1 PhysicalQuantities N
1 PhysicalQuantities N
Physical Quantities:
The complete measurement is called a physical quantity. It is made up of two parts: a number and a unit.
In the past, physical quantities had many different types of units. Nowadays, scientists have agreed to adopt
one set of units - what everyone is talking about. We now use the International System of Units the SI units.
It is most important that when you write down a quantity you give it the correct units and use the correct
symbol for those units. The following table shows most of the common quantities.
It may be measured in:
kilometres km 1,000 metres
metres m Awww, come on, you know how big a metre is!
centimetres cm A hundredth of a metre. But you know this already.
millimetres mm 1/1000th of a metre. Those tiny lines on your ruler!
nanometres Nm 1/1000,000,000th of a metre. Or, if you prefer, a millionth of a millimetre. Small!
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Length to be measured Suitable Instrument Accuracy of instrument
several meters (m) measuring tape 0.1 cm
several centimeters (cm) to 1 m meter rule 0.1 cm
between 1 cm and 10 cm vernier calipers 0.01 cm / 0.1mm
less than 2 cm micrometer screw gauge 0.01 mm
Parallax error
For accurate measurement the eye must be placed vertically above the mark being read. This is to avoid
parallax errors which will give rise to inaccurate measurement.
Set square is used to avoid parallax error.
Zero Error
The instrument must be checked for any zero error before placing the object to be measured. Close the
instrument if the zero mark of main scale is matched with the zero mark of vernier scale, we say that there is
no zero error vice versa.
Positive Z.E. is subtracted while negative Z.E. is added in the final reading of instrument.
Figure shows a pair of vernier callipers. The object which is to be measured is placed between the outside
jaws. The right-hand jaw is then pushed along to rest against the object. The inside jaws can be used for
measuring the inside diameter a tube or pipe. The callipers have two scales: the main scale and the vernier
scale.
Step 1: Grip the object gently using the out side jaws of calipers.
Step 2: Read the main scale directly opposite the zero mark on the vernier scale to get Main Scale Reading
(M.S.R.).
Step 3: The rank of matched vernier scale line with the main scale line is Vernier Scale Reading (V.S.R.).
Step 4: The final reading is found by:
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Final Reading = M.S.R. + (V.S.R. x Accuracy)
Step 1: Turn the thimble until the anvil and thimble reading gently grip the object. Then turn the ratchet
until it starts to click. The ratchet prevents the user from exerting too much pressure on the object.
Step 2: Read the Main Scale Reading (M.S.R.) at the edge of the thimble.
Step 3: Take the Thimble Reading (T.R) opposite the datum line of the main scale.
Step 4: The final reading is found by:
Final Reading = M.S.R. + (T.R. x Accuracy)
It has an accuracy of 0.01mm.
Oscillation
All clocks and watches are based on some regular event or process such as repetitive motion (as in a swinging
pendulum) or vibration (as in the quartz crystals in watches). Such repetitive motion or vibrations are called
oscillations.
Time period
The time taken to make one complete oscillation is known as the time period of the oscillation.
The period of the simple pendulum is:
(a) independent of the mass of the bob,
(b) independent of the angle of the swing, provided it is small (~ 5),
(c) dependent on the length of the pendulum which is measured from point of suspension the centre of the bob.
Time period increases by increasing length but not directly proportional.
Frequency
It is the number of cycles or oscillations divided by total time.
Its unit is Hertz (Hz).
frequency = number of cycles
time
for one cycle
f=1
T
Stopwatch
A typical stopwatch is able to measure time to the nearest 0.1 s. A modem electronic stopwatch has a digital
display and can be read to the nearest 0.01 s.
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When we want to start the stopwatch, our hand will take a split second to react. An error is therefore
introduced because it takes a certain length of time to start or stop a watch. This error is called the reaction
time and it varies from person to person.
A ticker-tape timer
Ticker Timer
Caution!:
t is time taken from the first dot to the last dot of the distance measured.
Example 1
Diagram 2.4 shows a strip of ticker tape that was pulled through a ticker tape timer that vibrated at 50
times a second. What is the
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a. time taken from the first dot to the last dot?
b. average velocity of the object that is represented by the ticker tape?
Answer:
a.
There are 15 ticks from the first dot to the last dot, hence
Time taken = 15 0.02s = 0.3s
b.
Distance travelled = 15cm
You could have reached the same final position by walking 5 m in the direction 36.9 east of
north. This is the result (resultant) of adding "4 m north" and "3 m east".
Vector representation:
Since several important physical quantities are vectors, it is useful to agree on a way for
representing them and adding them together.
In the example involving displacement, we used a scale diagram in which displacements were
represented by arrows which were proportionately scaled and orientated correctly with
respect to our axes (i.e., the points of the compass). This representation can be used for all
vector quantities provided the following rules are followed:
1. The reference direction is indicated.
2. The scale is indicated.
3. The vectors are represented as arrows with a length proportional to their magnitude and
are correctly orientated with respect to the reference direction.
4. The direction of the vector is indicated by an arrowhead.
5. The arrows should be labelled to show which vectors they represent.
For example, the diagram below shows two vectors A and B, where A has a magnitude of 3
units in a direction parallel to the reference direction and B has a magnitude of 2 units and a
direction 60 clockwise to the reference direction:
Resultant Vector
Adding two vectors mean to find a single vector such that this single vector will produce the same effect as the
two vectors added together. This single vector is called the resultant.
Addition of vectors:
Two or more vectors may be added together to produce their addition. If two vectors have
the same direction, their resultant has a magnitude equal to the sum of their magnitudes and
will also have the same direction.
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Similarly orientated vectors can be subtracted the same manner.
In general, since vectors may have any direction, we must use one of two methods for adding
vectors. These are parallelogram method and the method of components.
Parallelogram method:
In the parallelogram method for vector addition, the vectors are translated, (i.e., moved) to a
common origin and the parallelogram constructed as follows:
The resultant R is the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the common origin.
Join the tail of the 2nd vector to the head of the 1st vector. Normally the resultant vector is marked with
double arrow.
Vector Addition - Parallelogram Method
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Join the tail of the 2nd vector to the tail of the 1st vector. Normally the resultant vector is marked with
double arrow.
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1 Adding parallel forces
Forces are vector quantities, having both magnitude and direction. A force is often
represented as an arrow, whose length represents the relative magnitude of the force, and
direction indicates the direction in which the force acts.
A resultant force is a single force that produces the same effect as two or more forces.
Parallel forces act in either the same direction or in opposite directions.
3 The parallelogram
Remove the equipment and draw a line 6 cm long representing the 6 N force between c and
f, mark the end A.
To represent the 4 N force draw a line 4 cm long between c and g. Mark end B.
Complete the parallelogram by making a 4 cm arc centered on A and a 6 cm arc centered
on B.
The diagonal of the parallelogram is 8 cm long, the size of the resultant force in the
experiment.