CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is the branch of science that deals with the properties of matter
including their physical and chemical changes.

MATER

Mater is any substance that occupies space and has got weight or mass. It exist
in three states namely solid , liquid and gas. Examples of solid mater includes stone ,
wood , common salt , sugar etc. Paraffin, water and cooking oil are examples of liquid
matter. Examples of gaseous matter are oxygen , hydrogen and carbon dioxide.

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

This theory states that particles in matter are in a continuous vibration or

movement and possesses kinetic energy.

STATES OF MATTER

The three states of matter are solid , liquid , and gas.

[1] SOLID

The particles in a solid are closely packed together , held by strong forces of
attraction between them and hence they do not move but vibrates in fixed positions.
This result in them having definite size and shape.

The figure below illustrates the arrangement of particles in a solid.

particles

1
 HEATING A SOLID

Heating a solid makes vibration of particles more frequently and stronger. This
result in widening of the distance between or among particles and hence the inter-
molecular forces of attraction between them becomes weaker. At melting point , the
particles break free from forces of attraction holding them together and start moving
randomly just like the particles in a liquid.

The melting point is the temperature at which a solid substance changes

into a liquid.

[2] LIQUID

Particles in a liquid are far apart and can move about from place to place within the
liquid itself , but forces of attraction which are weak still hold them together. This
result in liquids having a definite volume ( because forces of attraction hold them
together) but no definite shape ( because forces of attraction between molecules are
weak ).

At the surface where the forces of attraction are weak , some particles leave the liquid
ie evaporation occurs.

The figure below shows the arrangement of particles in a liquid.

direction of movement
of particles

particles

HEATING A LIQUID

Heating a liquid makes the movement of particles faster and stronger and the
distance between or among particles widens more. Evaporation occurs more easily. At
melting point , the particles break free from forces of attraction that hold them together
and the liquid becomes a gas ie at boiling point.

Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas fastest
by boiling.

2
 COOLING A LIQUID

When a liquid is cooled , it loses heat to the surroundings , kinetic energy of the
particles decreases and this leads to the decrease in the random movement ( motion ) of
the particles and the corresponding decrease in the distance between the particles.
Eventually , the attractive forces of attraction between particles become strong enough to
hold them together in a regular pattern. Thus the liquid solidifies.

[3] GAS

In gases , particles are much far apart , move at very high speed , colliding with
one another and with the walls of the containing vessel. The forces of attraction
between them are very, very weak or negligible. Hence gases have no definite shape
and size (or volume) .They spread out in all directions and fill the space available to it.

The diagram below shows the particle arrangement and direction of movement
of particles in a gas.

particles

direction of movement
of

particles

CHANGES OF STATE OF MATTER

3
 [A] MELTING

This is the process by which a solid changes into a liquid , or is the change of
state of matter from solid to liquid.

[B] EVAPORATION

This is the change of state of matter from liquid to gas (or vapour) or is the
process by which a liquid changes into a gas.

[C] CONDENSATION

This is the change of state of matter from gas to liquid or is the process by
which a gas changes into a liquid. The process is the opposite of evaporation.

[D] FREEZING

This is the change of state of matter from liquid to solid or is the process by
which a liquid changes into a solid. This process is the opposite of melting.

[E] SUBLIMATION

This is the change of state of matter directly from solid to gas or gas to solid
without passing through the liquid state. Or this is the process by which a solid
changes directly into a gas or gas to solid.

Below is an example illustrating the changes of state of matter.

Sublimes to

Melts to evaporates to

Ice water water vapour

Freezes to condenses to

Sublimes to

NOTE

Dry ice is solid but it sublimes on heating to gas and vice versa.

4
 EVAPORATION IN TERMS OF KINETIC THEORY

Evaporation is the escape of more energetic molecules from the surface of a

liquid. Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules overcome the intermolecular
forces of attraction and leave behind less energetic molecules. The evaporated molecules
exists as vapour above the surface of a liquid , thereby exerting vapour pressure. Vapour
pressure reduces the rate of evaporation because less energetic molecules fall back into
the liquid as they collide with more energetic molecules.

HOW SURFACE AREA AFFECTS THE RATE OF EVAPORATION

An increase in surface area of a liquid increases the rate of evaporation. This

is because the number of molecules exposed to the surface increases. Hence, this
increases the chance of most energetic molecules to reach the surface of a liquid and
consequently evaporate.

HOW TEMPERATURE AFFECTS THE RATE OF EVAPORATION

The rate of evaporation rises when the temperature of a liquid increases. This
is so because most liquid molecules intermolecular forces of attraction between them
are overcome since there is an increase in average speed and kinetic energy of the
molecules.

COOLING EFFECT OF EVAPORATION

Evaporation brings about the cooling effect of a liquid and its environment. This
because the evaporating molecules carry away energy they possess in form of kinetic
energy. This result into a decrease in the internal energy and the temperature of a
liquid as less energetic molecules remain behind.

DIFFUSION

This is the movement of particles from the region of higher concentration to the
region of lower concentration until all regions have uniform concentration.

5
 WHY DIFFUSION OCCURS IN GASES AND LIQUIDS

Diffusion occurs in liquids and gases because their molecules are free to move.
The rate of diffusion in solids is almost zero ( or impossible ) because their molecules
are not free to move.

ILLUSTRATION OF DIFFUSION IN GASES

gas A gas B uniform mixed gas

CONSEQUENCES OF DIFFUSION

[A] A smell of ammonia or smell of perfume spreads from one corner to the entire room
because of diffusion.

[B] A colour of soluble substance such as potassium permanganate spreads uniformly

throughout the water even without stirring because of diffusion.

However, the rate of diffusion in gases is more than the rate of diffusion in liquids. This
is because the molecules in a gas move faster than in a liquid.

FACTORS AFFECTING DIFFUSION

[A] TEMPERATURE

The rate of diffusion in gases and liquids increases when the temperature is raised.
This because the average speed of molecules in these states also increases.

[B] MOLECULAR SIZE AND WEIGHT

Gases of smaller molecular masses diffuse at a faster rate than those with bigger and
heavier molecules.

6
 BROWNIAN MOTION

Brownian motion is the observed random and hapharzad movement of particles

which are suspended in a gas or liquid. This random or hapharzad motion of suspended
particles are caused by repeated bombardments they experience from randomly moving
but invisible molecules of a gas or liquid.

OBSERVATION OF BROWNIAN MOTION

microscope

bulb lens

glass cell

smoke particles.
moving at random

barrier with a
hole

Brownian motion can be observed by suspending smoke particles in air trapped

in a glass cell or by suspending pollen grains in water and then view these particles
under a microscope.

In order to make suspended particles more visible, a strong illumination is

provided by the bulb. A lens refracts or focuses light rays inside the glass cell. If the
suspended particles are very fine , the observed motions are more rapid than what
would be observed if the suspended particles are big in size.

The suspended particles are the ones seen to be moving at random while the
air molecules or water molecules themselves are not seen because they are invisible.
This movement of suspended particles or Brownian motion is the evidence for the
kinetic molecular model of matter.

7
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHEMISTRY

8
9
10
[1] CLOCKS/WATCHES

A stop watch or a clock is a instrument used to measure an interval of time.

Time is a scalar quantity is expressed in seconds.

[2] LABORATORY THERMOMETER

This is an instrument used to measure temperature in the laboratory. Temperature

is a scalar quantity and its SI unity is the Kelvin ,K.

[3] BEAM BALANCE

This is an instrument used to measure mass of a substance. Mass is a scalar

quantity and its SI unit is the kilogram ,Kg.

[4] MEASURING CYLINDER

This is an instrument used to measure volume of a liquid. Volume is a scalar

quantity its SI unit is metre cube ( m3 ).

[5] BURETTE AND PIPETTE

A burette is an instrument used to measure accurately the volume of a liquid

ranging from 0 cm3 to 50cm3 during titration. To measure accurately 25 cm3 of a liquid
during titration , a pipette is used.

[6] TEST TUBE

This an instrument used to hold small quantities of liquids and gases. Another
use is to hold reacting substances in it.

[7] BOILING TUBE

This an instrument used to boil or heat liquids and solids.

[8] BEAKER

This is an instrument used to hold liquids.

[9] ROUND BOTTOM FLASK

This is an instrument used for heating and distilling liquids.

[10] FLAT BOTTOM FLASK

This is an instrument used to hold liquids.

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[11] CORNICAL FLASK

This is an instrument used to hold liquids during titration. It is also used to

hold or store any other liquids.

[12] WATCH GLASS

This is an instrument used for evaporating a liquid.

[13] CRUCIBLE

This is an instrument used for heating strongly a solid.

[14] EVAPORATING DISH

This is an instrument used for evaporating a solution to leave a solute.

[15] FILTER FUNNEL

This an instrument used for holding a filter paper during filtration.

[16] WIRE GAUZE

This is a material placed on a tripod stand to spread heat under a beaker.

[17] DROPPER / TEAT PIPETTE

This is an instrument used for adding small droplets of a liquid.

[18] SPATULA

This is an instrument used for picking small quantities of solid substance.

[19] TRIPOD STAND

This is an instrument used to support wire gauze and any substance place on
top during heating.

[20] THISTLE FUNNEL

This is an instrument used for adding liquid into a flask.

[21] GAS JAR

This is an instrument used for collecting and holding a gas.

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[22] RETORT

This is an instrument used for distillation.

[23] SEPARATING FUNNEL

This is an instrument used for separating immiscible liquids.

[24] LIEBIG CONDENSER

This is an instrument used for condensing vapour during distillation.

[25] SYRINGE

This is an instrument used for volumes of gases and liquids.

CRITERIA OF PURITY

Criteria of purity refers to physical properties of a substance that are

characteristic of a pure substance. Impure substances show variations in physical
properties .

To find out if a substance is pure , physical properties such as melting point ,

boiling point , chromatography and perhaps density are checked or measured. Physical
properties such as boiling point and melting point are changed if an impurity is
present.

Chemical properties do not tell whether a substance is pure , they only give an
idea of the kind of substance present.

MELTING POINT OF A PURE SUBSTANCE (SOLID)

The melting point of pure substances are sharp or rapid. For example , when
pure naphthalene is being heated , it melts to a clear solution and the change from
solid to liquid is described as rapid or sharp. During melting , the temperature remains
constant and sharply rises. This shows that the melting point is sharp and indicates that
the substance whose melting point is being determined is pure.

The temperature time graph below shows the melting point of pure
naphthalene whose melting point is 80C.

13
 Temp. ( C)

80

0 time(min)

BOILING POINT OF PURE SUBSTANCE (LIQUID)

The boiling point of a pure liquid has the same temperature of boiling liquid
as the temperature of its vapour . For example when pure ethanol starts to boil , the
temperature rises slowly until it reaches 78C. At this temperature , the thermometer
reading with its bulb deeped in ethanol stablises until all the ethanol has evaporated.

At this moment , the thermometer bulb has to be raised above the level of
boiling ethanol to determine the temperature of the ethanol vapour. If the temperature
of boiling ethanol (liquid) is the same as the known temperature of the vapour , then the
liquid is pure.

SEPARATING TECHNIQUES / METHODS OF PURIFICATION

These are methods used in chemistry to separate or to purify one substance

from another. Methods used include the following:

[1] PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

This is the method of separating mixtures of solutes by using their rates of

movement on a porus medium such as a filter paper caused by a moving solvent such
as alcohol.

14
 ASSCENDING PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

glass rod
solvent front

strip of filter paper different substances

attached to the rod spot of blue extract

ethanol

Ascending paper chromatography is the method of separating mixtures of solute

by using their rates of movement on a porous medium caused by moving solvent up
the paper.

In an experiment such as in the figure above , solute compounds eg blue ink

constituents , are dissolved , absorbed and carried along the filter paper by the solvent.

Each substance in the mixture has different tendency to be absorbed and moved
with the solvent and so they will be separated.

Substances which are strongly absorbed lag behind while substances which are
weakly absorbed are carried along more rapidly by the advancing solvent. The solvent
compounds eventually become separated at different levels forming coloured bands
when they are dried.

The dried paper with its different colours is called a chromatogram.

USES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY / APPLICATIONS

[A] TO IDENTIFY SUBSTANCES

To identify substances , drops of several different are spotted on a filter paper

along a line. Some of the solutions contain known substances while others contain
unknown ones. The unknown substances are the ones to be analyzed.

The diagram below shows a chromatogram used in identifying substances.

15
 Substance 1 C travel to here

B travel to here

Substance 2

A travel to here

The result shows that the known substances are present in an unknown
substances. Known substance 1 is a mixture of A and C because the spots in the two
travel up to the same distance. Unknown substance 2 is a mixture of and B since both
spots in them travel up the same distance also.

The experiment also shows that mixture in 1, 2, A, B and C where made up of

three dyes. Dye one is a mixture of 1, 2 and B. Dye two is a mixture of 2 and B
while dye three is a mixture of 1 and C.

[B] Identifying the flavouring components in food.

[C] Separating pigments in plants.

[D] Separating antibiotic drugs from their growing media.

[E] Separating amino acids from proteins.

[2] FILTRATION

I This the method of separating insoluble substances from soluble ones using a
filter. The diagram below shows simple distillation .

residue mixture

filter paper

clamp stand filter funnel

filtrate

16
 In case of simple filtration , the insoluble substance that remains on the filter
paper is called a residue and a liquid that passes through the filter paper is called a
filtrate.

APPLICATION / USES OF FILTRATION

[A] IN CAR ENGINES

In car engines , oil and petrol pass through filters to remove impurities. If these
impurities are not removed , they can cause damage to the engine.

[B] IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

In the manufacture of sulphuric acid by contact process, sulphur dioxide mixed with an
excess of air is purified by filtration to remove particles of dust and other impurities.

[C] AT WATER WORKS

Filtration is also used in the filtration of water at water works to remove some
floating debris.

[3] DISTILLATION

This is the process of evaporating a liquid then condensing the vapour.

The two types of distillation are simple distillation and fractional distillation.

[A] SIMPLE DISTILLATION

This the process of separating two mixtures in solution form by heating the
mixture then condensing the vapour. An impure substance remains in the retort. The
diagram below shows simple distillation apparatus and how it is carried out.

17
 For example when a solution of potassium permanganate (VII) or copper (II) is heated
water vapour evaporates from the solution and is condensed to water in a liebig condenser.
The substance left behind (in the retort) is potassium permanganate (VII) or copper (II)
sulphate. The liquid collected in the small beaker a distillate or distilled water.

USES OF DISTILLED WATER

[a] As a solvent in making medicine.

[b] As a solvent in laboratory experiments.
[c] In filling car batteries.

[B] FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

This the process of separating two or more liquids that boil at different
temperatures. In this experiment, a fractionating column filled with glass beads and a
thermometer in it is used in addition to the liebig condenser. The diagram below
shows apparatus used in fractional distillation.

For example, when a mixture of ethanol and water is heated as shown in the figure
above, ethanol which is more volatile than water boils off first at 78C . As the vapour passes
through the glass beads in the fractionating column, water vapour condenses and returns to the

18
flask. Only the ethanol vapour reaches the top of the fractionating column and enters the
liebig condenser where it condenses. The remaining liquid is mainly water
and is collected when the temperature reaches 100C.
The process is called fractional distillation because the
liquids are collected as fractions one after another.

USES OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

[a] In refining of crude oil.

[b] In refining of liquid air.
[c] In refining of fermented liquor.

[4] TAP FUNNEL SEPARATION

This is the process used to separate two immiscible liquids. Immiscible

liquids are liquids that do not mix together. They form two different layers in a
container. This is so because immiscible liquids have different densities. One liquid
which is less denser than the other one floats on top of a more denser liquid.
Examples of immiscible liquids are cooking oil and water, hexane and water,
diesel and water etc. The diagram below shows a tap funnel separation and immiscible
liquids of water and hexane.

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[5] SUBLIMATION

This is the process used to separate a mixture of substances, one that

sublimes on heating from the one that does not. Examples of mixtures that can be
separated by sublimation are ammonium chloride and sodium chloride, iodine crystals
and sand etc.
For example, when a mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride is
heated , ammonium chloride turns directly to vapour , but sodium chloride remains
unchanged. When the vapour is cooled , solid ammonium chloride is formed on the
sides of the glass funnel.
The diagram below shows sublimation technique used in separating a mixture of
ammonium chloride from sodium chloride.

[6] FLOATATION

This is the method of separating mixtures of solids having different densities

using water as a separating medium. Examples of substances that can be separated by
floatation are copper turnings and wood shavings, wood shavings and sand etc
The diagram below shows wood shavings and copper turnings been separated by
floatation.

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[7] MAGNETISM ( OR MAGNETIC SEPARATION )

This is the method of separating a mixture of a magnetic material from a non-

magnetic material. Examples of substances that can be separated by magnetism are iron
filings and saw dust, small steel and wood shavings etc. The
diagram below shows wood shavings iron filings been separated by magnetism.

ELEMENTS

An element is a pure substance that cannot split up into two or more simpler
substances by chemical means. Examples of elements are the ones found on the
periodic table. They comprises of natural and man-made elements.
Each element on the periodic table is represented by one atom of it.All the
atoms in an element are of the same kind.

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 ATOMS

An atom is the smallest possible of an element that can take part in a chemical
reaction. When an element undergo a chemical change, it is the atoms that combine
together to form a large particle of a compound.

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM / ATOMIC STRUCTURE

THE NUCLEUS

This is a small and extremely dense central portion of an atom which contains protons
and neutrons.

PROTONS

These are positively charged particles found inside the nucleus of an atom.

NEUTRONS

These are uncharged particles found inside the nucleus of an atom.

ELECTRONS

These are negatively charged particles found inside the nucleus of an atom. Electrons
are found in energy levels or shells and are imagined to be orbiting the nucleus at
great speeds.
Protons, neutrons and electrons are collectively called sub-atomic particles. The
table below shows the approximate mass and charge of these sub- atomic particles.

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 Particle Approx. mass in sub-atomic mass unit (a.m.u) Relative charge
Proton 1.0 +1
Neutron 1.0 0
1
Electron 1840
-1

The term particle is a general one referring to atoms, protons, neutrons, electrons,
ions and molecules.

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)

This is the number of protons in an atom. It is denoted by symbol (Z)

MASS (NEUCLEON) NUMBER (A)

This is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. It is denoted the
symbol A. Therefore, an atom symbol X with atomic number Z and mass number A is
represented as .
Sometimes mass number is written as Ar. For example Ar (H) = 1, or H = 1 and
Ar (Cl) = 35.5 ,or Cl = 35.5

NOTE

[a] Mass number = proton number + neutron number

Mass # = PN + NN

[b] Atomic number = proton number + electron number in a neutral atom

Atomic number = PN + EN

A neutral atom is an atom having the number of protons equal to the number
of electrons. When a neutral atom reacts, it ceases to be a neutral atom but becomes an
ion. An ion formed will have the same atomic number, but number of electrons will
either increase or decrease. That is the atomic number does not change when an atom
undergo a chemical reaction.

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 ISOTOPES

Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons. Hence, isotopes have the same atomic number but
different mass number.

EXAMPLES OF ISOTOPES

[A] HYDROGEN ISOTOPES

Hydrogen has three isotopes namely: Hydrogen 1, 11 sometimes called ordinary

hydrogen, Hydrogen 2, 21 also called deuterium, and Hydrogen 31 also known as tritium.

[B] CARBON ISOTOPES

Carbon has three isotopes namely: Carbon 12, (12

6
) Carbon 13, (13
6
) and
Carbon 14, (14
6
) isotopes.

[C] CHLORINE ISOTOPES

Chlorine atom has two isotopes namely: Chlorine 35, (35

17
) and Chlorine
37, (37
17
).

The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 because when the average mass
numbers of the the two isotopes of chlorine is calculated, it gives 35.5. This is because
there are nearly 3 parts of chlorine 35 to 1 part of chlorine 37. This calculated as
follows:
35 +35 +35 +37
RAM (Cl) = 4

142
RAM (Cl) = 4

RAM (Cl) = 35.5

The relative atomic mass of chlorine is not a whole number because when the
average mass numbers of the two isotopes of chlorine is calculated, it does not give a
whole number.

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 THE PERIODIC TABLE

The periodic table is an arrangement of elements in order of their increasing

atomic numbers. There are 103 known elements on the periodic table. Among these are
solid elements, liquid elements ( ie mercury and bromine ) and some gaseous elements.
These are further sub-divided into metals and non-metals.

On the periodic table, metals and non-metals are divided by a zig zag. This line
passes between boron and aluminium, aluminium and silicon, silicon and germanium,
germanium and arsenic, arsenic and antimony, antimony and tellurium, tellurium and
polonium and polonium and astatine.

The periodic table consists of periods and groups. The diagram below shows the
periodic table and the elements found on it.

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PERIODS

These are horizontal rows on the periodic table. There are seven periods on the
periodic table.

PERIOD 1

This is a short period with two elements ie hydrogen and helium.

PERIOD 2

This a short period with eight elements.

PERIOD 3

This is a short period with eight elements also.

PERIOD 4

This is a long period with eighteen elements.

PERIOD 5

This is a long period also with eighteen elements.

PERIOD 6

This is a long period with thirty-two elements. This period consists of elements
called lanthanoid series with atomic numbers from 58 to 71. These elements are found
at the bottom of the periodic table.

PERIOD 7

This is a long period also with seventeen elements. It consists of elements called
actinoid series with atomic numbers from 90 to 103 found at the bottom of the
periodic table.

PROGRATION OF PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS ACROSS A PERIOD

As you move from left to right across a period;

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[A] There is a change from very reactive metals to non-metals and finally to inert gases.

For example period three has:

Sodium, magnesium, aluminium silicon Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine argon

Reactive metals metalloid non-metals inert gas

NOTE
A metalloid is an element having both properties of metals and non-metals. Other
examples of such elements are Boron and Arsenic.

[B] The electronic structure change regularly by one electron for each element. For example
period 2 has the following electronic structures of elements:

Lithium: 2 , 1 Beryllium: 2 , 2 Boron: 2 , 3 Carbon: 2 , 4

Nitrogen: 2 , 5 Oxygen: 2 , 6 Fluorine: 2 , 7 Neon: 2 , 8

[C] The atomic number increases by one between successive elements. For example period
four has the following elements with their atomic numbers:

Potassium: 19 Calcium: 20 Scandium: 21 Titanium: 22 etc

[D] The atomic number is equal to the total number of electrons a neutral atom has. For
example refer to period three.

[E] The number of shells containing electrons is equal to the period in which an element
belongs to. For example period three has the following elements and their electronic
structures:

All the elements above contain 3 shells = period 3, where the elements belongs to.

[F] The number of shells containing electrons in a period remains the same ie does not
change. Refer to period 3 above.

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[G] Electro-negativity increases while electro-positivity decreases. Electro-negativity is the
ability of an element to accept electrons readily while electro-positivity is the ability of
an element to lose electrons readily.

GROUPS

These are vertical columns on the periodic table. There are eight groups on the
periodic table.

PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS IN A GROUP

[A] Elements in the same group undergo similar chemical reactions and form compounds of
similar formulae. For example carbon and silicon from group four, form compounds of
similar formulae when these elements reacts with oxygen;

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

Si(s) + O2(g) SiO2(S)

[B] Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. The number
of valence electrons are the number of electrons found in the outermost shells of
elements. For example the valence electrons for elements in group one is 1, those in
group two is 2, and those in group three is 3 etc.

[C] Elements in the same group have the valence equal to the group number where an
element belongs to , that is, for elements from group 1 to group 4. For elements from
group 5 to group 8, the valence is equal to 8 minus group number where an element
belongs to. For example the valence for ;

[i] Sodium ( Na) is 1 , the group number for sodium is 1;

[ii] Beryllium ( Be) is 2, the group number for beryllium is 2;

[iii] Aluminium ( Al ) is 3, the group number for aluminium is 3;

[iv] Carbon ( C ) is 4 , the group number for carbon is 4;

[v] Nitrogen ( N ) is 8 5 ( group number for Nitrogen ) = 3;

[vi] Sulphur ( S ) is 8 6 ( group number for sulphur ) = 2;

[vii] Chlorine ( Cl ) is 8 5 ( group number for Chlorine ) = 1;

[viii] Neon ( Ne ) is 8 8 ( group number for Neon ) = 0. Elements in group viii have no
valences , hence the name group O in reference to members of group 8.

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[D] (i) For metals, their reactivity increases as you go down the group. For example, the most
reactive metal in group 1 is Francium while the least reactive metal in this group is
Lithium.

(ii) For non-metals, their reactivity increases as you go up the group. For example, the most
reactive non-metal in group vii is Fluorine while the least reactive non-metal in this
group is Astatine.

SPECIAL NAMES OF CERTAIN GROUPS ON THE PERIODIC TABLE

[1] ALKALI METALS

These are members of group one elements ( metals ). They exhibit valence 1.
They are elements from Lithium to Francium. They are really soft and easily be cut
with a knife. They have a silvery appearance which turnishes on exposure to the
atmospheric air.

Group one elements do not occur in free state due to their reactivity but occur
in compounds. For this reason they are stored under oil to prevent them from reacting
with the atmospheric air or moisture.

REACTION WITH HALOGENS

Group one elements reacts with Halogens ( group eight members of the periodic
table ) to form hydrides

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s).

2K(s) + F2(s) 2KF(s).

[2] ALKALINE EARTH METALS

These are members of group two of the periodic table. Their reactivity increases
as you go down the group. They consists of metals from Beryllium to Radium. They
are less reactive compared to alkali metals and reacts with group six members to form
ionic compounds.

[3] TRANSITION METALS ( METALS )

29
 These are elements that occupy the space between group ii and iii of the
periodic table. They are all metals and exhibit variable valences of 1 , 2 and 3. They
have high meting and high boiling points. They are good conductors of heat and
electricity.

[4] HALOGENS

These are members of group eight of the periodic table. They are non-metallic
elements from Fluorine to Iodine with all having valence electron of eight. They form
ionic compounds with metals and covalent compounds with other non-metals. All of
them are diatomic molecules. A diatomic molecule is a molecule with two atoms of the
same element covalently bonded together. For example F2 , Cl2 , Br2 , and I2 of group
seven members.

OXIDISING ACTION

Being electron acceptors, they all act as oxidizing agents. For example iron (ii)
chloride can be oxidized to iron (iii) chloride by chlorine.

2FeCl2(aq) + Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(aq).

DISPLACEMENT ACTION

Each halogen can displace the ions of those which follow it, liberating a free
halogen. For example fluorine reacts with sodium chloride to produce sodium fluoride
and chlorine is liberated.

2NaCl(s) + F2(g) 2NaF(s) + Cl2(g).

REACTION WITH HYDROGEN

Fluorine reacts with hydrogen explosively on contact to form hydrogen fluoride.

F2(g) + H2(g) 2HF(g).

Chlorine reacts with hydrogen in day light to form hydrogen chloride

F2(g) + H2(g) 2HCl(g).

Bromine reacts with hydrogen in presence of sunlight to form hydrogen

bromide.

30
 Br2(l) + H2(g) 2HBr(g).

Iodine reacts with hydrogen when heated to form hydrogen iodide.

I2(s) + H2(g) 2HI(g).

The halides formed are gaseous, all soluble in water and are strongly acidic.

PROPERTIES

Colour and state at

Element Colour of vapour Halide
r.t.p
Forms a
Chlorine ( Cl2) Green gas. Green. colourless gas ,
HBr.
Forms a
Bromine ( Br2). Dark red liquid. Dark brown. coluorless gas ,
HBr.
Forms a
Black shining
Iodine ( I2 ). Purple. colourless gas ,
solid.
HI.

[5] NOBLE OR INERT GASES

These are members of group eight of the periodic table. They are very
unreactive because they contain eight electrons in their outermost shells except helium
which has two electrons in its outermost shell. They have attained noble gas electronic
configuration ( octate rule ). These are elements from helium to radon.

USES OF NOBLE GASES

Since noble gases provide an inert atmosphere, argon is used in electric bulbs
and helium is used filling the balloons.

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES OF THE FIRST 20 ELEMENTS OF THE

PERIODIC TABLE

31
 NOTE

[A] The first shell of any atom shown above is capable of having a maximum number of
two electrons while in the second and third shells ( energy levels), an atom can have a
maximum number of eight electrons etc.

[B] All are neutral atoms.

[C] when they undergo a chemical reaction;

[i] Metals form positive charges or ions. The size of the charge carried by the ion, is equal
to the group where an element belongs to. They do so in order to acquire the
electronic configuration of noble gases in conformity with the octate rule. In order to do,
metals lose their outermost electrons;

[ii] Non-metals form negative charges or ions. The size of charge carried by the ion is eight
minus group number where an element belongs to. They do so also in order acquire

32
the electronic configuration of noble gases in conformity with the octate rule. In order
to do so, non metals gain or share their outermost electrons.

IONS

An ion is an electrically charged particle. It is formed when an atom or group

of atoms lose or gain electrons or simply when in aqueous or molten form.

Below are some examples of ions formed when certain metals and non-metals
lose and gain electrons.

NOTE

The atomic number of an atom or ion does not change. This is so because the number
of protons remain the same. The number of electrons are the ones that varies because
they are the ones that take part on chemical reactions when atoms combine together or
react.

33
 THE OCTATE RULE

This rule states that when a neutral atom undergo a chemical reaction, the
outermost electron(s) are lost, gained or shared between or among atoms so that they
attain noble gas electronic structure of group eight (O) elements of the periodic table.
Noble gases are very unreactive and have either two or eight electrons in their
outermost shells.

BONDING

Bonding is the way elements react together by loss, gain or sharing of electrons
to form compounds.

TYPES OF BONDING

The two types of bonding are ionic or electrovalent bonding and covalent
bonding.

[1] IONIC OR ELECTROVALENT BONDING

This is the type of bonding that involve complete transfer of electrons from one
atom to another. It takes place between a metal and a non-metal. A metal loses
electrons ( and became positively charged ) while a non-metal gain the electrons lost
by the metal ( and become negatively charged).

The compounds formed by ionic bonding are called an ionic compounds. These
can be shown by using dot and cross diagrams.

DOT AND CROSS DIAGRAMS

A dot and cross diagram is the diagram that shows how elements or atoms
combine together by loss, gain or share electrons between or among atoms using
crosses ( ) and dots ().

Below are some examples of dot and cross diagrams of ionic compounds .

Sodium chloride ( NaCl).

34
 Magnesium oxide (MgO).

Other examples of ionic compounds are calcium chloride ( CaCl 2 ), hydrochloric

acid (HCl ), sodium fluoride ( NaF ), calcium oxide ( CaO ), magnesium sulphide ( MgS ),
beryllium chloride ( BeCl2 ) etc.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

[A] They have high melting and boiling points. This is so because of the great attraction
between the ions and they need great energy to break the bonds.

[B] They are good conductors of heat and electricity when molten or in solution. This is so
because the ions are free to move around. Solids do not conduct electricity since ions
are not mobile in solid state.

[C] they are often soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents such ethanol or
benzene.

[D] Once ions are formed they do not show any chemical properties of the parent atoms.

[E] They are solids at room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.).

[F] They consists of ions.

[G] Their ions are brittle.

35
[2] COVALENT BONDING

This is the type bonding which involves sharing of electrons between or among
atoms. It takes place between non-metals. The bond formed is called a molecular bond.
The covalence of an atom is the number of shared electrons it shares with other
atoms. The compound form by covalent bonding is called a covalent compound.

DOT AND CROSS DIAGRAMS OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

[A] CHLORINE MOLECULE ( Cl2 )

[B] NITROGEN MOLECULE ( N2 )

[C] WATER MOLECULE (H2O )

36
[D] HYDROGEN MOLECULE ( H2 )

Other examples of covalent compounds are hydrogen chloride molecule ( HCl ),

methane molecule ( CH4 ), ethane molecule ( C2H6 ), carbon dioxide molecule ( CO2 ),
ammonia molecule ( NH3 ), oxygen molecule ( O2 ) etc.

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COPOUNDS

[A] They have low melting and boiling points.

[B] They do not conduct electricity when molten or in solution form.

[C] They are often insoluble in water but dissolves much easily in organic solvents such as
methylated spirit, benzene etc.

[D] Inter-molecular forces of attraction between molecules are weak but intra-molecular
forces are very strong and cannot easily be broken. Inter-molecular forces are forces
acting between molecules while intra-molecular forces are forces or bonds inside each
molecule.

[E] Most of them are gases and liquids at room temperature and pressure.

[F] They consists of molecules.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

[1] PHYSICAL CHANGES

A physical change is the one in which the products have the same chemical
properties as the reactants. In a physical change, no new substances are formed. Example

37
 of physical change is the change that occur when water changes from liquid to ice
when placed in a refrigerator or when ice melts back to water when heated. All
mixtures are physical changes.

[2] CHEMICAL CHANGES

A chemical change is the one in which the products have chemical properties
different from those of the reactants. In a chemical change, new substances are formed.
An example of a chemical change is the burning of paper in air. All chemical
reactions that result in the formation of compounds are chemical changes.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical change Chemical change

No new substances are formed. New substances are formed.

Usually the change is easily
Usually the change is irreversible.
reversible.
Usually no energy is absorbed or
Usually heat is absorbed or given out
given out when a physical change
when a chemical change occur.
occur.

Mass of a substance does not change. Mass of a substance does alter.

COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

[1] COMPOUNDS

A compound is substance which consist of two or more elements chemically

combined together. Examples of compounds are sodium chloride ( NaCl ), sodium
sulphate ( NaSO4 ), water ( H2O ), copper (ii) oxide ( CuO ), silver bromide ( AgBr ) etc.

38
 A compound cannot be separated by physical processes such as distillation,
filtration, chromatography etc.

[2] MIXTURES

A mixture is a substance which consists of two or more elements or compounds

or substances physically combined together. Examples of mixtures include air, sand and
salt, cooking oil and water, sawdust and iron filings etc.

A mixture can be separated by physical processes such as distillation, melting,

dissolving, boiling, chromatography, magnetism etc.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS

Mixture Compound

Substances in it can be separated Elements in it cannot be separated by

by physical means. physical means.

Properties are the average density The properties are quite different
of these substances. from the elements in it.

Energy is not usually given out or Energy is usually given out or

absorbed when a mixture is made. absorbed when a compound is made.

Substances in it are combined in Elements in it are combined in

any proportion by mass. definite proportions by mass.

CHEMICAL SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS

A chemical symbol of an element is a letter or letters derived from the name

of an element. The name of an element can be English or Latin. A chemical symbol

39
represents one atom of it. Below are some examples of some elements and their
symbols.

Element symbol element symbol

Hydrogen H Iron ( ferrum ) Fe
Helium He Barium Ba
Lithium Li Bromine Br
Beryllium Be Cobalt Co
Boron B Copper ( cuprium ) Cu
Carbon C Iodine I
Nitrogen N Krypton Kr
Oxygen O Xenon Xe
Fluorine F Gold ( aurum ) Au
Neon Ne Lead ( plumbum ) Pb
Sodium ( natrium ) Na Manganese Mg
Magnesium Mg Mercury ( hydrargyrum ) Hg
Aluminium Al Nickel Ni
Silicon Si Platinum Pt
Phosphorus P Silver ( argentum ) Ag
Sulphur S Uranium U
Chlorine Cl Zinc Zn
Argon Ar Tin Sn
Potassium ( kalium ) K Antimony Sb
Calcium Ca Bismuth Bi
Radium Ra Tungsten W

40
 FORMULAE

A chemical formula (plural formulae) is a symbol or symbols showing the

number of atoms in one molecule of an element or compound.

TYPES OF FORMULAE

[A] One representing one molecule of an element. For example, chlorines chemical formula
is Cl, fluorine is F2, nitrogen is N2, and that of oxygen is O2 etc. All are diatomic
molecules.

[B] One representing one molecule of a compound. For example the chemical formula of
copper (ii) oxide is CuO, ammonium chloride is NH4Cl, and that of aluminium oxide is
Al2O3 etc.

RADICAL

A radical is a group of atoms joined together which cannot exist on its own but
is present in several compounds.

VALENCE

The valence of an element or radical is the number which shows an elements

or radicals ability to combine with other elements or radicals.

TABLE OF ELEMENTS AND THEIR VALENCIES

Element Symbol Valence Element symbol valence

Potassium K 1 Lead (ii) Pb (ii) 2
Hydrogen H 1 Sulphur S 2
Sodium Na 1 Copper (ii) Cu (ii) 2
Lithium Li 1 Iron (ii) Fe (ii) 2
Silver Ag 1 Zinc Zn 2
Copper (i) Cu (i) 1 Boron B 3

41
Chlorine Cl 1 Aluminium Al 3
Fluorine F 1 Nitrogen N 3
Bromine Br 1 Phosphorus (iii) P (iii) 3
Iodine I 1 Iron (iii) Fe (iii) 3
Beryllium Be 2 Carbon C 4
magnesium Mg 2 Silicon Si 4
Calcium Ca 2 Lead (iv) Pb (iv) 4
Oxygen O 2 Phosphorus (v) P (v) 5

TABLE OF COMMON RADICALS AND THEIR VALENCES

Radical Formula Valence Radical Formula Valence

Ammonium NH4 1 Carbonate CO3 2
Chlorate ClO3 1 Oxide O 2
Chloride Cl 1 Sulphate SO4 2
Hydrogen
HCO3 1 Sulphite SO3 2
carbonate
Hydrogen sulphate HSO4 1 Sulphide S 2
hydroxide OH 1 Phosphate PO4 3
Nitrate NO3 1
Nitrite NO2 1
Permanganate MnO4 1

42
 FORMATION OF CHEMICAL FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS BY
VALENCES

[A] Formulae of compounds are formed by exchange of valen+ces by reacting elements or

radical. This takes place when the valences of the reacting substances are not equal.

Example

Write down the formulae of the following compounds:

[i] Sodium carbonate;

[ii] Aluminium chloride;

Solutions

[i ] Sodium carbonate : Na CO3 Na1 CO3 2 Na2CO3

[ii] aluminium chloride : Al Cl Al3 Cl1 AlCl3

[B] Sometimes formulae of compounds are formed by cancelling each others valences. This
occurs when valences are equal.

Example

Write down the formulae of the following compounds :

[i ] Sodium chloride ;

[ii] Calcium carbonate ;

Solution

[i] Sodium chloride : Na Cl Na1 Cl1 NaCl

[ii] Calcium carbonate : Ca CO3 Ca2 CO3 2 CaCO3

Compounds are formed in the following combinations:

Metal + non-metal

Metal + non-metallic radical

Metallic radical + non-metal

43
 Metallic radical + non-metallic radical

Examples

What is the number of each kind of atom and the total number of atoms in the
following compounds?

(NH4)2SO4 , Ca3(PO4)2 , H2O2 , Na2S2O3 , Ca(OH)2.

Solutions

Total
P
Compound N H S O Ca Na number
atoms
formula atoms atoms atoms atoms atoms atoms of
atoms
(NH4)2SO4 2 8 1 4 0 0 0 15
Ca3(PO4)2 0 0 0 8 3 0 2 13
H2O2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 4
Na2S2O3 0 0 2 3 0 2 0 7
Ca(OH)2 0 2 0 2 1 0 0 5

WORD EQUATIONS

A word equation is a statement describing a chemical reaction by showing

reactants and products using actual names of reacting substances and products. Reactants
are substances present at the beginning of the reaction while products are substances
present at the end of the reaction.

When writing a word or chemical equation, reactants are put on the left side
and products on the right side of the equation with an arrow between to show the
direction of reaction. Below are some examples of word equations;

Calcium + water calcium hydroxide + hydrogen gas.

44
 Calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + water + hydrogen gas.

Iron + sulphur iron sulphide.

Sulphur dioxide + oxygen sulphur trioxide.

Iron + chlorine iron (iii) chloride.

Zinc + hydrochloric acid zinc chloride + hydrogen gas.

Sodium hydroxide + sulphuric acid sodium sulphate + water.

Copper (ii) oxide + hydrochloric acid copper (ii) chloride + water.

Lead (ii) nitrate + hydrochloric acid lead (ii) chloride + nitric acid.

Calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

A chemical equation is statement describing a chemical reaction or chemical

change by showing the reactants and products using symbols and formulae. The
statement below is an example of a chemical equation;

Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)

This means that one atom of iron in solid form reacts with one atom of
sulphur in solid form to produce one molecule of iron (ii) sulphide in solid form.

BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

This the process of making the number and kind of atoms equal on both sides
of a chemical equation.

PROCEDURE WHEN BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

[1] Write unbalance chemical equation then rewrite it and balance the second one.

[2] Once a chemical equation has been constructed, do not put a number in between or at
the end formula or atom. This will change the actual name or formula of a reactant or
product.
45
[3] Start balancing by placing a number in front ( always ) of an atom or formula starting
with the most complicated atom and where there are less number of such atoms.

[4] Start balancing using numbers from 2, 3, 4 etc using trial and error.

[5] Study and understand how compounds are formed by valences before attempting
balancing of equation.

Examples

Balance the following chemical equations:

[i] Na(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

[ii] SO2(g) + O2(g) SO3(g)

[iii] Fe(s) + Cl2(g) FeCl3(s)

Solutions

[i] Na(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

2Na(s) + 2H20(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

[ii] SO2(g) + O2(g) SO3(g)

2SO(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

[iii] Fe(s) + Cl2(g) FeCl3(s)

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

STATE SYMBOLS

State symbols are small letters shown in brackets at the end of each atom or
chemical formula that tells the form in which each substance is reacting. The small
letters shown in brackets in the examples of balancing equations shown above are
examples of state symbols.

[i] (s) means the substance is in solid state in this reaction.

[ii] (l) means the substance is in liquid state in this reaction.

[iii] (g) means the substance is in gaseous state in this particular reaction.

(iv] (aq) means the substance is in aqueous state or is dissolved in water in this rteaction.

46
TABLE OF COMMON COMPOUNDS AND THEIR STATE SYMBOLS AT ROOM
TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE ( R.T.P.)

Compound
Formula State Compound Formula State

Ammonium
NH4Cl (s) Lead (ii) oxide PbO (s)
chloride
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 (s) Lead (iv) oxide PbO2 (s)
Ammonium
(NH4)2SO4 (s) Lead (ii) sulphate PbSO4 (s)
sulphate
Aluminium Magnesium
Al2Cl3 (s) MgCl2 (s)
chloride chloride
Ammonium oxide Al2O3 (s) Magnesium nitrate MgNO3 (s)
Barium oxide BaO (s) Magnesium oxide MgO (s)
Manganese (ii)
Barium chloride BaCl2 (s) MnCl2 (s)
chloride
Manganese (ii)
Barium sulphate BaSO4 (s) Mn(NO3)2 (s)
nitrate
Mercury (ii)
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 (s) HgCl2 (s)
chloride
Calcium chloride CaCl2 (s) Mercury (ii) oxide HgO (s)
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 (s) Nitrogen dioxide NO2 (g)
Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 (s) Nitrogen oxide NO (g)
Calcium oxide CaO (s) Potassium bromide KBr (s)
Carbon monoxide CO (g) Potassium chloride KCl (s)
Potassium
Carbon dioxide CO2 (g) KOH (s)
hydroxide
Copper (ii) Potassium
CuCl2 (s) KMnO4 (s)
chloride permanganate
Silicon dioxide
Copper (ii) nitrate Cu(NO3)2 (s) SiO2 (s)
(quartz)
Copper (ii) oxide CuO (s) Silver bromide AgBr (s)
Copper (ii)
CuSO4 (s) Silver chloride AgCl (s)
sulphate

47
 Hydrogen bromide HBr (g) Silver nitrate AgNO3 (s)
Hydrogen chloride HCl (g) Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 (s)
Hydrogen iodide HI (g) Sodium chloride NaCl (s)
Hydrogen
H2O2 (l) Sodium sulphate Na2SO4 (s)
peroxide
Hydrogen sulphide H2S (g) Sodium oxide Na2O (s)
Hydrogen oxide Sodium
H2O (l) Na2S2O3 (s)
(water) thiosulphate
Iron (ii) chloride FeCl2 (s) Sulphur dioxide SO2 (g)
Iron (iii) chloride FeCl3 (s) Sulphur trioxide SO3 (g)
Iron (ii) sulphate FeSO4 (s) Sulphuric acid (dil) H2SO4 (aq)
Iron (ii) sulphide FeS (s) Zinc chloride ZnCl2 (s)
Lead (ii) bromide PbBr2 (s) Zinc oxide ZnO (s)
Lead (ii) nitrate Pb(NO3)2 (s) Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 (s)

NOTE

Most of the substances shown above become aqueous (aq) when they react with a
liquid or when in an aqueous solution.

IONIC EQUATIONS

An ionic equation is statement which shows how substances react together by

means of ions or charges.

PROCEDURE WHEN WRITING IONIC EQUATION

[1] A chemical equation must be well balanced.

[2] Elementary atoms and diatomic molecules in uncombined state are not ionized.

[3] Gases and liquids are never ionized.

48
[4] Solids formed as a result of precipitation reaction are never ionized.

[5] Reactant solids reacting with aqueous solutions are ionized.

[6] Charges or ions found on both sides of a chemical equation are cancelled out. These
ions are called spectator ions and are present before and after a chemical reaction.
These do not take part in a chemical reaction.

[7] The charges possessed by an atom or radical equals the valence possessed by an atom
or radical. (See the table of elements and radical together with their valencies).

[8] The charges on both sides of a chemical equation must balance.

Examples

Write down the ionic equations of the following chemical equations:

[a] Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl(aq) + H2(g)

[b] 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) NaSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

[c] CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

[d] Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

[e] Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Solutions

[a] Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl(aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + 2H+ (aq) +2Cl(aq) Zn2+(aq) +2Cl(aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2(g).

[b] 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l)

2OH-(aq) + 2H+(aq) 2H2O(l)

OH-(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l)

[c] CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

49
 Cu2+(s) + O2-(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl -(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

O2-(s) + 2H+(aq) H2O(l)

[d] Pb(NO)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) PbCl(s)

[e] Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42+(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2NaO3-(aq)

Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s)

EMPIRICAL (OR SIMPLE) FORMULA

The empirical formula or simple formula of a compound is the simplest formula

which expresses its composition by mass. Whether given percentage composition or
masses of elements in a compound, the procedure followed to calculate the empirical
formula of a compound is the same.

PROCEDURE WHEN CALCULATING EMPIRICAL FORMULA OF A

COMPOUND

[1] Write down the elements that are present in a compound using their symbols.

[2] Write down the magnitudes of the percentage composition or masses given of each
element underneath their symbols.

[3] Divide the percentage composition or mass given of each element by the relative
atomic mass (R.A.M.) of each element.

[4] The quotients obtained above, are then divided by the smallest number between or
among them.

50
[5] The numbers obtained in [4] above indicates the number of atoms of each element
present in a compound.

Examples

In each of the following questions, calculate the empirical formula and name the
compound formed:

[a] Sodium = 32.4% , sulphur = 22.5% , and oxygen = 45.1%.

[b] 2.00g of mercury reacting with 0.71g of chlorine.

Solutions

[a] Elements (atoms) present Na S O

Percentage by mass 32.4 22.5 45.1

32.4 22.5 45.1
Divide by R.A.M. 23 32 16

1.41 0.70 2.82

1.41 0.70 2.82
Divide by smallest number
0.70 0.70 0.70

2 1 4

Therefore, the simplest formula is : Na2SO4 . The name of the compound is sodium
sulphate.

[b] Elements present Hg Cl

Masses given 2.0 0.71

2.0 0.71
Divide by R.A.M. 201 35.5

0.01 0.02
0.01 0.02
Divide by smallest number 0.01 0.01

1 2

The empirical formula is : HgCl2. The compound is mercury chloride.

51
 MOLECULAR FORMULA

The molecular formula of a compound is the chemical formula which shows

the actual number of atoms present in one molecule of a compound.

HOW TO CALCULATE THE MOLECULAR FORMULA OF A COMPOUND

[1] The relative molecular mass (R.M.M.) of a compound must be given either indirectly
or directly.

[2] The following formulae are used :

[a] ( Empirical formula )X = relative molecular mass.

Where x = a small whole number.

[b] Molecular formula = ( empirical formula )X.

Example

Calculate the molecular formula of a compound whose empirical formula is HO and

its relative molecular mass of 34.

Solution

( ) =

() = 34

(1 + 16) = 34

17 = 34
17 34
=
17 17

= 2

Molecular formula = ( empirical formula )X

= (HO)2

= H2O2

The compound H2O2 is called hydrogen peroxide.

52
 NOTE 1

Sometimes you may be required to calculate the empirical formula before you calculate
the molecular formula.

TASK

Calculate the molecular formulae of each of the following and name the compound in
each case;

[a] A hydrocarbon containing 82.8% by mass of carbon and having a relative molecular
mass of 58.

[b] Carbon = 80% , hydrogen = 20% , relative molecular mass = 30.

[c] hydrogen = 5.9% , oxygen = 94.1% , relative molecular mass = 34.

[d] Carbon = 38.75% , hydrogen = 16.1% , nitrogen = 45.2% , R.M.M. = 31.

NOTE 2

Molecular formula can only be used for molecular compounds. For ionic substances,
empirical formula is the only one that can be written because ionic substances have no
molecules.

NOTE 3

Molecular substances can have both empirical formula and molecular. For example in
the table below;

Compound Empirical formula Molecular formula

Water H2O H2O
Hydrogen peroxide HO H2O2
Nitrogen dioxide NO2 N2O4
Glucose CH2O C6H12O6

53
 MOLECULES

A molecule is a group of atoms covalently bonded together and exist own its
own. Examples of molecules are all covalent compounds and compounds shown in the
table above.

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS AND MOLAR MASS

The relative molecular mass ( R.M.M. or Mr ) is the sum of relative atomic

masses of the atoms in a molecule. When referring to ionic compounds, the terms
usually used are relative formula mass or relative mass or formula mass molar mass.
This so because ionic compounds do not contain molecules. See examples below;

Substance Name Total number

NaCl Relative (formula) mass or molar mass 23+35.5 = 58.5
NaOH Relative (formula) mass or molar mass 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
H2O Relative molecular mass 2 + 16 = 18
O2 Relative molecular mass 16 + 16 = 32

NOTE

Relative (formula) mass or molar mass of a compound has no units, its simply a
number. But one mole of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) = 40g and the mass of one mole
of NaOH = 40g mole.

Similarly, mass of one mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) = 58.5g mole and its
molar mass = 58.5, but one mole of NaCl = 58.5g.

CALCULATION OF PERCENTAGE OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND

[1] Calculate the sum of relative atomic mass ( R.A.M) of an element in a compound.

[2] Calculate the relative molecular mass ( R.M.M) or molar mass (M.M) of the whole
compound.

54
[3] Then apply the formula;

% (element) = 100%

Example

Calculate the percentage of nitrogen in ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).

Solution

Ar N = 14, H = 1, O = 16.

N = 14 X 1 = 14

H = 4X1 = 4

N = 14 X 1 = 14

O = 16 X 3 = 48

Total is = 80

Sum of R.A.M. of N = 14 + 14 = 28
28
% of N in NH4NO3 = 100%
80

% of N in NH4NO3 = 35%.

THE MOLE

The mole is the amount of substance which contains as many particles as there
are atoms in 12g of carbon 12 isotope. The number of moles is given by the following
formulae

# of moles = , for ionic compounds OR

# of moles = , for elements expressed as atoms OR

# of moles = ()
, for molecules.

55
 AVOGADRO CONSTANT

The Avogadro constant ,N, is the number used to show how many atoms,
molecules, ions, protons or electrons there are in 1 mole of a substance. Hence

1 mole of a substance = 6 x 1023 atoms OR

= 6 x 1023 molecules OR

= 6 x 1023 ions OR

= 6 x 1023 protons OR

= 6 x 1023 electrons OR

= 6 x 1023 particles.

Example

Calculate the number of molecules in 4.4g of carbon dioxide.

Solutions

R.M.M. of CO2 = 12 + (16 x 2) = 12 + 32 = 44g/mole, m = 4.4g

4.4
# of moles of CO2 =
44/

# of moles of CO2 = 0.1mole CO2.

1 mole of CO2 = 6 X 1023 molecules

0.1 mole of CO2 = U.

0.1 61023
U = 1

U = 6 1022 .

VOLUME OF GASES MEASURED AT ROOM TEMPERATURE AND

PRESSURE (R.T.P.)

At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.), one mole of any gas has a volume of
24dm or 24litres or 24000cm3.
3

Examples

[1] Calculate the number of moles in 48dm3 of carbon dioxide at r.t.p.

56
[2] How many molecules are there in 96dm3 of hydrogen gas at r.t.p.?

Solutions

[1] 1 mole of CO2 at r.t.p. = 24dm3

U moles of CO2 at r.t.p. = 48dm3

1 483
U moles of CO2 = 243

U mole of CO2 = 2 moles CO2.

[2] 1 mole of H2 at r.t.p. = 24dm3

U moles of H2 at r.t.p. = 96dm3

1 963
U moles of H2 = 243

U moles of H2 = 4 moles H2.

1 mole of H2 = 6 x 1023 molecules

4 moles of H2 = U
4 61023
U = 1

U = 2.4 1024 .

CALCULATIONS FROM BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

Consider the balanced chemical equation shown below:

2H2(g) + O2 (g) 2H2O(l)

The chemical equation shown above means:

[a] 2 molecules of hydrogen gas reacts with 1 molecule of oxygen gas to produce 2
molecules of water.

[b] 2 moles of hydrogen gas reacts with 1 mole of oxygen gas to produce 2 moles of
water.

57
[c] 4g of hydrogen gas react with 32g of oxygen gas to produce 36g of water.

Examples

[1] What mass of carbon dioxide will be produced when 4g carbon is burnt in excess
oxygen?

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

1 mole 1 mole 1 mole

Solutions

Actual mole of carbon = mass/molar mass = 4g/12g/mole = 0.33 mole of carbon.

Actual moles of CO2 : C CO2

1 mole 1 mole

0.33 mole U
0.33 1
U = 1

U = 0.33moles CO2.

Mass of CO2 = moles X R.M.M.

Mass of CO2 = 0.33 44/

Mass of CO2 = 14.52g CO2.

[2] What is the volume of at r.t.p. of hydrogen produced when 4g of magnesium is

reacted with excess hydrochloric acid?

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl(aq) + H2(g)

1 mole 2 moles 1 mole 1mole

Actual moles of Mg =

4
Actual moles of Mg = 24/

Actual moles of Mg = 0.167 moles Mg.

58
 Actual moles of H2 : Mg H2

1 mole 1 mole

0.167 mole U
0.167 1
U = 1

U = 0.167 moles H2.

1 mole of H2 at r.t.p. = 24dm3

0.167 mole of H2 at r.t.p. = U

0.167 243
U = 1

U = 4dm3.

[3] A pupil allowed calcium carbonate to react with dilute hydrochloric acid. The chemical
equation is as shown below:

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

[a] What mass of calcium chloride will be produced from 200g of calcium carbonate?

[b] How many molecules of carbon dioxide can be produced from 200g of calcium
carbonate?

Solutions

Data :

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

1 mole 2 moles 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole

R.M.M. (CaCO3) = 40 + 12 + (16 X 3)

= 52 + 48

= 100g/mole CaCO3.

R.M.M. (CaCl2) = 40 + (35.5 X 2)

= 40 + 71

= 111g/mole CaCl2.

59
 R.M.M. (CO2) = 12 + (16 X 2)

= 12 + 32

= 44g/mole CO2.

[a] mass of CaCl2 that reacted from 200g CaCO3

CaCO3 CaCl2

100g 111g

200g U
200 111
U = 100

U = 222g CaCl2.

[b] Number of molecules of CO2 that reacted from 200g CaCO3

CaCO3 CO2

100g 44 molecules

200g U
200 44
U = 100

U = 88 molecules.

CALCULTION OF MASS OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND USING

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASSES

Sometimes the mass of a given element in a compound can be calculated by

converting the relative atomic masses of elements in a compound into grams.

Example

The formula of copper (i) oxide is Cu2O. how many grams of oxygen are combined
with 64g of copper in this compoumd?

60
 Solutions

Elements present in copper (i) oxide: Cu O

Total relative atomic masses each elment: 2 X 64 = 128g 1X16=16g

128g 16g

64g U

64 16
U = 128

U = 8g oxygen.

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

[1] ACIDS

An acid is a compound which when dissolved in water produces hydrogen ions

as the only positively charged ions. Examples of acids includes hydrochloric acid (HCl),
sulphuric acid ( H2SO4 ), nitric acid ( HNO3 ), sulphurus acid ( H2SO3 ), carbonic acid
( H2CO3 ), phosphoric acid ( H3PO4 ), acetic or ethanoic acid ( CH3COOH ), nitrous acid
( HNO2 ) etc. Below are some examples of acids and the ions they produce in water.

Acid Ions produced

HCl H+ Cl-

H2SO4 2H+ SO42-

HNO3 H+ NO3-

H2SO3 2H+ SO32-

H2CO3 2H+ CO32+

H3PO4 3H+ PO43-

CH3COOH H+ CH3COO-

HNO2 H+ NO2-

61
 TYPES OF ACID

[A] STRONG ACIDS

A strong acid is an acid that ionizes completely when in water. Examples of

such acids are hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid etc.

[B] WEAK ACIDS

A weak acid is an acid that ionizes slightly when in water. Examples of such
acids includes carbonic acid, ethanoic acid, phosphoric acid, sulphurus acid, nitrous acid
etc.

Half double arrows are used for weak acids because they can form back the
reactants once products are formed, but for strong acids, full single arrows are used.

BASICITY OF ACIDS

The basicity of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions formed by one mole of
an acid. Below are some acids and their basicities.

Acid Chemical formula basicity Name

Hydrochloric acid HCl 1 Monobasic acid
Nitric acid HNO3 1 Monobasic acid
nitrous acid HNO2 1 Monobasic acid
Acetic acid CH3COOH 1 Monobasic acid
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 2 Dibasic acid
Sulphurus acid H2SO3 2 Dibasic acid
Carbonic acid H2CO3 2 Dibasic acid
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 3 Tribasic acid

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

[A] PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

(i) They have a sharp sour taste.

62
(ii) They turn blue litmus paper red.

(iii) They turn methyl orange red.

(iv) Phenolphthalein is turned colourless.

(v) Weak acids turn litmus paper pink.

[B] CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

(i) Acids reacts with metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series to liberate hydrogen.

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl(aq) + H2(g)

(ii) Acids react with bases to form a salt and water only.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

(iii) Acids reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form a salt, water and
carbon dioxide.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

PREPARATION OF ACIDS

[A] An acid can be prepared by dissolving an acid anhydride in water. An acid anhydride
is an acidic oxide of a non-metal. For example ,when sulphur dioxide is dissolved in
water, sulphurus acid is formed.

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) (sulphurus acid).

Similarly, when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water, carbonic acid is formed.

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) (carbonic acid).

[B] An acid can be prepared by displacing a weak acid from its salt using a stronger acid.
For example, when concentrated sulphuric acid is reacted with sodium chloride,
hydrochloric acid is produced.

63
 NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) NaHSO4(s) + HCl(l)

Similarly, when concentrated sulphuric acid is reacted with potassium nitrate,

nitric acid is produced.

KNO3(s) + H2SO4(l) KHSO4(s) + HNO3(l)

[C] An acid for example hydrochloric acid can be produced by synthesis. Synthesis is direct
combination of gases.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) HCl(g).

[2] BASES

A base is an oxide or hydroxide of a metal ( or ammonium ) that reacts with

an acid to form a salt and water only.

TYPES OF BASE

[A] INSOLUBLE BASE

An insoluble base is an oxide or hydroxide of a metal that does not dissolve in

water. Examples of such bases includes copper (ii) oxide (CuO), copper (iii) oxide
(Cu2O3), iron (iii) oxide (Fe2O3), iron (iii) hydroxide [Fe(OH)3], zinc hydroxide
[Zn(OH)2], etc.

Calcium oxide (CaO), calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2]

and magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] are slightly soluble.

[B] SOLUBLE BASE

A soluble base is an oxide or hydroxide of a metal that dissolves in water. The

solution formed is alkaline.

ALKALI

An alkali is a compound which when dissolved in water produces hydroxide

ions as the only negatively charged ions or is simply a soluble base. Examples of such
bases includes calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2], sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium
hydroxide (KOH) ,ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH) etc.

64
 PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS

[a] PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

(I) They have a bitter taste.

(ii) They turn red litmus paper blue.

(iii) They turn methyl orange yellow.

(iv) They turn phenolphthalein pink.

THE pH SCALE

The pH scale is the scale of numbers from 0 to 14 that expresses acidity and
alkalinity of solutions. On this scale, acidity values range from 0 to 6 while alkaline
values ranges from 8 to 14. Neutral values are at 7. The diagram below shows the pH
scale.

Acidity increases alkalinity increases

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

[b] CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

(i) Alkalis neutralize acids. Neutralization is the reaction between an oxide or hydroxide
ion of a metal and the hydrogen ion from an acid to form water. [Refer to examples
[b] and [c] under examples of ionic equations where water is formed by the reaction
between OH- , O2- ions from beses (alkalis) and H+ ions from an acid].

(ii) When alkalis are warmed (heated) with ammonium salts, ammonia gas is liberated. For
example, when calcium hydroxide is heated with ammonium chloride, ammonia gas is
liberated.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

(iii) Alkali solutions precipitates hydroxides of less reactive metals from their salt solutions.
For example when sodium hydroxide solution is added to a solution of copper (ii)
sulphate, a blue jelly-like precipitate of copper (ii) hydroxide solution is formed.

CuSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + NaSO4(aq)

65
 Similarly, when ammonium hydroxide solution is added to a solution of iron (iii)
chloride, a brick red precipitate of iron (iii) hydroxide is formed.

FeCl3(aq) + 3NH4OH(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NH4Cl(aq)

PREPARATION OF BASES

[a] SOLUBLE OXIDES

(i) These are prepared by burning the most electropositive metals in the reactivity series
such as sodium and magnesium in air or oxygen.

Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O(s)

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

(ii) Heating calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide strongly to produce soluble calcium
oxide.

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Ca(OH)2(s) CaO(s) + H2O(g)

NOTE

Only the most electropositive metals in the reactivity series form soluble oxides.

[b] INSOLUBLE OXIDES

(I) Heating metals such copper and iron in air.

2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)

(ii) Decomposition of carbonates by heat with the exception of metallic carbonates sodium
and potassium.

ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

CuCO3(s) CuCO3(s) + CO2(g)

(iii) Decomposition of metallic hydroxides by heat.

Zn(OH)2(s) ZnO(s) + H2O(g)

66
 Cu(OH)2(s) CuO(s) + H2O(g)

(iv) Action of steam on metals. For example iron (ii) oxide magnesium oxide can be
prepared in this way.

Fe(s) + H2O(g) FeO(s) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(S) + H2(g)

[c] SOLUBLE HYDROXIDES

(i) Action of the most electropositive metals such as potassium, sodium calcium on water.

2Na(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

2K(s) + H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

Ca(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

(ii) Dissolving the basic oxide in water.

Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)

[d] NISOLUBLE HYDROXIDES

Insoluble hydroxides can be prepared indirectly by precipitation. For example copper (ii)
hydroxide can be prepared by the reaction between either copper (ii) sulphate or
copper (ii) chloride and potassium hydroxide.

CuSO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + K2SO4(aq)

CuCl(aq) + 2KOH(aq) Cu(OH)2(s) + 2KCl(aq)

[3] SALTS

A salt is a compound which consists of positive metallic ions (or ammonium

ions) and negative metallic ions derived from an acid. Or a salt can defined as a
compound formed when either all or part of the ionisable hydrogen of an acid is
replaced by a metallic ion or ammonium ion.

67
 TYPES OF SALT

[A] NORMAL SALT

A normal salt is the salt formed when the negative ion of a salt is not capable
of further ionization. Examples of such salts includes copper (ii) sulphate, ammonium
chloride sodium sulphate etc.

[B] ACID SALT

An acid salt is the salt formed when the negative of a salt is capable of
further ionization. Examples of such salts includes sodium hydrogen sulphate (NaHSO 4),
sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3), calcium hydrogen carbonate [Ca(HCO3)2] etc.

Dibasic and tribasic acids are capable of forming normal and acid salts while
monobasic acids from normal salts. For example, when sulphuric acid is reacted with
sodium hydroxide, it is capable of forming either acid or normal salt, depending on the
concentration and volume of the acid.

NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(l) NaHSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE SALTS

Salt Solubility
Salts of sodium, potassium
All are soluble.
and ammonium
All are insoluble except potassium, sodium and
Carbonates.
ammonium carbonates.
All are soluble except silver chloride and lead
Chlorides
chlorides.
Nitrates All are soluble.
All are soluble except barium sulphate and lead
Sulphates
sulphate. Calcium sulphate is only slightly soluble.

68
 METHODS OF PREPARING SALTS

[1] PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS

Soluble salts are prepared by the action of soluble base, insoluble base, metals or
carbonates on acids.

[A] (I) PREPARATION OF SODIUM CHLORIDE BY TITRATION

Sodium chloride can be prepared by titration method. This is first done by

pipetting out 25cm3 of 0.1M sodium hydroxide solution into a conical flask. Then 2
or 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator is added to the solution. Thereafter, 0.1M
hydrochloric acid is put in a buratte and its initial level is noted and recorded.

Then carefully, the acid is run into an alkali drop by drop at a time until the
indicator just changes from pink to colourless. The volume of the acid used is then
calculated by subtracting initial reading from the final reading and this is the acid used
to neutralize the alkali and is called the titre.

The resulting solution is then placed on the evaporating dish and heated
carefully until crystals start to form. Then the heat is removed and allow the resulting
solution to cool by evaporation and leave the white crystals behind. The white crystals
are called sodium chloride crystals.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

(ii) PREPARATION OF POTASSIUM NITRATE CRYSTALS

By using the similar method as above, potassium nitrate can be prepared. This
can be done by pipetting out 25cm3 of 0.1M of potassium hydroxide in a conical
flask using 0.1M nitric acid which is run from the burette until a titre volume is
reached. Methyl orange or phenolphthalein can be used as an indicator.

After neutralization and then evaporation as in the description in [A] (i) above,
crystals of potassium nitrate are obtained.

KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

69
[B] PREPARATION OF COPPER (II) CHLORIDE

Copper (II) chloride is prepared by pouring some dilute hydrochloric acid in a

beaker and heating it gently. Thereafter, some black copper (II) oxide powder is then
dissolved in the hot acid a little at a time. Copper (II) oxide powder is added
continuously in the hot acid until it is in excess.

The mixture is then filtered and the filtrate is concentrated and crystallized in
the usual way. The crystals obtained are copper(II) chloride salt.

CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

[C] (I) PREPARATION OF ZINC SULPHATE

Zinc sulphate is prepared by adding excess zinc metal to dilute sulphuric acid
in a beaker. After the effervescence has ceased, the solution is then filtered. The filtrate
is then heated gently to concentrate it. The solution is then removed from the heat and
is allowed to cool and crystals to form. Filter off any excess liquid and allow the
crystals to dry on the filter paper.

The crystals formed are zinc sulphate.

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

ZnSO4(aq) + 7H2O(l) ZnSO4 . 7H2O(s)

(II) PREPARATION OF MAGNESIUM AND IRON (II) SULPHATE

Using the same method, iron (II) sulphate crystals (green) and magnesium
sulphate (white) can be prepared.

In both cases, iron (II) sulphate and magnesium sulphate are obtained
respectively.

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

MgSO4(aq) + 7H2O(l) MgSO4 . 7H2O(s)

70
 Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)

FeSO4(aq) + 7H2O(l) FeSO4 . 7H2O(s)

Other dilute acids like hydrochloric acid would produce similar soluble salts of
their respective metals.

[D] PREPARATION OF LEAD (II) NITRATE

Lead (II) nitrate is prepared by first pouring some dilute nitric acid in a beaker
and heating it gently. Then lead (II) carbonate is added to the warm acid a little at a
time until there is no further effervescence and excess solid is visible in the resulting
solution. Then the solution is filtered, and the filtrate is concentrated and crystallized.
The crystals obtained are lead (II) nitrate salt.

PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Other carbonates such as zinc and calcium carbonates can be prepared using the
same method.

[2] PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS precipitation by double decomposition.

Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation by double decomposition.

Precipitation by doudle decomposition is the process whereby an insoluble salt is
prepared from solutions of two suitable soluble salts.

[A] PREPARATION OF CALCIUM SULPHATE

Calcium sulphate is prepared by first pouring a solution of calcium nitrate in a

beaker. Then a solution of sodium sulphate is added to calcium nitrate in a beaker and
stirred. The supernatant liquid is then filtered. The white insoluble precipitate, calcium
sulphate remains on the filter paper.

Ca(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

71
[B] PREPARATION OF LEAD (II) CHLORIDE

Lead (II) chloride is prepared by adding a solution of potassium chloride to that

of lead (II) nitrate in a beaker. The supernatant liquid is then filtered leaving behind
the insoluble lead (II) chloride precipitate on the filter paper.

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

The insoluble salts are separated by filtration. Other insoluble salts obtained in
this way are silver chloride, copper carbonate, barium sulphate and calcium carbonate.`

OXIDES

An oxide is a compound consisting of oxygen and another element either a

metal or a non-metal.

PRODUCTION OF OXIDES

Oxides are produced when;

[A] An element is heated in air or oxygen.

2CuO(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)

S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

2H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)

[B] A metallic hydroxide, carbonate or nitrate is heated.

Pb(OH)2(s) PbO(s) + H2O(g)

ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

2Cu(NO3)2(s) 2CuO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

72
 CLASSIFICATION OF OXIDES

[A] BASIC OXIDES

Basic oxides are oxides of metals. Examples of such oxides includes calcium
oxides, magnesium oxide, sodium oxide etc. Basic oxides reacts with acids to form a
salt and water only. Oxides of metals higher in the reactivity such as lithium,
potassium, sodium, calcium etc, react with water to form alkalis. Some insoluble basic
oxides such as iron (III) oxide do not react with water and not affect the litmus paper.

[B] ACIDIC OXIDES

Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals. Acidic oxides are sometimes referred to
as acid anhydrides. Examples of acid anhydrides includes sulphur dioxide, sulphur
trioxide, carbon dioxide, phosphorus (V) oxide (P2O5) etc.

Acidic oxides react with bases or alkalis to form a salt and water only.

2NaOH(aq) + SO3(g) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Acid anhydrides form acids when mixed with water.

SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

Dinitrogen tetraoxide is mixed anhydride because it forms two acids with water.

N2O4(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)

[C] AMPHOTERIC OXIDES

Amphoteric oxides are oxides with both acidic and basic properties. They include
oxides of aluminium, zinc and lead. They form salts with acids.

ZnO(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl(aq) + H2O(l)

73
[D] NEUTRAL OXIDES

Neutral oxides are oxides with neither acidic nor basic properties. They usually
the lower oxides of non-metals. These are water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO),
dinitrogen oxide (N2O), nitrogen oxide (NO) etc.

OXIDATION NUMBERS

These are numbers assigned to an atom, molecule or compound on whether they

gain or lose electrons.

RULES WHEN ASSIGNING OXIDATION NUMBERS

[1] The oxidation number of free neutral atoms in an uncombined state is 0.

[2] In neutral molecules, the algebraic sum of the oxidation numbers is equal to 0.

[3] In ionic compounds, the oxidation states are the charges of the ions. For example, the
oxidation numbers of Cl-, Fe2+ and Fe3+ are -1, +2 and +3 respectively.

[4] The oxidation number of hydrogen in all compounds except metal hydrides is +1 and
the oxidation of oxygen in all compounds except in peroxides and OF2 is -2.

Examples

Find the oxidation numbers of the following underlined elements in the following.

[1] NH3 [2] Na [3] SO42- [4] Cr2O72- [5] Fe3+

Solutions

[1] NH3 [2] Na [3] SO42-

N + (1 X 3) = 0 Na = 0 S + (-2 X 4) = -2

N+3 = 0 S - 8 = -2

N = -3 S = -2 + 8

S = +6

74
[4] Cr2O72- [5] Fe3+

Cr2 + (-2 X 7) = -2 Fe3+ = +3

Cr2 + (-14) = -2

Cr2 - 14 = -2

Cr2 = -2 + 14

Cr2 = 12

Cr = +6

REDOX REACTIONS

A redox reaction is the one in which both reduction and oxidation are taking
place at the same place. Red- stands for reduction and Ox-stands for oxidation. Redox
can be defined in terms oxygen, hydrogen, electrons and oxidation number or state.

DEFINITIONS OF REDOX

In terms
Oxidation Reduction
of.
Is the addition of oxygen to a Is the removal of oxygen from a
Oxygen
chemical substance. compound.
Is the removal of hydrogen Is the addition of hydrogen to a
Hydrogen
from a compound. chemical substance.
Is the loss of electrons by a Is the gain of electrons by a
Electrons
chemical substance. chemical substance.
Oxidation Is the increase in oxidation Is the decrease in oxidation
number or number or state by a chemical number or state by chemical
state substance. substance.

75
 EXAMPLES OF OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTIONS

[A] IN TERMS OF OXYGEN

(I) 2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s) (oxidation)

(II) CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(s) + CO2(g) (redox)

In equation [A] (I), the reaction is oxidation because oxygen has been added to
copper oxidizing it to copper (II) oxide. In terms of oxidation number, the equation [A]
(I) is redox because there are changes in oxidation numbers of copper and oxygen.
In equation [A] (II), the reaction is redox because oxygen has been removed
from copper (II) oxide reducing it to copper at the same time, oxygen is added to
carbon monoxide oxidizing it to carbon dioxide.

[B] IN TERMS OF HYDROGEN

(I) 2Na(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2(g) (oxidation)

(II) Cl2(g) + H2(g) 2HCl(g) (reduction)

In equation [B] (I), hydrochloric acid has been oxidized to hydrogen gas by
removing hydrogen from it (hydrochloric acid).

In equation [B] (II), chlorine has been reduced to hydrogen chloride gas by
addition of hydrogen to it (chlorine). In terms of oxidation numbers, both reactions
above are redox because there are changes in oxidation numbers of sodium, chlorine
and hydrogen.

NOTE

There are two types of oxidation namely oxidation of an element and oxidation of a
compound.

[C] IN TERMS OF ELECTRONS AND OXIDATION NUMBERS

2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)

2Mg(s)0 + O2(g)0 2Mg+2 O-2(s) (redox)

The chemical equation above is redox reaction because magnesium has been
oxidized to magnesium ions by the loss of electrons while the oxygen atoms have

76
 been reduced to oxide ions by the gain of electrons. [Refer to dot and cross diagrams
of ionic compounds].

On the other hand, magnesium has been oxidized because its oxidation number
has increased from 0 to +2 and oxygen has been reduced because the oxidation
number has reduced from 0 to -2.

OXIDIZING AGENTS

An oxidizing agent is a substance which brings about oxidation of another

substance in the process itself gets reduced. Examples of oxidizing agents are oxygen,
ozone (O3), chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, manganese dioxide
(MnO2), metal dioxides and nitrates.

REDUCING AGENTS

A reducing agent is a substance which brings about reduction of another

substance and in the process itself gets oxidized. Examples of reducing agents are
sulphur dioxide, hydrogen gas, carbon, carbon monoxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, and
most metals in powder form.

TASK

Use the following chemical equation to answer the questions that follow:

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

[a] Is the chemical equation above a redox reaction or not?

[b] If it is a redox reaction, which substance is..

(I) oxidized;

(II) reduced;

(III) an oxidizing agent;

(IV) a reducing agent?

77
 AIR AND WATER

[A] AIR

Air is a mixture of different gases. The different gases found in air are nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases, water vapour etc.

The table below shows the composition of air and the percentage of gases in it.

Gas Percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Noble gases 1%
Water vapour Variable

AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the introduction of toxic or harmful substances into the air. The
toxic substance introduced into the air is called a pollutant. Pollutants interferes with
metabolic processes of living organisms either chemically or physically.

The table below shows some of pollutants of air, their source and adverse
effects on living and non-living organisms.

Pollutant Source Effects

It prevents transportation of
From incomplete combustion of
Carbon oxygen in the blood. It does so
carbon containing compounds eg
monoxide by forming a stable compound
engines of vehicles and blast
(CO) with haemoglobin leaving oxygen
furnace.
with no transport.

78
 Sulphur
From combustion of fossil fuels See adverse effects of acidic
dioxide
containing sulphur compounds. rainfall.
(SO2)
From the combination of nitrogen
Nitrogen
and oxygen in cylinders of car They form cumulative poison in
oxide
engines. tissues of living organisms.
(NO)
From car exhaust gases.
Lead (I) From car exhaust gases.
oxide or From lead tetraethyl in cars of
They form cumulative poison in
lead engines. Lead tetraethyl is added
tissues of living organisms.
monoxide to petrol as an inhibitor to
(Pb2O) prevent knocking of the engine.

Other pollutants of air includes asbestos and cement dust.

ACIDIC RAINFALL

Acidic rainfall are rainfall produced when acid anhydrides combine with rain
water in the atmosphere.
SO2 + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) (sulphurus acid)

CO2(g) + H2O(l) H2CO3(aq) (carbonic acid)

Acid pollutants which are dissolved in rain water to come down as

acidic rainfall have got a lot of adverse effects on iron roofing sheets, munuments,
buildings and vegetation.

ADVERSE EFFECTS OF ACIDIC RAINFALL

[A] Iron roofing sheets of buildings rust very rapidly. This is so because of the presence of
an electrolyte (acidic atmosphere) in rain water.

[B] Munuments made of calcium carbonate dissolve easily in acid rain.

[C] Soil become acidic and hence destroy vegetation. To neutralize the acidic soil, lime is
added to it. This makes the soil better again.

79
 WATER

Water is an essential, universal nature solvent made up of hydrogen and oxygen.

In the laboratory, it is formed when the two gases above react together.

2H2O(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)

USES OF WATER

[A] IN HOMES

(i) For drinking and cooking.

(ii) For bathing and washing.

(iii) For cleaning.

(iv) For watering crops.

[B] IN THE BODY

(i) It aids in the digestion of food.

(ii) It regulates the body temperature.

(iii) It is used in the transportation of food nutrients and waste materials to various
destinations in the body.

[C] IN INDUSTRY

(i) It is used as a solvent.

(ii) It is used in processing plants.

(iii) It is used in the generation of hydro-electric power.

(iv) It is used for cleaning and mixing substances that may include poisonous chemicals.

TEST FOR WATER

The presence of water in a substance can be tested by using anhydrous copper

(II) sulphate which turns from white to blue. An hydrous cobalt chloride paper can
also be used which turns from blue to pink if water is present in that substance.

80
 COMMERCIAL PURIFICATION OF WATER

There is a continuous flow of water in nature. Water evaporates from seas, lakes
rivers and the land, then condenses in the atmosphere and fall as rain. Rain water is
pure, but as it falls through the and soaks into the land, it picks up a variety of
pollutants making it unsafe to drink without treatment.

The figure below shows the main stages in the purification of water at water
works

Covered storage tank

Water in pump

1 to homes & factories

screen

2 pump

3 4 5

STAGE 1 (SCREENING)

The impure water first passed through screens which filter out floating debris.

STAGE 2 (COARSE SAND FILTER)

81
 From screening, water is pumped into the coarse sand filter. Filtration through
the coarse sand traps large, insoluble particles. the sand also contains specially grown
microbes which remove some of the bacteria.

STAGE 3 (SEDIMENTATION)

The clear water obtained by filtration is not pure enough and fine particles
which are not retained by filter beds have to removed. This is done by adding
powdered potash alum (potassium aluminium sulphate) to the water. The addition of
alum encourages fine particles in water to stick together and settle at the bottom of
the sedimentation tank.

STAGE 4 (FINE SAND FILTER)

The particles are removed by further filtration through the fine sand.

STAGE 5 (CHLORINATION)

The clear water that results from the fine sand filter still may contain harmful
bacteria and other microbes. Chlorine in form of gas or powder is then added to the
water to kill any remaining bacteria or to sterilize the water.

STAGE 6 (STORAGE)

Finally the water stored in covered storage tanks. It is pumped to our homes and
factories for consumption or use.

METALS AND NON-METALS

PHYSICAL DIFFERENCES / PROPERTIES OF METALS AND NON-METALS

Metals Non-metals
Are poor conductors of electricity
Are good conductors of electricity.
except carbon in form of graphite.

Are good conductors of heat. Are poor conductors of heat.

Have high melting and boiling Have low melting and boiling
points. points.
When freshly cut they have a Are often dull even when freshly
shinny appearance. cut.

82
 Are lustrous ie can be polished. Are not lustrous.

They have a high tensile strength

They have a low tensile strength.
ie are strong and tough.
Are malleable ie can be beaten
Are not malleable.
into sheets.
Are ductile ie can be made into
Are not ductile.
wire.

They have high densities. They have low densities.

Are sonorous ie they make a sound

Are not sonorous.
when hit.

METALS

A metal is an element (except hydrogen) which forms positive ions by the loss
of electrons. Metals react by electron loss, forming ionic compounds. Examples of
elements includes all elements found on the left hand side of the zig zag line on the
periodic table.

ALLOYS

An alloy is a uniform mixture of two or more substances (usually metals).

WHY ALLOYING OF ELEMENTS IS DONE

Alloying of elements is done in order to improve the;

[a] strength;

[b] appearance;

[c] resistance to wear and corrosion.

The properties of an alloy depends on the way in the different particles in it are

packed.Below are diagrammatic representation of particles in a pure metal and that of an alloy.

83
 EXAMPLES OF ALLOYS

Alloy Composition

Brass Copper and zinc

Bronze Copper and tin

Duralumin Copper and aluminium
Iron, carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, silicon
Cast (or pig iron)
and manganese.
Solder Lead and tin
Steel Iron and carbon
Type metal Lead

REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

Reactivity series of metals is the arrangement of metals in order of their

reaction with water or dilute acids. The most reactive is placed at the top while the
least reactive is placed at the bottom. The reactivity of a metal depends upon on how
it easily loses its outermost electron(s) to form ions. The ions formed have the noble
gas electronic configuration of group eight elements of the periodic table.

REACTION OF SOME METALS WITH WATER

Metal Reaction
Most
Reacts very violently with cold water producing potassium
Reactive Potassium hydroxide (an alkali) and hydrogen gas.
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
metals

84
 Metal Reaction

Reacts vigorously with cold water producing sodium

hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Sodium
2Na(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Reacts fairly vigorously in cold water producing calcium

hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Calcium
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Reacts slowly in cold water, rapid when heated in steam,

producing magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas.
Magnesium
Mg(s) + H2O(l) MgO(S) + H2(g)

No reaction in cold water or steam due to the presence of

Aluminium
protective insoluble oxide layer.

No reaction in cold water, fairly rapid when heated in

steam, producing zinc oxide and hydrogen.
Zinc
Zn(s) + H2O(l) ZnO(s) + H2O(g)

Reacts when heated in steam, producing in iron and

Iron hydrogen gas.
3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + H2(g)
Least Lead
Hydrogen
reactive Copper No reaction in water or steam.
Silver
metals Gold

85
REACTION OF SOME METALS WITH DILUTE HYDROCHLORIC ACID

Metal Reaction
Potassium The two metals are too reactive to be reacted (used) with
Most Sodium dilute hydrochloric acid.
It reacts by producing a rapid effervescence in the cold
reactive
Calcium to form hydrogen gas.
Ca(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
metals
It reacts by producing a rapid effervescence in the cold to
produce hydrogen gas.
Magnesium
Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl(aq) + H2(g)

It reacts slowly in the cold, until an oxide layer is

Aluminium
penetrated, rapid if warmed, hydrogen formed.

It reacts steadly by producing an effervescence to liberate

Zinc hydrogen gas.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl(aq) + H2(g)

It reacts with a slow effervescence in the cold to liberate

Iron hydrogen gas.
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) FeCl(aq) + H2(g)

No reaction, it is just above hydrogen in the reactivity

Lead
series of metals.

All metals above this element with the exception of lead,

Hydrogen
reacts with hydrochloric acid to liberate it.

Least Copper
There is no reaction with dilute hydrochloric.
reactive Silver
metals Gold

86
 EXTRACTION OF METALS

The method of extraction of metals from their ores depends upon the position
of the metal in the reactivity series. Extraction becoming easier the lower the metal in
the series.

The three ways in which metals are extracted from their ores are by heating,
reduction and by electrolysis.

The table below shows some metals and the method of extraction from their
ores. For the least reactive metals, copper is chosen, for the mild reactive, iron is
studied, while for the most reactive metals aluminium is chosen and studied. These are
the representative metals for each category.

Metal Category Method of extraction

Potassium Most
Sodium
Calcium reactive
Magnesium By elecrolysis
Aluminium metals
Zinc Mild
Iron reactive metals By reduction
Lead
Copper Least
Silver reactive metals By heating the ores
Gold

EXTRACTION OF COPPER

The main ore where copper is found in the Earths crust are copper pyrites
(CuFeS2), malachite [CuCO3.Cu(OH)2], cuprite (Cu2O), azurite [2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2] and
copper glance (Cu2S).

Copper pyrites is the ore usually used for the extraction of copper. Three stages
involved are

[i] concentration of the ore to remove impurities;

[ii] roasting of the ore and reduction and ,

87
[iii] refining of the impure copper by electrolysis.

USES OF COPPER

[i] it is used in the manufacture of electrical wires because it is a good conductor of

electricity.

[ii] it is used in the manufacture of roofing sheets because it does not corrode easily.

[iii] it is used for making utensils and boilers since it is a good conductor of heat.

[iv] it is used for making ornaments because it is very lustrous.

EXTRACTION OF IRON

The cheaf ore from which iron is extracted is haematite (or iron (III) oxide. The
compounds of carbon can be decomposed by reduction with carbon and carbon
monoxide.

The reduction of haematite is carried out in the blast furnace as shown in the
figure below.

88
Charge (iron ore, coke and limestone waste gases ie CO2 and CO

steel furnace

3000C FeO3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) +

3CO2(g)

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) CO2(g) + C(s)

2CO(g)

CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(s) 10000C

C(s) + O2(g)
CO2(g)

Hot (oxygen) air 17000C hot (oxygen) air

molten slag

molten iron

The ore is first roasted, crushed and mixed with coke (carbon) and limestone
(calcium carbonate). The mixture of haematite, coke and limestone is called the charge.
The charge is fed at the top of the furnace.

The ore contains impurities such as silica (silicon dioxide or sand), manganese,
sulphur and phosphorus.

When hot oxygen is blown into the furnace at the bottom of the furnace
through the pipes called tuyeres, it causes the coke at the entrance to burn forming
carbon dioxide.

89
 C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

As the carbon dioxide rises through the mixture, it gets reduced to carbon
monoxide as it reacts further with coke.

CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)

The carbon monoxide now reacts with haematite reducing it to iron at a

temperature of about 8000C. Molten iron now runs at the bottom of the furnace and
settles down. It can be tapped by opening the tapping hole. This iron is called pig or
cast iron.

PRODUCTION OF SLAG (FROM IRON EXTRACTION)

The limestone in the mixture of the charge decomposes at a high temperature to

produce carbon dioxide.

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

The calcium oxide formed reacts with silica (sand) to form calcium sililcate.
Calcium silicate runs down as molten slag. Slag floats on top of molten iron becase its
density is lower than that of iron. Hence it protects molten iron from getting oxidized
by the incoming hot oxygen gas.

CaO(s) + SiO2(s) CaSiO3(s) (slag)

therefore, the use of limestone in the blast furnace is to remove the impurity
called silica.

USES OF SLAG

[a] It is used in the manufacture of cement.

[b] it is used for road consruction.

PRODUCTION OF STEEL

90
 Production of steel is done by the process called the open hearth process in
which pig iron is strongly heated in the presence of iron oxide and lime as oxidizers.
Much of the carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide by oxygen.

Metals such as tungsten are added to steel to make it very hard. To make
stainless steel, nickel or chromium are added to molten alloy as it runs out.

USES OF MILD STEEL

[a] it is used in the manufacture of car bodies and machinery;

[b] it is the construction of bridges, rail lines, springs and foundation pillars.

USES OF STAINLESS STEEL

[a] it is used in construction of tanks in chemical plants, dairy and food processing
industries. The reason to be in this way is because steel is resistant to corrosion.

[b] It is used in the manufacture of cutlery such as spoons, folks, knives etc.

USES OF ZINC

[a] it is used for galvanizing iron in to prevent rusting;

[b] it is used for making dry cell containers;

[c] it is used for making alloys such as brass (copper and zinc mixture).

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

Reactive metals like aluminium and other elements (metals) of group one of the
periodic table are extracted from their ores by electrolysis . this is carried out in the
Hall Heroult Cell which is as shown below;

91
 Carbon anode (+ve)

Carbon cathode (-ve) carbon cathode (-ve)

metal case

molten bauxite molten aluminium

taping hole

The ore from which aluminium is extracted is bauxite or aluminium (III) oxide
(Al2O3). The process used in the extraction of aluminium is electrolysis of molten
bauxite because the bauxite is very stable as such it cannot be decomposed by
heating or reduction.

Bauxite has a very high melting point above 20000C. in order to reduce the
melting point to about 10000C, bauxite is dissolved in molten cryolite or sodium
hexafluoro aluminate or sodium aluminium fluoride (Na3AlF6).

The elcrolysis of fused or molten bauxite in cryolite is carried out in a cell

using graphite (carbon) electrodes. Aluminium is formed at the cathode and it settles at
the bottom of the cell in molten form. It can be tapped out by opening the tapping
hole when it has accumulated.

Oxygen gas is produced at the anodes and it immediately reacts with carbon
anodes to form carbon dioxide gas. For this reason, the anodes are eaten away and
hence they are replaced at regular intervals.

At the end, cryolite remains unchanged chemically and therefore, the overall
reaction is:

2Al2O3(s) 4Al(s) + 3O2(g)

USES OF ALUMINIUM

92
[a] Aluminium is used in the manufacture of aircraft parts due to its resistance to wear
and corrosion.

[b] It is also used in the manufacture of light alloys.

[c] It is also used in the manufacture of kitchen utensils such as pots, sauce pans and
frying pans.

[d] It is used in the manufacture of overhead cables since it is a good conductor of

electricity.

EFFECTS OF ALUMINIUM EXTRACTION ON HUMAN BEINGS

[a] The extracted impurities from aluminium causes land pollution.

[b] The fine cryolite dust emitted from tall chimneys pollute the surrounding area and the
atmosphere.

[c] The dust from aluminum production causes Alzheimer disease.

NON-METALS

A non-metal is an element which forms negative ions by the gain of electrons.

Examples of non-metals includes all the elements found on the right hand side of the
zig-zag line on the periodic table [refer to the notes on the prriodic table].

Among the non-metals to be discussed includes hydrogen, oxygen, carbon and

nitrogen together with the compounds they form when they react with other elements
or compounds.

[1] HYDROGEN

At room temperature and pressure, hydrogen exists as a colourless gas. It is a

diatomic molecule. It has no group on the periodic table but it uses a valence of one
just like members of group one and group seven of the periodic table.

PROPERTIES OF HYDROGEN

[a] it has no smell.

[b] it is a colorless gas.

[c] it is less denser than air.

[d] it does not support burning.

93
[e] it burns in oxygen with a blue flame.

TEST FOR HYDROGEN

It puts out a flame with a pop sound when a ligted splint is introduced into it.

PREPERATION OF HYDROGEN

In the laboratory, hydrogen is prepared by;

[a] reacting a more reactive metal above hydrogen in the reactivity series with water or
dilute acids.

Ca(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + H2O(l) ZnO(s) + H2(g)

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Na(s) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2(g)

[b] electrolysis of water where dilute acid is added using inert electrodes. The gas is
collected at the cathode.

MANUFACTURE OF HYDROGEN

On industrial scale, hydrogen is manufactured by the reaction of methane with

steam (water).

CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO2(g) + H2(g)

Large quantities of hydrogen gas are also produced by cracking process of

petroluim.

USES OF HYDROGEN

[a] it is used in the manufacture of ammonia by harber process.

[b] it is used in the manufacture of margarine from vegetable oils. This is done in the
process called catalytic hydrogenation.

[c] liquid hydrogen is also used as a fuel in rockets.

[d] it is also used as a reducing agent.

94
[2] OXYGEN

At room temperature and pressure, oxygen exists as a diatomic moledule. It is found in

group six of the periodic table.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN

[a] It is a colourless gas.

[b] It is an odourless gas.

[c] It is slightly soluble in water.

[d] It does not burn but supports burning.

PREPARATION OF OXYGEN

In the laboratory, oxygen is prepared by heating a mixture of potassium chlorate

with manganese (IV) oxide or by reacting hydrogen peroxide with manganese (IV)
oxide in the absence of heat. In each cases, manganese (IV) oxide acts as a catalyst.

2KClO3(s) 2KCl(S) + 3O2(g)

2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

MANUFACTURE OF OXYGEN

On a large scale, oxygen is manufactured by fractional distillation of liquid air.

Liquid oxygen boils off at -1830C while liquid nitrogen boils off at -1960C.

TEST FOR OXYGEN

Oxygen relights a glowing splint when a glowing splint is introduced at the

mouth of the test tube containing oxygen.

USES OF OXYGEN

[a] it is used in manufacture of steelin the blast furnace.

95
[b] it is used in oxygen tents in hospitals for patients in the intensive care units.

[c] it is used for welding in the oxy-acetylene flame.

[d] it is used as liquid oxygen in rockets when in outer space to support the burning of
hydrogen.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN

[A] RESPIRATION

Respiration is the process by which living organisms oxidize glucose to produce

energy, carbon dioxide water.

C6H12O6(aq) + 6O2(g) 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(l) + Energy

[B] COMBUSTION

Combustion is the process by which a substance reacts with oxygen to produce

heat. For example, carbon burns in oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and heat.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

[C] RUSTING

Rusting is an electrochemical process that takes place when iron or steel reacts
with oxygen in presence of water and an electrolyte.

4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)

Rust is a reddish brown powdery layer that form on the surface of iron or
steel. Rust is mainly hydrated iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3 . 3H2O).

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR RUSTING TO OCCUR

[a] The presence of oxygen or air.

[b] The presence of water or moisture.

Rusting is accelerated by the presence of an electrolyte (ie an acidic

atmosphere). These includes weak acids such as carbonic acid, sulphurus acid, nitrous
acid etc [Refer to preparation of acids].

96
 METHODS OF RUST PREVENTION

The methods used are to ensure that one or both oxygen and water do not
come in contact with the metal. The methods used are;

[a] Painting.

[b] Elecroplating. Electroplating is the method of coating a more reactive metal with a less
reactive metal in the reactivity series. For example coating iron with a layer of copper
or silver.

[c] Galvanizing. This is the method of coating a less reactive metal with a more reactive
one in the reactivity series. For example coating iron with a layer of zinc. This is
called sacrificial protection because it is a more reactive metal that will corrode due to
its reactivity should there be conditions for rusting.

[d] Alloying. In this method, iron is alloyed with non - corrosive elements such as nickel,
chromium and carbon to form stainless steel which is more resistant to rusting.

[e] Applying grease or oil on the surface of iron.

[f] Coating with plastic.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RUSTING AND CORROSION

Rusting is the type of reaction that takes place when iron reacts with oxygen in
presence of water or moisture. On the other hand, corrosion is the reaction that takes
place when any other metal apart from iron and its steel alloys reacts with the
atmospheric air.

The term rusting should not be used for any other metal apart from iron and its
steel alloys.

[3] CARBON

At room temperature and pressure, carbon exists as a black shinning solid. It is

found in group (IV) of the periodic table. It reacts with oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide gas.

CARBON DIOXIDE

97
 At room temperature and pressure, carbon dioxide exists as a colourless gas.

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

In the laboratory, carbon dioxide can be prepared by marble chips (calcium

carbonate) with dilute hydrochloric acid.

CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON DIOXIDE

[a] It is a colourless gas.

[b] it is an ordourless gas.

[c] It is denser than air. For this reason, the gas is collected by downward delivery.

[d] It is soluble in water and forms a solution which turns a blue litmus paper red.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBBON DIOXIDE

[a] It does not burn and does not support burning.

[b] When it is passed through lime water (calcium hydroxide), a white precipitate of
calcium carbonate is formed.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

[c] Magnesium ribbon burns for a short time in carbon dioxide to produce carbon and
magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)

TEST FOR CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide turns lime water (calcium hydroxide) milky when it is passed
through it. [Refer to the chemical property of carbon dioxide [b] above].

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE

On a large scale, carbon dioxide is obtained by;

98
[a] Burning coke (carbon) in air.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

[b] As a by-product in the preparation of ethanol by fermentation of glucose.

C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

USES OF CARBON DIOXIDE

[a] it is used in fire extinguishers. This is because it does not support burning and is
denser than air.

[b] It is used as a refrigerant.

[c] It is used in carbonated drinks.

[d] It is used in baking.

[e] it is used as a preservative in fruits. It does so by creating an atmosphere in which

there is less oxygen and more carbon dioxide.

[4] NITROGEN

At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p), nitrogen exists as a diatomic gas. It is

found in group (V) and period 2 of the periodic table.

MANUFACTURE OF NITROGEN GAS

Nitrogen is produced on a large scale by fractional distillation of liquid air.

[Refer to the manufacture of oxygen].

USES OF NITROGEN GAS

[a] It is used in the manufacture of ammonia.

[b] It is used to provide an inert atmosphere during the arc welding of aircraft parts and
in electric bulbs.

99
 THE NEED FOR NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS AND POTASSIUM COMPOUNDS
IN PLANT LIFE

Nitrogen is essential in the manufacture of proteins while phosphorus is mainly

needed for enzyme activity. Potassium is important in controlling of rates of
photosynthesis and respiration.

PROPERTIES OF NITROGEN

[a] It is a colourless gas.

[b] It is an odourless gas.

[c] it does not burn and does not support burning. Magnesium metal is the only element
that can burn in nitrogen.

[d] Chemically, it is a very unreactive gas due to its strong bonds between atoms in the
molecules. However, under forced conditions, nitrogen reacts with hydrogen gas to form
ammonia in the presence of iron as a catalyst.

AMMONIA GAS

At room temperature and pressure, ammonia exists as a colourless gas.

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA

[a] It is a colourless gas.

[b] It has a pungent smell

[c] It is insoluble in water.

[d] It changes a dump red litmus paper blue. Ammonia gas is alkaline.

TEST FOR AMMONIA

Ammonia gas forms a white fume with hydrogen chloride gas.

NH3(g) + HCl(aq) NH4Cl(s) (ammonium chloride fumes)

100
 PREPARATION OF AMMONIA

In the laboratory, ammonia is prepared by the reaction of an alkali or a base

with an ammonium salt. For example the reaction between calcium hydroxide and
ammonium chloride.

Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(s) 2NH3(g) + CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l)

The gas produced is dried by using calcium oxide. Common drying agents such
as calcium chloride and concentrated hydrochloric acid cannot be used because they
easily reacts with ammonia gas.

The gas is collected by downward displacement of air since it is less denser

than air.

The test tube is tilted downwards as shown in the diagram above in order to
prevent the water formed from running back into the reactant mixture. If this occurs,

101
the reactant mixture may boil causing an explosion that may result in cracking the test
tube.

MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA

Ammonia is manufactured by direct combination of hydrogen and nitrogen in

the haber process. Nitrogen is obtained by fractional distillation of liquid air while
hydrogen is obtained from the reaction between methane and steam. [Refer to the
manufacture of hydrogen]

Nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed in the ratio of 1:3 by volume. The mixture is
passed over a catalyst of finely divided iron at a temperature of about 5000C and
pressure of 200 to 1000 atmospheres. About 10% of the gases reacts.

The ammonia produced is either dissolved in water or liquefied under pressure

and stored in cylinders.

The unchanged gases are again passed over a catalyst until they react. The
reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen is reversible and exothermic.

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g) + Heat

USES OF AMMONIA

102
[a] It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonium
nitrate etc.

[b] It is used in the manufacture of nitric acid.

[c] It is used in the manufacture of explosives.

[d] It is used in the manufacture of plastics and glue.

[e] It is used as a refrigerant in plants.

[f] It is used in the production of nylon.

[g] It is used as a cleaning agent.

[h] It is used in the softening of temporary hard water.

EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS

If too much fertilizer is applied on the land, rain washes it off from the land
and into rivers and streams. This process of leaching encourages the growth of algae
and marine plants. As the algae die and decay, oxygen is removed from the water
leaving insufficient oxygen for fish and other organisms.

103
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry is the study of the compounds of carbon with a few

exceptions such as the oxides, carbonates, hydrogen carbonates, chlorides of carbon etc.
The block diagram below shows the composition of sub-topics of organic chemistry
under consideration.

Organic Chemistry

Members of homologous series macromolecules

1 definition of members of homologous series and macromolecules

-Characteristics

-Naming & identification

Alkanes alkenes alcohols/alkanols organic (carboxylic) acids man-made (artificial) polymers natural polymers

CnH2n + 2 CnH2n CnH2n + 1OH Cn-1H2n-1COOH - definition of man-made & natural polymers

[1] Definition of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols & organic acids

[2] Examples of first four members in each homologous series

[3] Preparation of methane, ethene, ethanol, & ethanoic acid addition condensation

[4] Physical/chemical propaties of methane, ethene, ethanol & ethanoic acid polymerization polymerisation

[5] Alkanes are saturated, alkenes are unsaturated, alcohols contain - definition of addition & condensation polymerization

hydroxyl group & carboxylic group for organic acids. [ 1] examples are [ 1] examples are

[6] Discuss alkyl radicals/isomerism for alkanes, uses of ethene for -polyethene -nylon

alkenes & uses of ethanol for alcohols. -polyvinyl chloride -terylene

[7] Discuss petroleum for alkanes. -polypropene

-definition of petroleum. [ 2] uses of man-made fibres

-fractions (components) of petroleum (crude oil) [ 3] disadvantages of plastics

-uses of fractions from crude oil

-cracking of oils Protein fats carbohydrates

- Definition of proteins - definition of fats - definition of carbohydrates

104
 - hydrolysis of proteins - soap making - hydrolysis of carbohydrates

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

A homologous series is a group of compounds having similar structure in

which each member differs from the next by the presence of an additional CH2
group. Members of homologous series under discussion are Alkanes, Alkenes, Alcohol
and organic acids. Each member in a homologous series is called a homologue.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MEMBERS OF A HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

Members in a homologous series:

[A] Can be prepared using similar methods.

[B] Can be represented by a general formula. See the block diagram on the previous page.

[C] Have similar chemical properties.

[D] Shows a gradual change in physical properties. For example the lower members of the
series are gaseous then changes to liquids then the higher members of the series are
waxy solids.

NAMING AND IDENTIFICATION OF MEMBERS OF A HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

[A] The first three or four letters of the compounds name indicates the number of carbon
atoms a compound has.

[B] The last three letters of the compounds name indicates the group number where
such a compound belongs to. See the table of examples below;

Number of Last three Group or Name of the

carbon letters homologous series compound

105
 atoms

1 -ane alkane Methane

2 -ene alkene Ethene

3 -nol Alcohol or alkanol propanol

4 -oic Organic acid Butanoic acid

5 -nol alcohol Pentanol

6 -ane alkane hexane

7 -oic Carboxylic acid Septanoic acid

8 -ene alkene octane

9 -nol alkanol nonanol

10 -ane alkane decane

[1] ALKANES

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n + 2. A

hydrocarbon is a compound consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms only. In the
general formula CnH2n +2 , n = number of carbon atoms a compound has. For example,
methanes molecular (chemical) formula is derived as follows:

Meth = 1 carbon atom = n.

CnH2n + 2 = C1H2(1) + 2 = CH2 + 2 = CH4. CH4 is the chemical or molecular formula of

methane. Its structural formula is as represented in row number two in the table
below.

Molecular
Name of or
Graphical or structural formula
compound chemical
formula
H

106
 Methane CH4 H C H OR CH4

H H

H C C H
Ethane C2H6
OR CH3CH3
H H

H H H

H C C C H
Propane C3H8
OR CH3CH2CH3
H H H

H H H H

H C C C C H
Butane C4H10
OR CH3CH2CH2CH3
H H H H

H H H H H

H C C C C C H
Pentane C5H12
OR CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
H H H H H

PREPARATION OF METHANE

Methane is prepared by heating anhydrous sodium ethanoate (acetate),

CH3COONa, with an alkali such as soda lime (NaOH).

107
 CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) CH4(g) + Na2CO3(s)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METHANE

[a] It is a colourless gas.

[b] It is an odourless gas, that is, it has no smell.

[c] It is only slightly soluble in water, and has action on a litmus paper.

[d] It si less denser than air.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METHANE

[a] REACTION WITH OXYGEN

Methane reacts with air or oxygen under two conditions, that is, in abundant
supply of oxygen and when oxygen is in short supply.

(i) COMBUSTION IN ABUNDANT SUPPLY OF AIR

Methane burns in air or oxygen with a faint luminous flame forming carbon
dioxide and water. A mixture of air and methane is explosive.

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)

(ii) COMBUTION IN LIMITED AIR

Carbon or carbon monoxide may be formed.

CH4(g) + O2(g) C(s) + 2H2O(g)

CH4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g)

[b] REACTION WITH CHLORINE

Methane reacts with chlorine under two conditions, in bright sunlight and in
diffused sunlight.

108
[i] IN BRIGHT SUNLIGHT

A mixture of methane and chlorine explodes when placed in bright sunlight or

when sparked, producing carbon and hydrogen chloride gas.

CH4(g) + 2Cl2(g) C(s) + 4HCl(g)

[ii] IN DIFFUSED SUNLGHT

In diffused sunlight, substitution of hydrogen occurs until all the atoms of

hydrogen from methane are replaced by chlorine atoms. Compounds chlorometane,
dichloromethane, trichlochlomethane and tetrachloromethane or carbon tetrachloride are
produced.

CH4(g) + Cl2(g) HCl(g) + CH3Cl(g) (Chloromethane)

CH3(g) + Cl2(g) HCl(g) + CH2Cl2(l) (Dichloromethane)

CH2Cl2(l) + Cl2(g) HCl(g) + CHCl3(l) (Trichloromethane)

CHCl3(l) + Cl2(g) HCl(g) + CCl4(l) (tetrachloromethane)

[c] REACTION WITH BROMINE

Liquid bromine reacts less vigorously than chlorine. The reaction is very
slow in the dark. Compounds bromomethane (CH3Br), dibromomethane (CH2Br2),
tribromomethane (CHBr3) and tetrabromomethane (CBr4) are produced. Iodine does not
react with alkanes such as methane.

SATURATED COMPOUNDS AND SUBSTITUTION

[a] SATURARATED COMPOUNDS

A saturated compound is the one in which all the atoms are exerting their usual
combining powers with other atoms. In the molecule of a saturated compound, there are
no double or triple bonds but single bonds throughout.

in diffused sunlight is an example of a substitution type of reaction. A new molecule

can enter the molecule of a saturated compound if one or more existing bonds are
replaced that is by substitution. The reaction between methane and chlorine

[b] SUBSTITUTION REACTION

109
 A substitution reaction is the replacement of an atom or radical by another atom
or radical.

ALKYL RADICALS

An alkyl radical is a monovalent group formed when one hydrogen atom is

removed is removed from an alkane witout replacement. Examples of alkyl radicals are

[i] methyl (CH3-), formed when one hydrogen is removed from methane without
replacement.

[ii] ethyl (C2H5-), formed when one hydrogen atom is removed from ethane without
replacement.

(iii) propyl (C3H7-), formed when one hydrogen molecule is removed from propane without
replacement.

ISOMERISM OF ALKANES

Isomers are compounds having the same molecular formula but different
structural formula. The phenomenon is called isomerism.

PROCEDURE TO FOLLOW WHEN FORMING ISOMERS

[a] Isomerism of alkanes begins with butane, that is, with four carbon atoms.

[b] Name of an isomer begins with the name of the compound itself.

[c] Reduce the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain by 1, then by 2 , 3 etc.

[d] Place the alkyl radical between two carbon atoms, not at the first or last carbon atom.

[e] When naming an isomer, start counting from the position where the branched chain is
closer to the last or first carbon atom.

[f] Naming of the branched isomer begins with the position where the branched chain is,
then alkyl radicals name, then count the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain
where it will get its last name.

NOTE

110
A compound having four (4) carbon atoms has two (2) isomers atoms, one with five
carbon (5) atoms has three (3) isomers and one with six (6) carbon atoms has four (4)
isomers etc.

Examples of isomers of butane

Isomers
Name of an
Isomers graphical or structural formula. molecular
isomer.
formula.
H H H H
Or
H C C C C H
C4H10 butane
CH3CH2CH2CH3
H H H H

H C H Or

H H CH3
C4H10 2, methyl
H C C C H CH3CHCH3 propane

H H H

Examples of isomers of pentane

Isomers
Name of an
Isomers graphical or structural formula molecular
isomer
formula
H H H H H
Or
H C C C C C H
C5H12 pentane
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
H H H H H

111
 H H H H

H C C C C H Or

H H H CH3CH2CHCH3
C5H12 2, methyl
H C H CH3 butane

H Or

H C H

H H CH3
C5H12 2, 2
H C C C H CH3CCH3 dimethyl
propane
H H CH3

H C H

H
NOTE:

Whether the branched chain is below or above a carbon atom, the name of the
compound does not change.

PETROLIUM (CRUDE OIL)

Petrolium is a thick green or dark brown liquid found deep in the ground
under rock layers and also below the sea bed. It is formed as a result of biological
decomposition of plants and animals under conditions of heat and very high pressure
over millions of years.

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL

112
 Crude oil is first heated in a separate furnace to about 400 oC. The crude oil
vapour is then passed through a fractionating tower. The tower consists of trays and
bubble caps placed at different levels or temperatures. Each tray is a bit cooler than
one below it as it is a little further away from the source of heat.

As hot mixture of gases and vapour passes up the tower, various vapours
condenses at different levels according to their boiling points. The products which are
gases at room temperature leave at the top of the tower. Fractions which are collected
in each tray are tapped off and re-distilled or refined.

USES OF FRACTIONS FROM CRUDE OIL

Faction Uses
Gas Used as a fuel in heating
Gasoline or petrol Used as a fuel in cars
Naphtha Used to make chemicals
Paraffin (kerosene) Used as a fuel in jet engines, lighting, heating etc
Diesel or gas oil Used as a fuel in diesel engines
Fuel oil Used as a fuel in ships
Lubricating oil Used for lubrication
Waxes Waxes are used to make Vaseline, grease, candles etc
and heavy oils
Bitumen Bitumen is used for road surfacing

113
 CRACKING OF OILS

Cracking is the breaking down process of large molecules of oils into smaller
molecules of petrol and other gases. For example, decane decomposes into petrol and
propene when cracked.

C10H22 (decane) C7H16 (petrol) + C 3 H6 (propene)

Cracking is used nowadays for the production of petrol because large quanties
of petrol are produced using this method.

[2] ALKENES

Alkenes are unsaturated hydro carbons with the general formula C nH2n , where n
= 2 or more carbon atoms. CH2 does not exist among the alkenes.

An unsaturated compound is the one in which one atom or atoms are not
exerting their usual combining power with other atoms.

Alkenes are characterized by a double bond (C=C) indicating that two carbon
atoms share two pairs of electrons. The alkenes are named in the same way as alkanes
except that the -ane ending of alkanes is replaced by the -ene for alkenes.

The table below the first five members of alkene series.

Molecular
Name of
(chemical)
compound Graphical (structural) formula
formula
H H
Or
C C
Ethene C2H4
C2H2
H H
H H H
Or
C C C H
Propene C3H6
CH2CHCH3
H H

114
 H H H H
Or
C C C C H
Butene C4H8
CH2CHCH2CH3
H H H
H H H H
Or
H C C C C C H
Pentene C5H10
CH3CHCHCH2CH3
H H H H
H H H H H H
Or
C C C C C C H
Hexene C6H12
CH2CHCH2CH2CH2CH3
H H H H H

Note

[a] The double bond should be placed once on any two carbon atoms and anywhere
between two carbon atoms.

[b] Whether the hydrogen atom is placed below or above a carbon atom, the name of the
compound does not change.

[c] Molecular formula for members of alkenes is calculated using their general formula
CnH2n by replacing n with the number of carbon atoms that compound has.

[d] The double bond is the functional group for the alkene members.

PREPARATION OF ETHENE (ETHYLENE)

115
 Ethane is prepared by the dehydration of ethanol. To dehydrate is to remove the
elements of water from a compound.

In this process, the absorbant wool which is soaked in ethanol is warmed while
heating strongly the broken porcelain or aluminium oxide at a temperature of about
400oC. Ethanol vapour which is on the wool passes over aluminium oxide or broken
porcelain where water is removed leaving ethane. Ethane collects over water in a test
tube.

CH3CH2OH(l) C2H4(g) + H2O(l)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHENE

[a] It is a colourless gas with a faint sweet smell.

[b] It is only slightly soluble in water and has no action on a litmus paper.

[c] Its density is the same as that of air.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHENE

[a] COMBUSTION

Ethene burns in air with a bright smoky flame producing carbon dioxide and
water.

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

Ethane also burns in chlorine with a red flame forming carbon and hydrogen
chloride gas.

C2H4(g) + 2Cl2(g) 2C(s) + 4HCl(g)

[b] ADDITION REACTION

An addition reaction is the one in which a molecule adds to an saturated

molecule by breaking a double or triple bonds. A double or triple bond is weaker than
a single bond. It makes a compound reactive because it is easily converted to a single
bond by addition of other atoms ie by addition reaction.

116
[i] HYDROGEN

Ethene and hydrogen combine together when passed over a catalyst of heated
finely divided nickel or platinum at a temperature of about 200oC to produce ethane.
This is an example of catalytic hydrogenation.

C2H4(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)

H H

CH2 + H CH3 or H C C H

CH2 H CH 3 H H

[ii] CHLORINE AND BROMINE

Chlorine adds onto ethene when the two gases are mixed and left in the
sunlight forming a colourless oily liquid called dichloroethane.

C2H4(g) + Cl2(g) C2H4Cl2(l)

CH2 + Cl CH2Cl H H

CH2 Cl CH2Cl or Cl C C Cl

H H

When ethene is is passed through a brownish red colour of bromine solution, a

colourless oily liquid called dibromoethane is formed. This is the test for all alkenes.
Alkenes decolourises bromine solution.

CH2 + Br CH2Br H H

CH2 Br CH2Br or Br C C Br

H H

C2H4(g) + Br2(l) C2H4Br2(l)

[iii] WATER

Ethene and steam combine at about 300oC with phosphoric acid as a catalyst to
form ethanol. Concentrated sulphuric acid can also be used as a catalyst.

C2H4(g) + H2O(l) C2H5OH(l)

117
 CH2 + OH CH3 H H

CH2 H CH2OH or H C C OH

H H

[iii] HYDROGEN CHLORIDE

This adds slowly onto ethene, forming chroroethane.

C2H4(g) + HCl(g) C2H5Cl(l)

CH2 + H CH3 H H

CH2 Cl CH2Cl or H C C Cl

H H

USES OF ETHENE

[i] It is used in the manufacture of plastics.

[ii] It is used in the manufacture of ethanol.

[iii] It is used in the process of ripening fruits.

[iv] It is used in the manufacture of detergents.

[3] ALCOHOLS OR ALKANOLS

Alcohols are organic compounds which contain a hydroxyl group OH joined to

a grouping of carbon and hydrogen atoms only. OH is their functional group. Their
general formula is CnH2n + 1OH.

Below are some examples of the first five members of the alcohol series.

Molecular
Name of
or chemical Graphical or structural formula
compound
formula

118
 H

H C OH or CH3OH
Methanol CH3OH
H
H H

H C C OH or CH3CH2OH
Ethanol C2H5OH
H H
H H H

H C C C OH or CH3CH2CH2OH
Propanol C3H7OH
H H H
H H H H

H C C C C OH or CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
Butanol C4H9OH
H H H H
H H H H H

H C C C C C OH or CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH
Pentanol C5H11OH
H H H H H

PREPARATION OF ETHANOL

[a] BY FERMENTATION

Ethanol can be prepared by fermentation of glucose in the presence of yeast.

Yeast contain an enzyme called zymase which catalyses the reaction.

C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

[b] BY CATALYTIC PROCESS

Ethanol can be prepared by catalytic addition of water (steam) to ethene with

concentrated sulphuric acid as a catalyst.

CH2CH2(g) + H2O(g) CH3CH2OH

119
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL

[a] It is a colourless liquid.

[b] It has a pleasant smell and a burning taste.

[c] It is less denser than water. Its density is about 0.8g /cm3.

[d] It mixes with water in any proportion.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOL

[a] BURNING

Ethanol burns quite easily in air or oxygen forming carbon dioxide, water and
energy.

CH3CH2OH(aq) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) + Energy

[b] OXIDATION

Ethanol can be oxidized to ethanoic acid by powerful oxidizing agents like

warm acidified potassium dichromate (vi) solution or concentrated sulphuric acid.

CH3CH2OH(aq) + O2(g) CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l)

USES OF ETHANOL

[a] It is used in industry as a solvent for paints and varnishes.

[b] It is used as a fuel. For example methylated spirit is an industrial ethanol to which
some poison have been added to make unfit for drinking.

[c] It is a constituent of some drinks such as beer, wine, spirit etc.

[d] It is used in the manufacture of organic compounds such as ethylethanoate (ethyl

acetate) and ethanoic acid.

[e] It is used as a preservative and in sterilizing liquid.

120
[4] ORGANIC (CARBOXYLIC) ACIDS

Organic acids or carboxylic acids are members of homologous series with a

general formula Cn-1H2n-1COOH. COOH is their functional group. The carboxylic group
consists of a carbon atom bonded by a double bond to an oxygen atom and by a
single bond to a hydroxyl group (OH). It can be represented graphically as follows:

C OH

The table below shows the first five members of the organic acids.

Molecular
Name of or chemical
Graphical or structural formula
compound formula
H C OH
Methanoic HCOOH or HCOOH
O
or formic
acid
H O

H C C OH or CH3COOH
Ethanoic or CH3COOH
acetic acid H
H H O

H C C C OH or CH3CH2COOH
Propanoic C2H5COOH
acid H H
H H H or

H C C C C OH CH3CH2CH2COOH
Butanoic C3H7COOH
acid H H H O
H H H H O or

H C C C C C OH CH3CH2CH2CH2COOH
Pentanoic C4H9COOH
acid H H H H

121
 PREPARATION OF ETHANOIC ACID

Carboxylic acids such ethanoic acid is prepared by oxidation of alcohols. For

example the reaction between ethanol and atmospheric air.

CH3CH2OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID

[i] It is a colourless liquid with a smell of vinegar.

[ii] It is hydroscopic and mixable with water in all proportions.

[iii] It burns and blisters the skin. For this reason, it is sometimes used to remove warts.

[iv] It is a weak acid.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID

[i] It reacts with most reactive metals in the reactivity series, bases and carbonates to
form salts called ethanoates.

2CH3COOH(l) + 2Na(s) CH3COONa(aq) + H2(g)

CH3COOH(l) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l)

2CH3COOH(l) + NaCO3(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

[ii] ESTER FORMATION

Organic acids reacts with alcohols to form esters and water only. An ester is an
organic compound produced when an alcohol reacts with an organic acid in the
presence of concentrated acid. Esters contain a functional group which is as shown
below. O

C O C

122
 In other words the reaction between an organic acid and an alcohol can be
summarized in the following expression;

Organic acid + alcohol ester + water

For example,

Ethanoic acid + ethanol ethylethanoate + water

CH3COOH(l) + C2CH5OH(aq) CH3COOC2H5(aq) + H2O(l)

Graphically, the above chemical and word equations can be represented as

follows;

H O H H H O H H

H C C O H + H C C O H H C C O C C H + H O H

H H H H H H

MACROMOLECULES

Macromolecules are large compounds build from small units called monomers.
There are two types macromolecules (polymers). These are synthetic (or man-made) and
natural polymers.

[1] SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

Synthetic polymers are macromolecules made artificially by man. There are two
ways in which synthetic polymers are made. These are addition polymerization and
condensation polymerization.

[a] ADDITION POLYMERIZATION

This is the process whereby two or more monomers combine together to form a
polymer without loss of matter. Below are some examples of addition polymerization
processes.

[i] ethene + ethane + ethane polyethene

123
 H H H H H H H H H H H H

C C + C C + C C C C C C C C

H H H H H H H H H H H H

(monomer) + (monomer) + (monomer) (polymer)

[ii] propene + propene polypropene

H H H H H H H H H H H

H C C C + H C C C C C C C C C

H H H H H H H H H H H

[iii] vinylchloride + vinylchloride polyvinylchloride

H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl

C C + C C C C C C

H H H H H H H H

[b] CONDENSATION POLYMERIZATION

Condensation polymerization is the process whereby two or more monomer uits

combine together to form a polymer with the simultaneous elimination of a small
molecule such as ammonia. Among the important condensation polymers are polyamides
and polyesters. Such examples includes nylon and teryline.

[i] NYLON

Nylon is a polyamide (polymer) made out of condition polymerization of

hexadioic acid and hexamethlylediamine. Nylon is represented by the structure shown
below.

[ii] TERYLINE

124
 Teryline is a polyester made by condensation polymerization. It posses ester
linkages. Its structure is represented in the following diagram.

USES OF MAN-MADE FIBRES

[a] Nylon is used for making clothes and ropes.

[b] Teryline is used for making suits, curtains, fishing nets and for making drip dry
clothing trousers etc.

[c] Polyethtene is used for making carrier bags, bowls, buckets and in packaging materials.

[d] Polypropene is used for making ropes and packaging materials.

[e] Polyvynylchloride (P.V.C) is used for making pipes and electrical insulators.

DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTICS

[a] They are non bio-degradable ie they do not decompose or rot.

[b] When burnt, they produce poisonous fumes which pollute the atmosphere.

[c] They can be serious fire hazards.

[d] They can burn easily in a fire which is already burning well.

[2] NATURAL POLYMERS

Natural polymers are polymers that come from natural sources. Proteins, fats and
carbohydrates are examples of natural macromolecules as polymers. These are the main
three constituents of food.

[a] PROTEINS

Proteins are macromolecules formed by condensation polymerization of amino

acids. Water is eliminated when amino acids polymerizes. Proteins contain the same
amide bonds as nylon but with different units.

125
 HYDROLYSIS OF PROTEINS

Proteins undergo hydrolysis when heated with acids or alkalis to form amino
acids. Addition of water occurs. The hydrolysis of proteins (polypeptides) is the reverse
process of condensation polymerization and produces amino acids. For example below:

Protein (polypeptide) amino acids (peptide)

[b] FATS

Fats are natural polymers possessing the same ester linkages as teryline but with
different units.

SOAP

When fats and oils are heated with aqueous solutions of bases, glycerol and salts
or fatty acids are obtained.

Fat + alkali glycerol + soap

This process is called saponification which means soap making. Soaps are salts
of fatty acids.

[c] CARBOHYDRATE (STARCH)

Carbohydrates are macromolecules formed by condensation poltmerisation of

small units called sugars. The diagram below shows the structure of a sugar.

Carbohydrates are made out of large number of sugar units joined together by
oxygen atoms. The diagram below shows the structure of carbohydrate when sugars
polymerizes.

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 HYDROLYSIS OF STARCH

When a solution of starch is warmed with dilute hydrochloric acid, starch is

broken down into smaller units called sugar.

C6H12O6 (starch) C6H12O6 (sugar) + C6H12O6 (sugar)

THE END

Prepared by Mr Mwape C

Chifubu Secondary School Board

Ndola

Zambia

(Hand Written Edition) 10-10-2006

(Printed) 24-09-2014

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