ThefollowingareallthedefinitionsyoullneedwhenstudyingforyourPhysicsALevelExam:

Measurement:
Randomerrorsareerrorsofmeasurementsinwhichthemeasuredquantitiesdifferfromthemeanvaluewithdifferent
magnitudesanddirections.

Systematicerrorsareerrorsofmeasurementsinwhichthemeasuredquantitiesaredisplacedfromthetruevaluebyfixed
magnitudeandinthesamedirection.

Accuracyisameasureofhowclosetheresultsofanexperimentagreewiththetruevalue.

Precisionisameasureofhowclosetheresultsofanexperimentagreewitheachother.

ThermalPhysics:
Theinternalenergyisafunctionofstateandthetotalmicroscopickineticandpotentialenergiesoftheparticlescomposing
thesystem.

Thespecificlatentheatoffusion,Lf,isdefinedastheamountofheatrequiredperunitmasstochangeasubstancefromthe
solidphasetotheliquidphasewithoutanychangeintemperature

Thespecificlatentheatofvaporization,Lv,isdefinedastheamountofheatrequiredperunitmasstochangeasubstance
fromtheliquidphasetothevaporphasewithoutanychangeintemperature.

Firstlawofthermodynamicsstatethatinternalenergyisafunctionofstateandtheincreaseininternalenergyisequaltothe
sumoftheheatsuppliedtosystemandworkdoneonsystem.

Kinematics:
Speedistherateofchangeofdistancetraveledwithrespecttotime.

Velocityistherateofchangeofitsdisplacementwithrespecttotime.

Accelerationofanobjectistherateofchangeofitsvelocitywithrespecttotime.

ForcesAndDynamics:
Normalcontactforceisaforceperpendiculartothesurfaceexperiencedbyabodywhenitisinphysicalcontactwith
somethingelse.

HookesLawstatesthatwithinthelimitofproportionality,theextensionproducedinamaterialisdirectlyproportionaltothe
loadapplied.

Theprincipleofmomentsstatesthat,whenanobjectisinequilibrium,thesumofanticlockwisemomentsaboutanypoint
equalsthesumofclockwisemomentsaboutthesamepoint.

Themomentofaforceistheproductoftheforceandtheperpendiculardistancebetweentheaxisofrotationandthelineof
actionoftheforce.

Acoupleisapairofforces,equalinmagnitudebutoppositeindirection,whoselinesofmotiondonotcoincide.

Centreofgravityisthepointonanobjectthroughwhichtheentireweightoftheobjectmaybeconsideredtoact.

Stabilityofanobjectreferstoitsabilitytoreturntoitsoriginalpositionafterithasbeendisplacedfromthatposition.

Pressureisforceactingperunitarea.

Upthrust/buoyancyforceisanupwardforceonabodyproducedbythesurroundingfluid(i.e.,aliquidoragas)inwhichitis
fullyorpartiallyimmersed,duetothepressuredifferenceofthefluidbetweenthetopandbottomoftheobject.

ArchimedesPrinciplestatesthattheupthrustexperiencedbyanobjectpartiallyorentirelyimmersedinafluidisequaltothe
weightofthefluiddisplacedbytheobject.

Newtonsfirstlawofmotionstatesthatabodywillcontinueinitsstateofrestoruniformmotioninastraightlineunlessan
externalresultantforceactsonit.

Newtonssecondlawstatesthattherateofchangeofmomentumofabodyisproportionaltotheresultantforceactingonit
andthechangetakesplaceinthedirectionoftheforce.

Newtonsthirdlawstatesthat:IfbodyAexertsaforceonbodyB,thenbodyBexertsaforceofequalmagnitudebutinthe
oppositedirectiononbodyA.

Theprincipalofconservationofmomentumstatesthatthetotalmomentumofasystemofobjectsremainsconstantprovided
noresultantexternalforceactsonthesystem.

Work,EnergyAndPower
Workisthemechanicaltransferofenergytoasystemorfromasystembyanexternalforceonit.

Heatisthenonmechanicaltransferofenergyfromtheenvironmenttothesystemorfromthesystemtotheenvironment
becauseofatemperaturedifferencebetweenthetwo.

ThePrincipleofconservationofenergystatesthatenergycannotbecreatednordestroyedinanyprocess.

GravitationalPotentialEnergyisdefinedastheamountofworkdoneinordertoraisethebodytotheheighthfroma
referencelevel.

Powerisdefinedastherateofworkdoneorenergyconvertedwithrespecttotime.

CircularMotion:
Angulardisplacement,?istheanglesubtendedatcentreofacirclebyanarcofequallengthtotheradius.

Angularvelocity,?istherateofchangeofangulardisplacementwithrespecttotime.

TheperiodTofanobjectincircularmotionisthetimetakenfortheobjecttomakeonecompleterevolution.

Thefrequencyfofanobjectincircularmotionisthenumberofcompleterevolutionsmadebytheobjectperunittime.

Waves:
Displacementisthedistancemovedbytheparticlefromitsequilibriumposition.

Theamplitudeofawaveisthemaximumdisplacementoftheparticlefromitsequilibriumposition.

Thewavelengthisthedistancebetween2successivepointsonawavewhichareinphasewithoneanother.

Theperiodisthetimetakenforaparticleonthewavetocompleteoneoscillation.

Thefrequencyofawaveisthenumberofcompleteoscillationsthatpassthroughagivenpointin1second.(Units:Hertz(Hz)
ors1 )

Acompressionisaregionwhereparticlesareclosetooneanother.(Highpressure)

Ararefactionisaregionwheretheparticlesarefurtherapart.(Lowpressure)

PhaseDifference(?)betweentwoparticlesortwowavestellsushowmuchaparticle(orwave)isinfrontorbehindanother
particle(orwave).

Intensityofawaveistherateoftransferofenergyperunitareaperpendiculartothedirectionoftravelofthewave.

Oscillations:
Periodicmotionistheregular,repetitivemotionofabodywhichcontinuallyretracesitspathatregularintervals.

PeriodTofaperiodicmotionisthetimetomakeonecompletecycle.

Frequencyfofaperiodicmotionisthenumberofcyclesperunittime.

Angularfrequencyofaperiodicmotionistherateofchangeofangulardisplacementwithrespecttotime.
Displacementofanobjectisthedistanceoftheoscillatingparticlefromitsequilibriumpositionatanyinstant.

Amplitudeofaperiodicmotionisthemagnitudeofthemaximumdisplacementoftheoscillatingparticlefromtheequilibrium
position.

SimpleHarmonicMotion(SHM)isdefinedastheoscillatorymotionofaparticlewhoseaccelerationaisalwaysdirected
towardsafixedpointandisdirectlyproportionaltoitsdisplacementxfromthatfixedpointbutintheoppositedirectiontothe
displacement.

Dampingistheprocesswherebyenergyistakenfromtheoscillatingsystem.

Naturalfrequencyofthesystemisthefrequencyatwhichitwillvibratefreely.

Superposition:
Diffractionreferstothebendingorspreadingoutofwaveswhentheytravelthroughasmallopeningorwhentheypassround
asmallobstacle.

ThePrincipleOfSuperpositionstatesthatwhentwowavesofthesamekindmeetatapointinspace,theresultant
displacementatthatpointisthevectorsumofthedisplacementsthatthetwowaveswouldseparatelyproduceatthatpoint.

Interferencereferstothesuperposingoftwoormorecoherentwavestoproduceregionsofmaximaandminimainspace,
accordingtotheprincipleofsuperposition.

Gravitation:
NewtonsLawOfUniversalGravitationstatesthateveryparticleintheUniverseattractseveryotherparticlewithaforcethatis
directlyproportionaltotheproductoftheirmassesandinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthedistancebetweenthem.

Gravitationalfieldstrengthatapointisdefinedasthegravitationalforceperunitmassactingonamassplacedatthatpoint.

Gravitationalpotentialenergy,Uofapointmassm,inagravitationalfield,istheworkdonebyanexternalforceinbringing
thatpointmassfrominfinitytothatpoint.

Gravitationalpotentialatapointinagravitationalfieldistheworkdoneperunitmass,byanexternalforce,inbringingthe
massfrominfinitytothatpoint.

EscapespeedistheminimumspeedwithwhichamassshouldbeprojectedfromtheEarthssurfaceinordertoescape
Earthsgravitationfield.

ElectricField
Thecoulombslawstatesthattheelectrostaticforcebetweentwopointchargesisproportionaltotheproductoftheircharges
andinverselyinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthedistancebetweenthem.

TheElectricfieldstrengthatapointinanelectricfieldistheelectrostaticforceperunitchargeexperiencedbyasmallpositive
testchargeplacedatthatpoint.

ElectricPotentialatapointinanelectricfieldistheworkdoneperunitchargebyanexternalagentinbringingapositivetest
chargefrominfinitytothatparticularpointwithoutacceleration.

Electricpotentialenergyofachargeinanelectricfieldisdefinedastheworkdonebyanexternalforceinbringingthecharge
frominfinitytothatpointadistanceraway.

Theelectronvoltisdefinedasenergythatanelectron(orproton)gains(orloses)whenitisaccelerated(ordecelerated)
throughapotentialdifferenceof1volt.

CurrentOfElectricity
ElectricCurrentistherateofflowofchargethroughaparticularcrosssectionalareawithrespecttotime.

Thepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsinanelectricalcircuitistheelectricalenergyconvertedintootherformsofenergy
perunitchargepassingfromonepointtotheother.
Onevoltisthepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsinanelectricalcircuitwhenonejouleofelectricalenergyisconverted
tootherformofenergyasonecoulombofchargepassesfromonepointtotheother.

OhmsLawstatesthattheratioofthepotentialdifferenceacrossaconductortothecurrentflowingthroughit,isaconstant,
providedthatitsphysicalconditions,suchastemperature,remainconstant.

Theelectromotiveforce( )ofasourceistheenergyconvertedfromotherformstoelectricalperunitchargedeliveredround
acompletecircuit.

Internalresistance(r)ofanyrealsourceistheresistancethatchargemovingthroughthematerialofthesourceencounters.

DCCircuits
KirchhoffsFirstLawstatesthatthetotalcurrententeringajunctionisequaltothetotalcurrentleavingthejunction.ORThe
algebraicsumofcurrentsatajunctioniszero.

Kirchhoffssecondlawstatesthatthenetelectromotiveforcearoundaclosedcircuitloopisequaltothesumofpotential
dropsaroundtheloop.ORThealgebraicsumofthechangesinpotentialencounteredinacompletetraversalofaclosed
circuitloopmustbezero.

Electromagnetism
Magneticfluxdensity(B)isdefinedastheforceactingperunitcurrentperunitlengthonawireplacedatrightanglestothe
magneticfield.

1Teslaisdefinedasthemagneticfluxdensityofauniformmagneticfieldwhenawireoflength1m,carryingacurrentof1A,
placedperpendiculartothefield,experiencesaforceof1Ninadirectionatrightanglestoboththefieldandthecurrent.

ElectromagneticInduction
MagneticfluxthroughaplanesurfaceistheproductofthemagneticfluxdensitynormaltothesurfaceBNandtheareaAof
thesurface.

Theweberisdefinedasthemagneticfluxthroughasurfaceifamagneticfieldoffluxdensity1Texistsperpendicularlytoan
areaof1m2 .

MagneticFluxLinkageisdefinedastheproductofthenumberofturnsNofthecoilandthemagneticfluxlinkingeachturn.

FaradaysLawstatesthattheinducede.m.f.isdirectlyproportionaltotherateofchangeofmagneticfluxlinkageorrateof
cuttingofmagneticfluxlinkage.

LenzsLawstatesthattheinducede.m.f.willbedirectedsuchthatthecurrentwhichitcausestoflowopposesthechange
thatisproducingit.

AlternatingCurrent

Therootmeansquare(r.m.s.)valueofanalternatingcurrentisequivalenttothesteadydirectcurrentthatconvertselectrical
energytootherformsofenergyatthesameaveragerateasthealternatingcurrentinagivenresistance.

Rectificationistheprocessinwhichanalternatingcurrentisforcedtoonlyflowinonedirection.

Semiconductors

Bandgapistheenergydifferencebetweentopofvalencebandandbottomofconductionband.Itisalsoarangeofenergyin
asolidwherenoelectronstatesexist.

Anintrinsicsemiconductorisapuresemiconductorcrystalcontainingonlyoneelementoronecompound.

Extrinsicsemiconductorsdopedwithdonorimpuritiesarecalledntypesemiconductorsbecausetheydonateanexcessof
negativechargecarriers.
QuantumPhysics&Lasers

PhotoelectricEffectistheemissionofelectronsfrommetalbyelectromagneticradiation.

Photoelectronisusedtoindicatethattheelectronhasbeenemittedwhenlightfallsonthesurfaceofametal.

Theworkfunctionofamaterialisdefinedastheminimumamountoftheworknecessarytoremoveafreeelectronfromthe
surfaceofthematerial.

Thresholdfrequencyistheminimumfrequencyofanincidentradiationrequiredtojustremoveanelectronfromthesurfaceof
ametal.

Thescanningtunnellingmicrosope(STM)isanonopticalmicroscopewhichusestheconceptofquantumtunnellingby
electronstostudysurfacesofconductorsorsemiconducorsattheatomicscaleofabout2or0.2nm.

NuclearPhysics

Themassdefectofanucleusisdefinedasthedifferencebetweenthemassoftheseparatednucleonsandthecombined
massofthenucleus.

Nuclearfissionisthedisintegrationofaheavynucleusintotwolighternucleiofapproximatelyequalmasses.

Nuclearfusionisthecombiningofthetwolightnucleitoproduceaheaviernucleus.

Radioactivedecayisthespontaneousdisintegrationofthenucleusofanatomwhichresultsintheemissionofparticles.

Backgroundradiationreferstoionizingradiationemittedfromavarietyofnaturalandartificialradiationsources.

Theactivityofaradioactivesubstanceisdefinedastheaveragenumberofatomsdisintegratingperunittime.

Thedecayconstant?ofanucleusisdefinedasitsprobabilityofdecayperunittime.

Halflifeisdefinedasthetimetakenforhalftheoriginalnumberofradioactivenucleitodecay.