INTRODUCTION TO WAVES, TIDES & CURRENTS

Prof. V.Sundar,
Dept. of Ocean engineering
I.I.T. Madras, INDIA

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Some Facts about Ocean

The oceans cover 71 percent of the Earth's surface and contain 97 percent of the
Earth's water. Less than 1 percent is fresh water, and 2-3 percent is contained in
glaciers and ice caps.

Canada has the longest coastline of any country, at 56,453 miles (90849.8 Km)or
around 15 percent of the world's 372,384 miles ( 599277.6 Km)of coastlines.

At the deepest point in the ocean the pressure is more than 8 tons per square inch,
or the equivalent of one person trying to support 50 jumbo jets.

If mined, all the gold suspended in the world's seawater would give each person on
Earth 9 pounds.

If the ocean's total salt content were dried, it would cover the continents to a depth
of 5 feet (1.5m).

The Antarctic Ice Sheet is almost twice the size of the United States.

Source: Ocean Planet: Writings and Prof.

ImagesV.Sundar,
of the IIT
SeaMadras,INDIA

1
 Oceans Availability of abundance of living and non living resources

In order to explore and exploit the resources, a knowledge on the

ocean environment is essential.

To explore & exploit the above sources, a variety of structures are

to be installed. To design these structures, the forces due to waves
& currents are to be evaluated.

This calls for an understanding of waves, currents & tides

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai , India 600 036

Currents
Tides
Waves

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai , India 600 036

2
 CLASSIFICATION OF OCEAN CURRENTS

OCEAN CURRENTS ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO

The forces by which they are created

The time of appearance

The locality

The region in which they are situated

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

According to Forces by which they are

created

Wind force Tides Waves Density

difference
Permanent Rotating Shoreward Surface

Periodical Reversing Longshore Sub Surface

Accidental Hydraulic Seaward Deep

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

3
 According to Time of Appearance

Permanent Periodical Accidental

According to the Locality

Rip Longshore Longshore

feeder
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

According to the region in which situated

Tropical current

Subtropical
current
Arctic current

Antarctic current

Equatorial current

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

4
 NEARSHORE CURRENTS

TWO WAVE
INDUCED CURRENT
SYSTEM IN THE
NEARSHORE ZONE
ARE
A cell circulation system
of rip currents and
feeding longshore
currents .
longshore currents
produced by an oblique
wave approach to the
shoreline.
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Tide

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai , India 600 036

5
 What do we know?
A tide is a change in water level
Has something to do with the moon and sun
Tides vary from place to place
Tides vary from time to time
A tide is a wave (but not a tidal wave)

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Highest tidal activity in world

Bay of Fundy (Minas basin)
(about 12-17m)

Resonance the basin natural

period is 13 hours close to tidal
period of 12.25 hours

Tides at Halls Harbour on Nova Scotia's

Bay of Fundy
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

6
Tidal activity in Gujarat (upto 6-12m)

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Tides are single waves that

stretch across entire ocean
basins.
They are also shallow-
shallow-water
waves because their wavelengths
greatly exceed the depth of the
ocean.
They occur due to complex
interactions of the moon and sun.
sun.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

7
 Equilibrium Theory
Sir Issac Newton
good use of gravity
George Darwin (Charles son)
Equilibrium Theory of Tides (1898)

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Major Assumptions
Earth is spherical
Covered with water (no land)
Water is of uniform depth

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

8
 Origin of the Tides
Unlike wind-driven surface waves, tides are
caused by two principal factors:
Gravitational attraction
Centrifugal force

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Gravitational Attraction
All masses are drawn to each other.
The moon because of its closeness to the
Earth exerts a greater gravitational effect on
the Earth than the Sun, despite the fact that
the Sun is much more massive than the
Moon.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

9
 Gravitational Effect of Moon

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Centrifugal Forces
arise as the Earth and Moon revolve around
one another.
unequal masses of the Earth and Moon, the
center of rotation lies beneath the Earths
surface.
The water of the ocean shifts away from the
center of rotation creating a second tidal
bulge.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

10
 Centrifugal Forces: Center of Rotation
This bulge is due to balancing the excess mass of water due to
moons gravitational attraction

Bulge varies with latitude

But, no tide
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

A simple force balance (Newtons 2nd law of motion)

Centrifugal force Gravitational attraction

F = (Gm1m2)/r2

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

11
2 Bulges from Gravitational Attraction &
Centrifugal Force

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

True Tidal Waves

(not tsunamis!)
The motion of water around the basin is a
rotary wave.
The crest is at one side of the basin.
The trough is at the other side of the basin.
Tides have characteristics
of both progressive
and standing waves.
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

12
 Combine Forces
Bulge on side of earth facing moon
Equal and opposite bulge on the other side,
away from moon

on moon side, gravity is greater

on other side, centrifugal is greater
they are equal
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Key Features of Tides

High tide : Wave crest

Low tide : Wave trough
Tidal range : Wave height
Tidal periods depending on location:
12 hours, 25 minutes
24 hours, 30 minutes

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

13
Classification by Daily Record

Diurnal: have one high tide and one low

tide daily (high lat).
Semidiurnal: have two high tides and two
low tides daily (low lat).
Mixed: there are two high tides and two
low tides daily, but of unequal shape (mid
lat).

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Types of tides around the world Ocean

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

14
 Classificaton by Monthly Record
Spring tide: phase when tidal range is
maximal.
Neap tide: phase when tidal range is
minimal.
There are 2 spring and 2 neap tides each
month

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Spring & Neap Tides

Spring tides occur when the Earth, Sun, and
Moon are aligned.
New Moon and Full Moon phases
Constructive interference
Neap tides occur when the Sun and Moon
are aligned at right angles to one another.
Quarter Moon phases
Destructive interference

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

15
Spring & Neap Tides (Animation)

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

16
Tide animation

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Tide animation

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

17
 Tide Gauge

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Waves

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai , India 600 036

18
 Giant wave

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Principal division of Ocean floor

The average width of the continental shelf is about 65 km

However, shelf widths can be over 1000 km.
Shelf depths can range from 20 to over 500 m, but the ave depth is about 130 m
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

19
 Sea water
Major Components of Sea Water

Element Concentration (ppm)

Chlorine 19000
Sodium 10500
Magnesium 1350
Sulfate 885
Calcium 400
Potassium 380
Bromine 65
Carbon 28
Strontium 8
Boron 4.6

At least 60 other elements are present in quantities of less than 1 ppm.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis (the production of organic matter by plants) is
easily one of the most important reactions in the ocean; it is
dependent on light and the presence of nutrients and can be
expressed as:
Light and nutrients
H2O + CO2 CH2O + O2 (Photosynthesis)

where CH20 is a simplified description of organic matter. In this

reaction, oxygen and organic matter are produced and water and
carbon dioxide are consumed. When the reaction goes in the
other direction:

H2O + CO2 CH2O + O2 (Respiration)

It is called respiration, or oxidation, and oxygen and organic

matter are con-sumed and water and carbon dioxide are
produced.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

20
Distribution of Temp, Oxygen and Phosphorous with depth

The zone of most rapid temperature decrease is

called the thermocline and separates the upper &
lower parts of the ocean by density differences.
In other words, the surface waters are relatively
light because they are warm, and the deep waters
are relatively heavy because they are cold.

The higher the density difference, the more

stratified the water.

Therefore, the thermocline tends to prevent

or retard the vertical mixing of water;
the thermocline has to be overcome or destroyed
before the water can be thoroughly mixed;
upwelling is one such mechanism of mixing.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

General Environmental characteristics of the marine

environment

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

21
Some Possible Marine Mineral Resources and
Their Source.
Mineral Resource Source

Boron, Bromine, Calcium, Magnesium, Sea Water

Potassium, Sodium, Sulfur and Uranium

Sand and Gravel, Phosphorite, Glauconite, Sediment (Continen-tal Shelf and Slope)
Lime and Silica, Sand, Heavy Minerals (Magnetite,
Rutite, Zircon, Cassiterite, Chromate, Monazite,
Gold)

Copper, Lead, Silver, Zinc Oil, Gas, Sulfur heavy metal muds Subsurface
(Conti-nental Shelf, Slope and Rise)

Manganese nodules Deep Sea

(Copper, Nickel, Cobalt and Manganese)

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Main Mineral resources

The mineral resources of the ocean can be divided into four main categories:
those elements dissolved in sea water
those minerals recoverable from the underlying bedrock, such as coal or iron
deposits
those minerals found on the ocean bottom; and
those minerals, such as oil and gas, within marine sediments (Fig).
The process of formation, extraction techniques, and economic potential vary
considerably both between and within the categories.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

22
 General types minerals found on the ocean bottom

Minerals or sediments that normally constitute the sea floor,

such as sand and gravel in shallow water and carbonate
oozes and red clays in the deep sea

Minerals that are concentrated by the actions of waves or

currents, such as placer deposits

Minerals formed by chemical precipitation from the sea

water, such as manganese nodules, or from volcanic
processes

Deposits formed by biologic activity, such as reef rock,

shells, or corals

Deposits of preexisting minerals that are now exposed by the

eroding forces of the sea.
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Marine Geology-Geological Oceanography

Marine geologist- concerned with the Ocean bottom and its sediments as
well as with the history of these features and the processes that have
caused them to have their particular characteristics

Geophysicist- more interested in the deep structure of the ocean basin &
its physical properties

Basic equipments for both the above fields

Echo sounders for measuring depths in the ocean

Cameras to photograph the seafloor
Sampling devices such as a corer, grab or dredge

Geophysical equipments include

Magnetometers for measuring earths gravitational field
Seismic profilers (for locating areas having oil potential)

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

23
 Plate Techtonics

The entire earths surface can be divided into series of plates that are moving
relative to each other.
The figure shows the major plates (can be further sub divided).
The arrows show the movement of the plates relative to the African plate.

150- 200 million years ago 80- 120 million years ago 200 million years in future
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Department of Ocean Engineering, IIT Madras, Chennai , India 600 036

24
 Origin of Oil
The word petroleum" comes from the Greek words for oil and rock.

American Geological Institute has defined petroleum as

a material occurring naturally in the earth composed predominantly of
mixtures of chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen with or without other
non-metallic elements such as sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.

Petroleum may contain, or be composed of, such compounds in the gaseous,

liquid, and/or solid state, depending on the nature of these compounds and
existing conditions of temperature and pressure. (American Geological
Institute 1953).

Compounds of carbon and nitrogen only, called hydrocarbons, generally make

up over 90% of crude oils (oil is petroleum in the liquid state).

The hydrocarbons can vary considerably as to their molecular type and size.
The number of the different compounds within an oil is considerable and no
crude oil has ever been completely analyzed.

Oils having relatively low contents of sulfur are generally more valuable
because they create less noxious gases, etc., when burned.
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Origin of Petroleum
Petroleum originates from the organic remains of organisms, mainly plants that once have
lived in the sea or in rivers and that after death have settled to the bottom.

The chemistry of the conversion process whereby the organic material changes into
petroleum is extremely complex and not completely understood.

It is known, however, that if the organic material is oxidized, it does not form petroleum.
Organic material can be preserved and accumulate if it settles into an oxygen-poor
environment, or if the sedimentation rate is sufficiently high to bury the material before it is
completely oxidized.

As the material is buried and incorporated into the sediments, additional chemical changes
occur, in large part caused by the heat and pressures associated with burial.

Petroleum does not form if the sediments are not sufficiently buried or if the organic material
has been heated too high. After organic material is preserved, under the right but poorly
understood chemical conditions, it can eventually, after a long period of time, evolve into a
hydrocarbon deposit.

The duration needed for the formation of a hydrocarbon deposit is unknown, but such
deposits are rarely found in rocks that are less than 2 to 3 million years old; however, they can
be found in rocks that are as old as several hundreds of millions of years. Petroleum has been
found in near surface fields and from depths of over 6000 m.
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

25
 Key conditions for formation of oil & gas

Initial deposition and preservation of organic material,

generally in a marine basin

Burial by sediments and, under appropriate but not completely

understood conditions, transformation of the organic material
into petroleum

Migration of the petroleum from fine-grained source beds to

coarse-grained reservoir beds

Geologic traps that restrict the movement of the oil or gas and
concentrate it.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Possible types of Oil traps

a : Stratigraphic trap, b: structural trap, c: anticline trap, d: Salt dome

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

26
 Seismic Profiling
A seismic profiling device (technique is commonly called continuous seismic
profiling or CPS) emits large quantities of acoustical energy into the sea water.
The energy travels in all directions and some reaches the sea floor and its
reflected back to the ship, similar to the process of echo sounder.
Some energy, however, penetrates to layers below sea floor and is also reflected
back, generally from layers that have distinct changes in their acoustical
characteristics and these changes usually indicate different sediment or rock
types.
By receiving the return signals and using computer techniques, it is possible to
determine the structure and seismic velocities of the upper layers of the earths
crust. These techniques are commonly used in surveys to determine the
potential for oil and gas.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Manganese Nodules

One of the most interesting & Valuable resource of the deep sea floor,
sometimes referred to as Iron-Manganese or ferromanganese deposits
Occur as round spheres from about 1 -20cm in dia
They were first discovered during the Challenger expedition (1872-1876)
The economic interest in these nodules is principally because of their accessory
elements-copper, nickel and cobalt as well as their main component,
manganese.
Number of nodules on the sea floor can be immense
One of the highest concentration was 100kg/m2 or about 300 000tons per
square mile. A mining operation would need about 30000 -75000 tons per
square mile [Mero(1972)]
Estimates are that as much as 25% of the sea floor is covered by nodules and
that over 1.5trillion (1.5x1012) tons are in pacific Ocean alone.
Calculations on the rate of formation of nodules over the entire Ocean suggest a
production rate of about 10 million tons per yr.
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

27
Locations of surface stations where Ferro Manganese
nodules obtained

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Different aspects concerning manganese nodules

Exploration and evaluation of deposits

Recovery
Extraction of different elements
Marketing and economics of the operation
Legal problems

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

28
 Recovery
At present, there appear to be two main methods of recovering manganese nodules from the deep sea: a continuous line
bucket system and a hydraulic system using either air or water. The continuous line bucket sys-tem was developed by
the Japanese and is a purely mechanical system. It consists of a long line or cable that has numerous buckets attached to
it.

The line is continuous , reaching from the surface ship to the bottom and back to the ship, and as buckets are
lowered on one side they are brought up on the other side. A considerable length of the cable is dragged
across the sea floor, it is hoped filling the attached buckets with nodules. While this is being done the
surface ship is moving perpendicularly and slightly forward to the cable and buckets on the sea floor. In
this manner a new portion of the bottom is exposed to the dredging action of the buckets. In 1970 this
system was used successfully in a water depth of over 1000 m with 240 buckets each having a capacity
of about 50 kg of nodules. Later, apparently successful tests were made in over 4000 m of water.
Neverthe-less, it seems that hydraulic systems have the most promise for actual use.
Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

Hydraulic mining systems

Hydraulic mining systems, of which there are numerous variations, essentially
consist of either a conventional centrifugal pump or a compressed air system and a
long pipe reaching to the bottom (Fig.). Air or water is in-jected into a dredge on the
sea floor, causing a flow of water, sediment, and nodules up the pipe to the surface
vessel. Nodules larger than a certain size have to be screened out to prevent clogging
of the pipe. In some systems the nodules are crushed before being brought to the
surface. Variations of this system being considered by most of the consortiums
previously mentioned.

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

29
 Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

COASTAL FEATURES

Barrier Island
Lagoon
Bayhead beach
Inlet
Cuspate Double Spits
foreland Barrier

Bay
Complex Spit

Packet beach Headland

Dominant
Longshore drift
Simple spit
Bay
Island

Hocked spit Wave crest

Salient

Dominant longshore drift

Tombolo Island

Land-tied island

Prof. V.Sundar, IIT Madras,INDIA

30