowledge imparted in the body of the text. We
have also supplied lots of hints to help the reader gain the
satisfaction of solving problems vi PREFACE
Concerning the prerequisite algebraic background for this
text, we mention that any standard course on groups, rings,
and fields will suffice. Although we have kept the discussion
as self-contained as possible, there are places where refer-
ences to standard results are unavoidable. Such places we
have marked with the sign (t+) and readers who are unfamiliar
with statements made at such points should consult a standard
text on abstract algebra. In this connection, our text Set
theory and abstract algebra (Longman Mathematical Texts, 1975)
would not be inappropriate!
No author sees the fruition of his labours without en-
listing the help of many others. We are particularly grate-
ful to Dr I.T. Adamson of the University of Dundee for his
comments on an early draft of the manuscript; to the algebra
adviser of the 0.U.P. for his helpful comments and criticisms:
que cet inconnu trouve ici L'expression de notre profonde
gratitude; to Miss K.P. Dunne for organizing the typing of
the manuscript and to Miss Anita Brien, Miss Marena Hutt, and
Mrs Margaret Sweeney for cheerfully carrying out this demand-
ing task; and finally to the staff at the Oxford University
Press for unparalleled efficiency.
St Andrews; May, 1976 T.S.B. To Jane
who has come to accept the writing of books Contents
PART I: MODULES AND VECTOR SPACES
1. Modules; vector spaces; algebras
Submodules; intersections and sums
3. Morphisms; exact sequences
4, Quotient modules; isomorphism theorems
10.
ll.
PART ITI:
ee
Chain conditions; Jordan-Hélder towers
Products and coproducts
Free modules; bases
Groups of morphisms; projective modules
Duality; transposition
Matrices; linear equations
Inner product spaces
ADVANCED LINEAR ALGEBRA
Injective modules
13. Tensor products; flat modules
14, Tensor products (commutative ground ring); tensor algebras
15. Exterior powers; exterior algebras; determinants
16. Modules over a principal ideal domain; finitely generated
17.
Index.
abelian groups
Vector space decomposition theérems; canonical forms under
similarity
7
38
54
66
88
1
133
147
177
199
211
237
260
293
322
398 Part |
Modules and Vector Spaces 1
Modules; vector spaces; algebras
In this text we shall develop the foundations of that branch
of mathematics called linear algebra. From the various ele-
mentary courses he has followed, the reader will recognize
this as essentially the study of vector spaces and linear
transformations, notions that have applications in several
areas of mathematics. In many ways, however, the notion of a
vector space is too restrictive. Perhaps one way we can
illustrate this is by asking the following question: has it
occurred to the reader that, in most elementary introductions
to linear algebra, determinants are defined for square
matrices whose entries belong to a given field yet, come the
consideration of eigenvalues, the matrix whose determinant
has to be found has its entries in a polynomial ring? Put
another way, should the various properties of determinants not
really be developed in a more general setting? This instance
alone would indicate that, at least to be consistent, the
scalars in the definition of a vector space should not be
restricted to a field but rather to a ring (which, as in the
case of a polynomial ring, may be required at some stage to be
commutative). It turns out that the modest generalization so
suggested is of enormous importance and leads to what is
arguably the most important structure in the whole of algebra,
namely that of a module. The importance of this notion lies
in a greatly extended domain of application, including the
higher reaches of group theory and ring theory, and such
topics as homological algebra, category theory, algebraic
topology, etc. Not wishing this text to become encyclopaedic,
however, we shall keep our sights blinkered and consider only
those applications that are within easy reach of the linear
algebra we shall develop.
Before giving a formal definition of a module, we ask the
reader.to recall (+) the following notions. If E is a non-
empty set then by an internal law of composition on E we mean 7 MODULES; VECTOR SPACES; ALGEBRAS
a mapping f:ExE+E. For every (x,y)cExE it is common practice
to write f(x,y) as x+y, xy or x*y except when it might cause
confusion to use such additive and multiplicative notations,
in which case such notations as -xty, x*y, xAy, etc. are use-
ful. By a semigroup we mean a non-empty set E on which there
is defined an internal law of composition that is associative.
By a group we mean a semigroup with a neutral element in which
every element has an inverse. By an abelian group we mean a
group in which the law of composition is commutative. By a
ring we mean a non-empty set E endowed with two internal laws
of composition, traditionally written (x,y) * x+y and
(x,y) * xy, such that
1. Eis an abelian group under addition;
2, E is a semigroup under multiplication;
3. (Wx,
»ZeE) x(y+z) = xy+xz, (y+z)x = yx+zx.
A ring R is said to be unttary if it has a neutral element
with respect to multiplication, such an element being written
tg: Aring is said to be commutative if the multiplication is
commutative. By a field we mean a commutative unitary ring in
which every non-zero element has an inverse with respect to
multiplication (so that the non-zero elements form a multipli-
cative group).
In what follows we shall have occasion to consider map-
pings of the form £:FxE+E where F and E are non-empty sets.
Such a mapping will be denoted by (A,x) * Ax. Although Ax
here denotes simply the juxtaposition of AeF and xeE with
on the left, we shall refer to this as the left multiplication
of elements of E by elements of F. In this context the ele-
ments of F are often called sealars. The mapping f so des-
cribed is then called a left external law of composition on E.
In a similar way, we can define a right external law of com-
position on E to be a mapping f:ExF+E described by (x,A) * xd.
Remark. Although the adjective ‘external’ is a helpful
one, it should be noted that a particular case of such a
law is obtained on taking F = E in which case we have a
mapping £:ExE+E which is then an ‘internal’ law of com-
position on E. MODULES; VECTOR SPACES; ALGEBRAS 3
DEFINITION. Let R be a unitary ring. By an R-module (or
module over R) we shall mean an additive abelian group M to-
gether with a left external law of composition RxMoM, des-
cribed by (A,x) * Ax, such that
1. (WAeR)(Wx,yeM) — A(x#y) = Ax+Ay;
2. (WA,ueR) (WxeM) — (Atu)x = Axtux
3. (WA,ueR)(VxeM) Aux) = (Au)x;
4. (¥xeM) 7
In the case where F is a field, an F-module is called an
P-veetor space (or veetor space over F).
Remark. Some authors prefer not to include 1, in the
above definition. What we have called an R-module, they
would call a unitary R-module.
Example 1.1. Every unitary ring R is an R-module; the exter-
nal law in question is the internal multiplication in R.
Likewise, any field is a vector space over itself.
Example 1.2. Every additive abelian group M is a Z-module;
the external law in question is given by (m,x) * mx where
xtxt ... +x (mterms) i
ox = { : :
: a
-|m|x a
Example 1.3. The field C of complex numbers is an R-vector
space; the external law RxC~C is described by
(A, x+iy) * A(x+iy) = Axeiay.
More generally, if R is a unitary ring and if S is a subring
of R that contains tae then R can be considered as an S-
module; here the external law is described by (s,r) * sr
where sr is the ordinary product of s and r in R.
Example 1.4. If R is a unitary ring and if n is a positive
integer, consider the abelian group R” consisting of all 4 MODULES; VECTOR SPACES; ALGEBRAS
n-tuples of elements of R under the component-wise addition
(yee tOys
Vg) = (Xytygee eo XQt¥g)-
Defining an external law RxR"4R” in the obvious way, namely by
the prescription
EG) ere x),
we see that R" becomes an R-module. In particular, if F is a
field then F™ is an F-vector space.
Example 1.5. Let R be a unitary ring and let RN denote the
set of all mappings f:N+R (i.e., the set of all sequences of
elements of R). Endow RN with the obvious addition, namely
for £,geRN define f+g:N+R by the prescription
(£+g) (n) = f(n)+g(n).
Clearly, RN forms an abelian group under this law. Now define
an external law R«RNoRN py (r,£) » rf where r£:NOR is given by
the prescription
(rf) (n) = rf(n).
This then makes RY into an R-module.
Remark. An R-module, as we have defined it, is often
called a left R-module. The reason for this is that in
the notation for the external law the scalars are written
on the left. By writing xA instead of Ax throughout and
altering (3) of the definition to read (xA)u = x(Au) and
(4) to read x1,
module (the external law in this case being a mapping
MxR+M). In what follows we shall make the convention
that the term R-module will always mean a left R-module;
= x, we obtain what is called a right R-
and when we have occasion to talk about a right R-module
we shall use that adjective. MODULES; VECTOR SPACES; ALGEBRAS 5
DEFINITION. Let R be a commutative unitary ring. By an R-
algebra (or algebra over R) we shail mean an R-module A toge-
ther with an internal law of composition AxA+A, described by
(x,y) *xy and called multiplication in A, which is distribu-
tive over addition and is such that
(VAeR) (Vx,yeA) A(xy) = (Ax)y = x(ay).
By imposing conditions on the multiplication in the above
definition, we obtain various types of algebra: for example,
if the multiplication is associative then A is called an
associative algebra (note that in this case A is a ring under
its internal laws of addition and multiplication); if the
multiplication is commutative then A is called a commutative
algebra; if there is a multiplicative neutral element in A
then A is said to be unttary. A unitary associative algebra
in which every non-zero element has an inverse is called a
division algebra.
Example 1.6. C is a division algebra over R.
Feample 1.7. Let R be a commutative unitary ring and consider
the R-module RN of Example 1.5. Given £,geR%, define the
product map £g:N»R by the prescription
2
Eyf(i)g(n-i).
(£2) (n) = ,
Then it is readily verified that the law of composition des-
cribed by (£,g) * fg makes RN into an R-algebra. This R-
algebra is called the algebra of formal power series with
coefficients in R. The reason for this traditional termino-
logy is as follows. Let ter’ be given by
ft ifn=4;
t{n) = {j otherwise.
Then for every positive integer m the m-fold composite map
t™ = tete...et is given by
mony a {1 ifn =m
{3 otherwise. 6 MODULES; VECTOR SPACES; ALGEBRAS
Consider now (without worrying how to imagine the sum of.an
infinite number of elements of RN or even questioning the lack
of any notion of convergence) the ‘formal power series! asso-
ciated with feR™ given by
8 = £(0)t°+£(1)tt+£(2)t2+...+£(m) t™ +
where t° = id,, the identity map on R. Since 8(n) = f(n) for
i
every neN it is often said that 'f can be represented symboli-
cally by the above formal power series’.
EXERCISES
1.1 Let M be an abelian group and let End(M) be the set of
all endomorphisms on M (i.e., the set of all group mor-
phisms £:M4M). Show that End(M) is an abelian group
under the law of composition (f,g) + f+g where
(vxeM) (£+g) (x) = £(x)+g(x).
Show also that
(1) (End(M),+,°) is a unitary ring;
(2) M is an End(M)-module under the external law
End(M)M+M given by (£,m) * f-m = f(m);
(3) if R is a unitary ring and if u:R+End(M) is a
ring morphism such that u(t1,) s idy then M is an R-module
under the external law RxM+M given by (A,m) * Am =
(HOA) ](m).
1.2 Let R be a unitary ring and let M be an abelian group.
Prove that M is an R-module if and only if there is a
1-preserving ring morphism £:R+End(M).
(aint. =: For every reR consider the mapping £, :NoM
given by f,(m) = rm. Show that f
