Method of calculating the cooling rate

This chapter describes method of calculating the cooling rate in HAZ during welding
of thick and thin plates besides that of critical cooling rate for steel under welding
conditions. Further, significance of peak temperature in heat affected zone and
solidification time of weld metal for development of sound weld joint has also been
presented.
Keywords: Peak temperature, solidification time, width of HAZ, weld structure

20.1 Calculations of cooling rate

Thickness of the plate to be welded directly affects the cross sectional area available
for the heat flow from the weld which in turn governs cooling rate of a specific
location. Accordingly, two different empirical equations are used for calculating the
cooling rate in HAZ for a) thin plates and b) thick plates, depending upon the
thickness of plate and welding conditions. There is no clear demarcating thickness
limit to define a plate thick or thin. However, two methods have been proposed to
take decision whether to use thick or thin plate equation for calculating the cooling
rates and these are based on
1) number of passes required for completing the weld
2) relative plate thickness
According to first method, if number of passes required for welding of two plates is
less than 6 then it is considered as thin plate else thick plate for selection of suitable
equation to calculate cooling rate. Since this method is not very clear as number of
passes required for completing the weld can vary with diameter of electrode and
groove geometry being used for welding, therefore a more logical second method
based on relative plate thickness criterion is commonly used. The relative plate
thickness criteria is more logical as it considers all the relevant factors which can
affect the cooling rate such as thickness of the plate (h), heat input (Hnet), initial
plate temperature (To), temperature of interest at which cooling rate is desired (Ti)
and physical properties of plate like (specific heat C, density ). Relative plate
thickness () can be calculated using following equation: h{C(Ti To)/Hnet}1/2
Thin plate cooling rate equation is used when relative plate thickness < 0.6 and
thick plate cooling rate equation is used when > 0.9. If value of is in range of 0.6 to
0.9 then 0.75 is used as a limit value to decide the cooling rate equation to be used.
Cooling rate (R) equation for thin plates: {2kC (h/ Hnet)(Ti To)3}0C/sec..(1)
Cooling rate (R) equation for thick plates: {2k(Ti T0)2}/Hnet0C/sec .(2)

Where h is the plate thickness (mm), k is thermal conductivity, is the density

(g/cm3), C is specific heat (kCal/0C.g), Ti is the temperature of interest (0C), and To is
the initial plate temperature (0C).
Cooling rate equations can be used to a) calculate the critical cooling rate (CCR)
under a given set of welding conditions and b) determine the preheat temperature
requirement for the plate in order to avoid the CCR.

20.2 Critical cooling rate (CCR) under welding conditions

To determine the critical cooling rate for a steel plate under welding conditions, bead
on plate welds are made with varying heat input. On the basis of thickness of the
plate (5 mm) to be welded suitable electrode diameter is chosen first and then
accordingly welding current and arc voltage are selected (20V, 200A, To=300C) for
bead-on-plate (BOP) welding. Number of BOP welds is deposited using increasing
welding speed (8, 9, 10, 11, 12mm/sec). Once the BOP weld is completed at
different welding speed, transverse section of weld is cut to measure the hardness.
Thereafter, hardness vs. welding speed plot is made to identify the welding speed
above which abrupt increase in hardness of the weld and HAZ takes place. This
welding speed is identified as critical welding speed (say 10mm/min in this case)
above which cooling rate of the weld & HAZ becomes greater than critical cooling
rate. This abrupt increase in hardness of the weld and HAZ is attributed to
martensitic transformation during welding as cooling rate becomes greater than
critical cooling rate owing to the reduction in heat input (Hnet) with increase of welding
speed. Using welding conditions corresponding to this critical welding speed for a
given steel plate, critical cooling rate can be calculate using appropriate cooling rate
equation.
Corresponding Hnet = f X VI/S = 0.9 X 20 X 200 /10 = 360 J/mm or 0.36 kJ/mm.
Calculate relative plate thickness (RPT) parameter for these conditions: h [(Ti-
T0)C/Hnet]1/2 : 0.31
RPT suggests use of thin plate equation for calculating the cooling rate: 2kc(h/Q)
(tc-to)3
Cooling Rate (R): 5.8 0C/s and it will be safer to consider CCR: 6 0C/s
Similarlyy these eq
quations ca
an also be
e used forr calculatin
ng the coo
oling rate o
or
identifyin
ng the preh
heat tempe
erature to avoid
a CCR for a particcular locatio
on under -a
a-
given se
et of welding
g conditions.
20.3 P
Peak tempe
erature and
d Heat Affe
ected Zone
e
The weld thermal cycle
c of a particular loccation exhib
bits peak te
emperature
e and coolin
ng
rate as function
f of time
t apart from
f other factors.
f
Peak tem
mperature distribution
d around the
e weld-centtre line dete
ermines a) shape of th
he
weld pool, b) size of heat afffected zone
e and c) typ
pe of meta
allurgical tra
ansformatio
on
and so m
mechanical properties of weld an
nd HAZ.
n in heat input and initial
Variation i plate
e temperatu
ure affects the peak temperaturre
distribution on the plates along the welld line durring welding. An incre
ease in hea
at
input byy increasin
ng the weld
ding curren
nt (for a given
g welding speed)) in genera
al
increase
es the peakk temperatu articular location and makes
ure of a pa m the temperaturre
distribution equal around
a the welding arrc (almost circular
c or oval shape
e weld pooll).
Increase
e in welding speed however makes the
e weld po
ool (peak temperaturre
distribution) of tearr drop shape
e (Fig. 20.1
1).

Fig. 20.1 Effect off welding p

parameterss on weld pool profile
e as dictatted by pea
ak
tempera
ature
Cooling from the peak
p tempe
erature dete
ermines final microstrructure of th
he weld an
nd
heat afffected zone
e. Thereforre, peak temperature in the regiion close to the fusio
on
boundarry becomess of great engineering
e importance
e as metalllurgical tran
nsformation
ns
(hence mechanica
al propertiess) at a point near fusion bound
dary are in
nfluenced b
by
peak te
emperature (Fig. 20.2
2). Peak temperature
t e at any point nearr the fusio
on
boundarry for singlle pass fulll penetration weld ca
an be calcculated using followin
ng
equation
n.
1/(tp-to) =(4.13chY / Hnet) + (1//(tm-to))

(3)
Where tp is peak temperatu
ure in C, to is initial temperature in C, tm is meltin
ng
tempera
ature in C, Hnet is net heat input, J/mm, h iss plate thickkness in mm
m, Y is widtth
of HAZ iin mm and c is volum mm3 C).
metric specific heat (J/m

2 Schematiic showing relationship

Fig. 20.2 p between Fe-C diagrram and diffferent zone
es
of weld jjoints (S Ko
ou, Welding
g metallurgyy, 2003)
This equ
uation can be used fo
or a) calcula
ating peak temperaturre at a poin
nt away from
m
the fusio
on boundarry, b) estim
mating width
h of heat-afffected zon
ne and c) studying
s th
he
effect on
n initial platte temperatture/prehea
ating and he
eat input on
n width of HAZ.
H Careful
observation of equ
uation revea n initial platte temperature and ne
als that an increase in et
put will incre
heat inp ease the pe
eak temperrature at y distance
d fro
om the fusio
on boundarry
and so w
width of hea
at affected zone.
To calcu
ulate the wiidth of HAZ
Z, it is necessary to me
ention the temperature
t e of interesst/
critical temperature
t e above which
w ostructure and mechanical properties of a
micro
metal will be affectted by application of welding
w heat. For exa
ample, the plain carbo
on
steels are subjecte
ed to metalllurgical tra 27 0C i.e. lower
ansformation above 72 l critica
al
tempera
ature, henc
ce temperature of inte
erest/ criticcal tempera
ature for ca
alculating o
of
HAZ wid es 727 0C. Similarly, a steel tem
dth become mpered at 3000C afte
er quenchin
ng
treatmen er heated to a temperrature abovve 300 0C, it is over-ttempered sso
nt wheneve
the struccture and properties
p a affected
are d hence fo
or quenche
ed and tem
mpered stee
el,
temperin ature (3000C
ng tempera C) becomess the critica
al temperatu
ure.
A single
e pass full penetration
n weld passs is made on steel plates
p havin
ng c=.004
44
J/mm3 C, t=5 mm,
m tp=25
5C, tm=15
510C, Q=
=720J/mm. Calculate
e the pea
ak
tempera
atures at 3.0
0 mm and 1.5
1 mm and
d 0 mm disttance from the fusion boundary.
On replacing of values of different factors, in 1/(tp-to) =(4.13chY / Hnet) + (1/(tm-to))
the peak temperature at distance 3 mm, 1.5 mm and 0 mm is obtained as 1184 C,
976C and 1510 C respectively.

20.4 Solidification Rate

The solidification of weld metal takes place in three stages a) reduction in
temperature of liquid metal, b) liquid to solid state transformation and c) finally
reduction in temperature of solid metal up to room temperature. The time required for
solidification of weld metal depends up on the cooling rate. Solidification time is the
time interval between start to end of solidification. Solidification time is also of great
importance as it affects the structure, properties and response to the heat treatment
of weld metal. It can be calculated using following equation:
Solidification time of weld (St) = LQ/2kc(tm-to)2 in sec(5)
Where L is heat of fusion (for steel 2 J/mm3)
Above equation indicates that solidification time is the function of net heat input,
initial plate temperature and material properties such as latent heat of fusion (L),
thermal conductivity (k), volumetric specific heat (C) and melting point (tm). Long
solidification time allows each phase to grow to a large extent which in turn results in
coarse-grained structure of weld metal. An increase in net heat input (with increase
in welding current / arc voltage or reduction in welding speed) increases the
solidification time. An increase in solidification time coarsens the grain structure
which in turn adversely affects the mechanical properties. Non-uniformity in
solidification rates in different regions of molten weld pool also brings variation in
grain structure and so mechanical properties. Generally, centerline of the weld joint
shows finer grain structure (Fig. 20.3) and better mechanical properties than those
at fusion boundary primarily because of difference in solidification times.
Micrographs indicate the coarser structure near the fusion boundary than the weld
center.
Fig. 20.3 Variation in microstructure of weld of Al-Si alloys of a) fusion boundary and
b) weld centre owing to difference in cooling rate (200X)
Example

A single pass full penetration weld pass is made using net heat input at the rate of
500 J /mm on steel having c=.0044 J/mm3 C, t=5mm, to=25C, tm=1540C, and
thermal conductivity k= 0.025 J/mm.s. C and latent heat of fusion 2.4 J/mm3.
Determine the solidification time.

Solution

Solidification time: LQ/2kc(tm-to)2 in sec

Solidification time: 2.4 X 500/(2 X 0.025 X 0.0044 (1540-25)2 in sec

Solidification time : 1200/1585.54

Solidification time : 0.75 sec

References and books for further reading

Sindo Kou, Welding metallurgy, John Willey, 2003, 2nd edition, USA.
J F Lancaster, Metallurgy of Welding, Abington Publishing, 2099, 6th edition,
England.
R S Parmar, Welding engineering & technology, Khanna Publisher, 2002, 2nd
edition, New Delhi.
Richard Little, Welding and Welding Technology, McGraw Hill, 2001, 1st
edition.
S V Nadkarni, Modern Arc Welding Technology, Ador Welding Limited, 2010,
New Delhi.
 Welding handbook, American Welding Society, 2087, 8th edition, volume 1 &
2, USA.

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