Preface

I have made this report file on the topic Fuel Cell; I have tried my best to elucidate
all the relevant detail to the topic to be included in the report. While in the beginning I
have tried to give a general view about this topic. My efforts and wholehearted co-
corporation of each and everyone has ended on a successful note. I express my
sincere gratitude to dr. Debasish Sarkar who assisting me for the preparation of this
topic. I thank him for providing me the reinforcement, confidence and most
importantly the track for the topic whenever i needed it.

1
 Acknowledgement
I would like to thank respected dr. Debasish Sarkar and dr. Amitava Bandyopadhyay
for giving me such a wonderful opportunity to expand my knowledge for my own
branch and giving me guidelines Secondly, I would like to thank my parents who
patiently helped me as i went through my work and helped to modify and eliminate
some of the irrelevant or un-necessary stuffs. Thirdly, I would like to thank my friends
who helped me to make my work more organized and well-stacked till the end. Next,
I would thank Microsoft for developing such a wonderful tool like MS Word. It helped
my work a lot to remain error-free. Last but clearly not the least, I would thank The
Almighty for giving me strength to complete my report on time.

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 Contents
Chapters Page No.
1. Introduction
1.1. Fuel Cells-Relevance and Importance
1.2. What are Fuel Cells?
1.3. Historical Highlights
1.4. Fuel Cells: How do they differ from batteries
1.5. Classification of Fuel Cells; design
2. Parts Of Fuel Cells
3. Fuel Cell Operation
4. Fuel Cell Set up
5. Fuel Cell Types
6. Fuel Cell Comparison
7. Fuel Cell Application
7.1. Transportation
7.2. Distributed Power Generation
7.3. Residential Power
7.4. Portable power
8. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuel Cell
9. Cost and Durability Of Fuel Cell
10. Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
11. Future directions of Fuel Cell Science and Technology
12. Conclusion

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Figures
FIGURE 1: Trends in the use of fuels. As fuel use has developed through time, the
percentage of hydrogen content in the fuel has increased [7]

FIGURE 2: Gas Voltaic Battery [1]

FIGURE 3: First PEM Fuel Cell [1]

FIGURE 4: Parts Of Fuel Cells [4]

FIGURE 5: Fuel Cell Operation [5]

FIGURE 6: Single Fuel Cell [5]

FUGURE 7: Fuel Cell Stack [5]

FUGURE 8: Fuel Cell System [5]

FIGURE 9: Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) [7]

FIGURE 10: Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC) [7]
FIGURE 11: Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) [7]
FIGURE 12: Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC) [7]
FIGURE 13: Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) [7]
FIGURE 14: Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) [7]
FIGURE 15: Fuel Cells [5]

FIGURE 16: Comparison of low and high temperature fuel cells [5]

FIGURE 17: Fuel Cell Car [7]

FIGURE 18: Portable Power [7]

FIGURE 19: Fuel Cell Buses [7]

FIGURE 20: Fuel Cell System Cost Progresses [7]

FIGURE 21: Hydrogen Sources [7]

FIGURE 22: Hydrogen From Electrolysis [7]

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 Abstract
A fuel cell is a device that electrochemically converts the chemical energy of a fuel
and an oxidant to electrical energy. The fuel and oxidant are typically stored outside
of the fuel cell and transferred into the fuel cell as the reactants are consumed. The
most common type of fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen to produce
electricity, with water and heat as by-products. Fuel cells are unique in terms of the
variety of their potential applications; they potentially can provide energy for systems
as large as a utility power station and as small as a laptop computer. Fuel cells have
several potential benefits over conventional combustion- based technologies
currently used in many power plants and passenger vehicles. They produce much
smaller quantities of greenhouse gases and none of the air pollutants that create
smog and cause health problems. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, fuel cells emit
only heat and water as a byproduct.

5
 Chapter 1
Introduction:
1.1 Fuel Cells-Relevance and importance:
There is a need for alternative fuels to supplement or replace fossil fuels, which
are a limited resource and cause pollution. Battery electric and fuel cell cars both
rely on an electric motor to convert electricity to mechanical energy to propel the
car. Electrochemical reactions are the basis for both types of automobiles.
Hydrogen gas has been proposed as a potential alternative fuel. Hydrogen is an
energy carrier; it is not a primary energy source the way we consider gasoline.
Fuel cells require hydrogen and oxygen as fuel to produce electricity and water.
Hydrogen does not exist free in nature, and must be isolated in order to use it for
energy production. Electricity can be used to produce H2 from water in an
electrochemical reaction. This is an inefficient process that requires energy.
Although the use of hydrogen in fuel cells is clean and efficient, the creation of
hydrogen from electricity or fossil fuels is less so. Fuel cell design affects
efficiency. Fuel cell stacks for transportation or electricity generation often contain
hundreds or thousands of individual cells to get more power out of fuel cells.
Cells connected in series add up their voltages, while cells connected in parallel
keep the same potential (voltage) but can transfer more electrons at a time.
Voltage is a measure of electric potential. Power, measured in watts or kilowatts
(kW), is equal to the product of voltage and current (amps). Energy is measured
in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours (kW-h), and is a measure of how much power is
produced over a certain period of time (power x time). Our electric bills are
calculated in terms of kW-h. Efficiency is a measure of the amount of power
delivered by a system relative to the amount of power provided to the system
((power out/power in) x 100%).

1.2 What are Fuel Cells?

A fuel cell by definition is an electrical cell, which unlike storage cells can be
continuously fed with a fuel so that the electrical power output is sustained
indefinitely (Connihan, 1981). They convert hydrogen, or hydrogen-containing
fuels, directly into electrical energy plus heat through the electrochemical reaction
of hydrogen and oxygen into water. The process is that of electrolysis in reverse.

Overall reaction: 2 H2 (gas) + O2 (gas) 2 H2O + energy

(Eq.1) [1]

Because hydrogen and oxygen gases are electrochemically converted into

water, fuel cells have many advantages over heat engines. These include: high
efficiency, virtually silent operation and, if hydrogen is the fuel, there are no pollutant

6
emissions. If the hydrogen is produced from renewable energy sources, then the
electrical power produced can be truly sustainable. The two principle reactions in the
burning of any hydrocarbon fuel are the formation of water and carbon dioxide. As
the hydrogen content in a fuel increases, the formation of water becomes more
significant, resulting in proportionally lower emissions of carbon dioxide (Fig. 1). As
fuel use has developed through time, the percentage of hydrogen content in the fuels
has increased. It seems a natural progression that the fuel of the future will be 100%
hydrogen.

Figure 1: Trends in the use of fuels. As fuel use has developed through time,
the percentage of hydrogen content in the fuel has increased. [7]

1.3 Historical Highlights:

As youre going to find out, fuel cells have been in existence for almost one hundred
and eighty years. So why are fuel cells commonly found as part of cutting-edge
technology and generally associated with the future, when the technology was
pioneered nearly two decades ago? Two major modern factors are emission control
and avoiding petroleum dependency, and have brought this technology from a
specialized tool of the last 50 years into a new mainstream technology. Learn more
about where the fuel cell comes from and where its going.

1839: Schoenbein and Grove:

A German scientist by the name of Christian Friedrich Schoenbein is credited for
discovering the fuel cell effect, reporting in January of 1839 on current caused by the
combination of hydrogen and oxygen. Simultaneously a Welsh scientist by the name

7
of William Robert Grove was also starting research into the effect, and started
correspondence with Schoenbein. While the German scientist focused on theory, it
was Grove who developed the first fuel cell, which he called the gas voltaic battery.

Figure 2: Gas Voltaic Battery [1]

This primitive fuel cell used pairs of platinum electrodes half immersed in sulfuric
acid and half enclosed in oxygen and hydrogen. Grove not only observed a current
flowing when these electrodes were wired in sequence, but also that the
hydrogen/oxygen enclosures would start to fill with water. The actual term fuel cell
wasnt coined until 1889 by Ludwig Mond and Charles Langer, a pair of chemists
attempting to make a fuel cell with air and industrial coal gas.

1939: The Bacon Cell:

British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon (a direct descendant of that Francis Bacon)
revisited fuel cells almost a hundred years after Grove had produced his, a general
lack of interest in the field due to the creation of the dynamo shortly after Groves
work and the abundance of oil and other fuels. Bacon made several changes to the
design, including replace the sulfuric acid with non-corrosive potassium hydroxide.
This Bacon Cell initially wasnt very powerful, but after years of work (including state
secrets) it could generate 5kW of energy in 1959.1965: NASA and the Gemini 5The
patents of this fuel cell were licensed by Pratt and Whitney, an aerospace

8
manufacturer, as part of a bid for the Apollo missions. The precursor missions to
Apollo were the Gemini missions, designed to test the technology needed for the
quite dangerous Apollo missions. General Electric had been working on a fuel cell of
their own, where two
scientists (W. Thomas
Grubb and Leonard
Niedrach) improved the
design with the addition
of a deposit of platinum
on the exchange
membrane. This Grubb-
Niedrach fuel cell was
the first PEM fuel cell.

Figure 3: First PEM Fuel Cell [1]

1970-1980s: Water and Oxygen Generation:

Fuel cells were so appealing for space flight because of their light weight and the
tanks of hydrogen and oxygen already present on the spacecraft, and that they could
produce drinking water for the astronauts. Similarly, GE developed PEM water
electrolysis technology in the 1970, which allowed the exact opposite of a fuel cell,
the ability to break water down into hydrogen and life-giving oxygen. This technology
was adopted by both the British Royal Navy and the US Navy.

Present: FCVs and Carbon-Conscious Generators:

From the 1900s to the early 2000s you could find fuel cells in specialty niches, such
as silent German subs, but it was only the oil crunch of the late 2000s and the rising
pressure on companies to have a smaller carbon footprint. The Fuel Cell Vehicle or
FVC is riding the same wave as the electric car, and fuel cells are looking more and
more appealing to businesses who dont have the real estate (or dont like eyesores)
for solar or wind power. As prices continue to drop on this technology and hydrogen
becomes more available (and technologies can pull it from propane and natural gas
more efficiently), expect to see a lot more fuel cells in the future.

We hope you found this history lesson useful. If youre looking for fuel cell
applications, especially for remote, long duration communications, sensors, and
control or military portable power applications, please contact Protonex.

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 1.4 Fuel Cells: How do they differ from batteries?
The biggest difference between the two is that a battery stores energy, while a fuel
cell generates energy by converting available fuel. A fuel cell can have a battery as a
system component to store the electricity its generating. The electrical energy
contained within a battery is either from the factory where it was made, or from
charging the battery via an outlet. If your battery dies, you are dependent on either
being near a source of electricity to re-charge, or near a store to buy a new one. A
fuel cell is different. It takes an energy source, such as propane, diesel or natural
gas, and converts it into electrical energy. As long as you have access to your
energy source, you have access to electricity any time you need it wherever you
may be. Whether you are at sea, out camping, in an emergency situation or when
the neighbourhood goes out, you can use a fuel cell to create your own electricity.
Some people have back-up generators for emergency situations. A typical generator
that you might buy at a home improvement store combusts the fuel source to
create electricity .Essentially, there is a small explosion as the fuel is combusted.
That explosion moves a piston, converting chemical energy to mechanical, and then
through a series of mechanical steps electricity is produced. Combustion engines
have changed little since they were invented over a hundred years ago. By
combusting the fuel to make electricity, generators create a lot of noise, smoke,
exhaust and toxic fumes. They also tend to be large, heavy and unwieldy.

Unlike a generator, a fuel cell directly converts an energy source into electricity
through a chemical reaction one step rather than multiple steps. This allows a fuel
cell to remain efficient, quiet and clean.

Since a fuel cell converts a fuels chemical energy rather than combusts the fuel
the way a generator does, the result is a fuel cell that can create clean electricity,
efficiently and effectively.

When it comes to power, portability is a big factor. A 20 lb. propane tank can be
converted into nearly 3400 amp hours of power. In comparison, a standard lead acid
battery, weighing about 60 lbs., has only 80 amp hours. A boater would need
approximately 80 plus batteries to match the amp hour rates a very expensive boat
anchor at $190 for each battery [2]. The portable fuel cell system weighs less than
30 lbs.

With a portable fuel cell, such as the innovative ones being developed by WATT Fuel
Cell, you can hand-carry the fuel cell with you. From camping, to sailing, to storms,
to remote locations and power outages, you can create your own electricity,
anywhere, any time.

With a portable fuel cell, creating electricity is easy. You attach a fuel source such as
a propane tank or canister, press a switch and start charging your batteries quietly
and efficiently. No more dead batteries. Electronic devices and electrical systems are
up and running.

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 1.5 Classification of Fuel Cells: design:
Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general
manner. They are made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte,
and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different
segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or
carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to
power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.
At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a
positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a
substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons
cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating the electric current. The
ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode, the
ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually
oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide. The most important design features in a
fuel cell are

The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of
fuel cell.
The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.
The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode
catalyst is usually made up of very fine platinum powder.
The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon
dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a
nanomaterial-based catalyst.
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load [3]. Voltage
decreases as current increases, due to several factors:

Activation loss
Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and
interconnections)
Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads,
causing rapid loss of voltage).
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series to
yield higher voltage, and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied. Such a
design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can also be increased, to
allow higher current from each cell. Within the stack, reactant gases must be
distributed uniformly over each of the cells to maximize the power output.
The classification leads to
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC)

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 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

Chapter 2

Parts Of Fuel Cells:

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells are the current focus of research for
fuel cell vehicle applications. PEM fuel cells are made from several layers of different
materials. The main parts of a PEM fuel cell are described below.

The heart of a PEM fuel cell is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which
includes the membrane, the catalyst layers, and gas diffusion layers (GDLs).

Hardware components used to incorporate an MEA into a fuel cell include gaskets,
which provide a seal around the MEA to prevent leakage of gases, and bipolar
plates, which are used to assemble individual PEM fuel cells into a fuel cell stack
and provide channels for the gaseous fuel and air.

Membrane Electrode Assembly:

The membrane, catalyst layers (anode and cathode), and diffusion media together
form the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of a PEM fuel cell.

Polymer electrolyte membrane: The polymer electrolyte membrane, or

PEM (also called a proton exchange membrane)a specially treated material that
looks something like ordinary kitchen plastic wrapconducts only positively charged
ions and blocks the electrons. The PEM is the key to the fuel cell technology; it must
permit only the necessary ions to pass between the anode and cathode. Other
substances passing through the electrolyte would disrupt the chemical reaction. For

12
transportation applications, the membrane is very thinin some cases under 20
microns.

Catalyst layers: A layer of catalyst is added on both sides of the membrane

the anode layer on one side and the cathode layer on the other. Conventional
catalyst layers include nanometer-sized particles of platinum dispersed on a high-
surface-area carbon support. This supported platinum catalyst is mixed with an ion-
conducting polymer (ionomer) and sandwiched between the membrane and the
GDLs. On the anode side, the platinum catalyst enables hydrogen molecules to be
split into protons and electrons. On the cathode side, the platinum catalyst enables
oxygen reduction by reacting with the protons generated by the anode, producing
water. The ionomer mixed into the catalyst layers allows the protons to travel through
these layers.

Gas diffusion layers: The GDLs sit outside the catalyst layers and facilitate
transport of reactants into the catalyst layer, as well as removal of product water.
Each GDL is typically composed of a sheet of carbon paper in which the carbon
fibers are partially coated with polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Gases diffuse rapidly
through the pores in the GDL. These pores are kept open by the hydrophobic PTFE,
which prevents excessive water buildup. In many cases, the inner surface of the
GDL is coated with a thin layer of high-surface-area carbon mixed with PTFE, called
the microporous layer. The microporous layer can help adjust the balance between
water retention (needed to maintain membrane conductivity) and water release
(needed to keep the pores open so hydrogen and oxygen can diffuse into the
electrodes).

Hardware:
The MEA is the part of the fuel cell where power is produced, but hardware
components are required to enable effective MEA operation.

Bipolar plates: Each individual MEA produces less than 1 V under typical
operating conditions, but most applications require higher voltages. Therefore,
multiple MEAs are usually connected in series by stacking them on top of each other
to provide a usable output voltage. Each cell in the stack is sandwiched between two
bipolar plates to separate it from neighboring cells. These plates, which may be
made of metal, carbon, or composites, provide electrical conduction between cells,
as well as providing physical strength to the stack. The surfaces of the plates
typically contain a flow field, which is a set of channels machined or stamped into
the plate to allow gases to flow over the MEA. Additional channels inside each plate
may be used to circulate a liquid coolant.

13
Gaskets: Each MEA in a fuel cell stack is sandwiched between two bipolar plates,
but gaskets must be added around the edges of the MEA to make a gas-tight seal.
These gaskets are usually made of a rubbery polymer

Figure 4: Parts Of Fuel Cell [4]

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 Chapter 3

Fuel Cell Operation:

A fuel cell combines hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. The basic principle
of the fuel cell is illustrated in the figure below. The core of each fuel cell consists of
an electrolyte and two electrodes. At the negative anode, a fuel such as hydrogen is
being oxidized, while at the positive cathode, oxygen is reduced. Ions are
transported through the electrolyte from one side to the other. The type of electrolyte
determines the temperature window of operation. This window of operation in its turn
determines the catalysts that can be used, and the purity of the fuel to be used. The
theoretical open circuit voltage of a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is 1.23 V at 298 K, in
practice it is around 1 V at open circuit. Under load conditions, the cell voltage is
between 0.5 and 0.8 V.

The purpose of a fuel cell is to produce an electrical current that can be

directed outside the cell to do work, such as powering an electric motor or
illuminating a light bulb or a city. Because of the way electricity behaves, this current
returns to the fuel cell, completing an electrical circuit. (To learn more about
electricity and electric power, visit "Throw The Switch" on the Smithsonian
website. The chemical reactions that produce this current are the key to how a fuel
cell works.There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently.
But in general terms, hydrogen atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a
chemical reaction strips them of their electrons. The hydrogen atoms are now
"ionized," and carry a positive electrical charge. The negatively charged electrons
provide the current through wires to do work. If alternating current (AC) is needed,
the DC output of the fuel cell must be routed through a conversion device called an
inverter.

Even better, since fuel cells create electricity chemically, rather than by
combustion, they are not subject to the thermodynamic laws that limit a conventional
power plant (see "Carnot Limit" in the glossary). Therefore, fuel cells are more
efficient in extracting energy from a fuel. Waste heat from some cells can also be

15
harnessed, boosting system efficiency still further.

Figure 5: Fuel Cell Operation [5]

Chapter 4

Fuel Cell Setup:

Single cell:
Besides conducting ions from one electrode to the other, the electrolyte serves as
gas separator and electronic insulator. The electrodes are the sites at which the
electrochemical reactions take place. Besides containing the suitable catalysts, the
electrode architecture should be such that transport of reactants to and products
from the catalyst/electrolyte interface is taking place at the maximum possible rate.

16
 Figure 6: Single Fuel cell [5]
A single fuel cell, as displayed in the Figure above, produces the power, which
results from the area times the current density of the cell times the cell voltage. The
typical cell voltage under load conditions amounts to 0.6 - 0.7 V, which is too low for
practical applications.

Stacks:
It is therefore common practice to put a number of cells in series, resulting in a so-
called fuel cell stack. Flow plates connect two adjacent cells. These flow plates, also
called separator plates or bipolar plates when a single plate is used for the anode
side of one cell and for the cathode side of the other cell, should have a high
electronic conductance, and should act as gas separator between the two adjacent
cells. The flow plates contain flow patterns on the cell side to generate an even
distribution of reactants across the cell area. On the backside, cooling liquid flow
patterns transport the heat to a heat exchanger in the system. The stack power and
voltage is obtained by the number of cells times the individual cell power and
voltage. A three-cell stack is schematically drawn in the Figure below. Besides the
repeating units displayed in the Figure above, a stack contains two endplates and
two current collector plates from which the current is collected.

17
 Figure 7: Fuel Cell Stacks [5]

Systems:
The fuel cell is the core of each fuel cell system, but it does need a number of
additional components to make it operate and to let it play its function in its
application. The Figure below gives a schematic, simplified display of a typical fuel
cell system. The components other than the fuel cell stack and the fuel processor are
often called Balance of Plant Components. These Balance of Plant Components are
important drivers of system cost, and of system efficiency and durability.

Figure 8: Fuel Cell System [5]

18
In low temperature fuel cells, except the DMFC, hydrogen is oxidized at the anode to
protons. The hydrogen can either be fed from a hydrogen storage container, or
produced from another fuel in a so-called fuel processor. Generally, hydrocarbons or
alcohols are used as fuels to feed fuel processors. The complexity of the fuel
processing depends strongly on the fuel cell type and the primary fuel. In high
temperature fuel cells, such as the MCFC and SOFC, fuel processing can be done in
the fuel cell itself. This process is referred to as internal reforming.
The air pressure needs to be elevated from ambient pressure up to a level which
depends on the operation pressure and the pressure drop in the complete system.
This can range from a gauge pressure of 100 mbar to several bars. The power of the
fuel cell stack generally increases with increasing pressure; the parasitic loss due to
compression however increases as well.
The voltage of the fuel cell stack is the product of the number of cells times the
individual cell voltage, which is typically 0.6 - 0.7 V DC. For mobile applications, the
voltage should be increased to several hundred Volts and conditioned to the needs
of the electric motor. For stationary applications, generally AC voltage is needed,
which requires the need for a DC/AC inverter.

Chapter 5

Fuel Cell Types:

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This
classification determines the kind of electro-chemical reactions that take place in the
cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell operates,
the fuel required, and other factors. These characteristics, in turn, affect the
applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are several types of fuel
cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations, and
potential applications. Learn more about the following types of fuel cells.

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC):

Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cellsalso called proton exchange
membrane fuel cellsdeliver high power density and offer the advantages of low
weight and volume compared with other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use a solid
polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum or
platinum alloy catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to
operate. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or
reformers.

19
PEM fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80C (176F). Low-
temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results in
less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires
that a noble-metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's
electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also extremely
sensitive to carbon monoxide poisoning, making it necessary to employ an additional
reactor to reduce carbon monoxide in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from a
hydrocarbon fuel. This reactor also adds cost.

PEM fuel cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some stationary
applications. Due to their fast startup time and favorable power-to-weight ratio, PEM
fuel cells are particularly suitable for use in passenger vehicles, such as cars and
buses.

Figure 9: PEM Fuel Cell [7]

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC):

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system
directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich
fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct methanol fuel cells
(DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which is usually mixed with
water and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.

Direct methanol fuel cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of
some fuel cell systems because methanol has a higher energy density than
hydrogenthough less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to
transport and supply to the public using our current infrastructure because it is a
liquid, like gasoline. DMFCs are often used to provide power for portable fuel cell
applications such as cell phones or laptop computers.

20
 Figure 10: DMFC Fuel Cell [7]

Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC):

Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and
they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical
energy and water on-board spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium
hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-precious metals as
a catalyst at the anode and cathode. In recent years, novel AFCs that use a polymer
membrane as the electrolyte have been developed. These fuel cells are closely
related to conventional PEM fuel cells, except that they use an alkaline membrane
instead of an acid membrane. The high performance of AFCs is due to the rate at
which electro-chemical reactions take place in the cell. They have also demonstrated
efficiencies above 60% in space applications.

A key challenge for this fuel cell type is that it is susceptible to poisoning by carbon
dioxide (CO2). In fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can dramatically affect
cell performance and durability due to carbonate formation. Alkaline cells with liquid
electrolytes can be run in a recirculating mode, which allows for electrolyte
regeneration to help reduce the effects of carbonate formation in the electrolyte, but
the recirculating mode introduces issues with shunt currents. The liquid electrolyte
systems also suffer from additional concerns including wettability, increased
corrosion, and difficulties handling differential pressures. Alkaline membrane fuel
cells (AMFCs) address these concerns and have lower susceptibility to
CO2 poisoning than liquid-electrolyte AFCs do. However, CO2 still affects
performance, and performance and durability of the AMFCs still lag that of PEMFCs.
AMFCs are being considered for applications in the W to kW scale. Challenges for
AMFCs include tolerance to carbon dioxide, membrane conductivity and durability,
higher temperature operation, water management, power density, and anode
electrocatalysis.

21
 Figure 11: Alkaline Fuel Cell [7]

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell:

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolytethe
acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrixand porous carbon
electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The electro-chemical reactions that take
place in the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.

The PAFC is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the
most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially. This type of fuel cell is
typically used for stationary power generation, but some PAFCs have been used to
power large vehicles such as city buses.

PAFCs are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels that have been reformed into
hydrogen than PEM cells, which are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide because
carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode, decreasing the fuel
cell's efficiency. PAFCs are more than 85% efficient when used for the co-generation
of electricity and heat but they are less efficient at generating electricity alone (37%
42%). PAFC efficiency is only slightly more than that of combustion-based power
plants, which typically operate at around 33% efficiency. PAFCs are also less
powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these
fuel cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. They require
much higher loadings of expensive platinum catalyst than other types of fuel cells do,
which raises the cost.

22
 Figure 12: PAFC Fuel Cell [7]

Molten carbonate fuel cell:

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas
and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications.
MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten
carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium
aluminum oxide matrix. Because they operate at high temperatures of 650C
(roughly 1,200F), non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and
cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason MCFCs offer significant cost reductions over
phosphoric acid fuel cells. Molten carbonate fuel cells, when coupled with a turbine,
can reach efficiencies approaching 65%, considerably higher than the 37%42%
efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and
used, overall fuel efficiencies can be over 85%.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and PEM fuel cells, MCFCs do not require an
external reformer to convert fuels such as natural gas and biogas to hydrogen. At the
high temperatures at which MCFCs operate, methane and other light hydrocarbons
in these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called
internal reforming, which also reduces cost.

23
The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high
temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used
accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are
currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell
designs that double cell life from the current 40,000 hours (~5 years) without
decreasing performance.

Figure 13: MCFC Fuel Cell [7]

Solid oxide fuel cell:

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the
electrolyte. SOFCs are around 60% efficient at converting fuel to electricity. In
applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation),
overall fuel use efficiencies could top 85%.

SOFCs operate at very high temperaturesas high as 1,000C (1,830F). High-

temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby
reducing cost. It also allows SOFCs to reform fuels internally, which enables the use
of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer to the
system.

SOFCs are also the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several
orders of magnitude more sulfur than other cell types can. In addition, they are not
poisoned by carbon monoxide, which can even be used as fuel. This property allows
SOFCs to use natural gas, biogas, and gases made from coal. High-temperature
operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow startup and requires significant

24
thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel, which may be acceptable for
utility applications but not for transportation. The high operating temperatures also
place stringent durability requirements on materials. The development of low-cost
materials with high durability at cell operating temperatures is the key technical
challenge facing this technology.

Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature

SOFCs operating at or below 700C that have fewer durability problems and cost
less. Lower-temperature SOFCs have not yet matched the performance of the higher
temperature systems, however, and stack materials that will function in this lower
temperature range are still under development.

Figure 14: SOFC Fuel Cell [7]

Figure 15: Fuel Cells [5]

25
 Chapter 6
Fuel Cell Comparison:

Various fuel cell types and their operating characteristics:

Each type of fuel cell has different characteristics making it suitable for specific
applications. PEM Fuel Cells have a wide range of applications.
Below is an overview showing various fuel cell types and their typical operating
characteristics.

PEM PEM DMFC AFC HT PAFC MCFC SOFC

water- air PEM
cooled cooled

Typical output 1- mW - mW - 1 - 100W 25 kW 50 kW - mW -

range 100 kW 1 kW 1 kW 5 kW - - 125 125kW 125
10kW kW kW

State of Pr Pr Pr Pr D Pr Pr D
development

Scalability E Li Li P U Li P P

Turndown E Mo Mo P Mo Mo P P
dynamics

Power density E Mo P P Mo P P Mo

Quality of heat L N L L M M H H

Variety of fuels P P P P Mo Mo Mo G

Sensitivity to H H H H M M L L
contaminants

Start-up time F F F F M M S S

Robustness E E Mo Mo U E P P

Lifetime G Mo Mo Mo U E G P

Pr=Proven; D=Development; E=Excellent; Li=Limited; P=Poor; U=Unknown;

Mo=Moderate; L=Low; N=Nil; M=Medium; H=High; G=Good; F=Fast; S=Slow

Table 1: Fuel Cell Comparison [5]

26
 Figure 16: Comparison of low and high temperature fuel cells [5]

Different types of fuel cells operate at different temperatures. While PEMFC and
AFC are generally called low temperature fuel cells and MCFC and SOFC being
called high temperature fuel cells, the PAFC falls in between and can be called an
intermediate temperature fuel cell. The same holds for PEMFCs using phosphoric
acid doped electrolytes. Low temperature fuel cells do not require the cooling and
thermal shielding necessary for high temperature fuel cells. For mobile applications,
the PEMFC is the obvious choice. AFC, once thought to be the optimal solution for
road transportation, is losing ground. Even NASA is considering changing over from
AFC to PEMFC.
For stationary applications, both low and high temperature fuel cells seem to qualify.
In practice, specific conditions lead to a preference for the one or the other.
Low temperature fuel cells, especially PEM fuel cells, can be characterized by their
rapid start-up, freeze capability, high robustness towards temperature cycles,
pressure variations, and redox cycles. Thanks to many automotive oriented R&D
programs focusing on aggressive cost reductions, cost levels of PEMFC systems
have become competitive in many stationary applications, such as backup and
remote power, and power generation using hydrogen that is available on-site from
existing processes.
High temperature fuel cells, such as SOFCs and MCFCs, are able to operate on
fuels containing large fractions of carbon monoxide, and can thus be operated either
with an external or internal reformer without extensive gas cleaning. In applications
where load following dynamics and start-up times are not critical, and where other
fuels than hydrogen are preferred, these high temperature fuel cells are often

27
selected. The critical point for high temperature fuel cells will be whether they can
meet the cost and lifetime criteria.

Chapter 7

Fuel Cell Application:

7.1 Transportation:
The California Low Emission Vehicle Program, administered by the California Air
Resources Board (CARB), has been a large incentive for automobile manufacturers
to actively pursue fuel cell development. This program requires that beginning in
2003, ten percent of passenger cars delivered for sale in California from medium or
large sized manufacturers must be Zero Emission Vehicles, called ZEVs.
Automobiles powered by fuel cells meet these requirements, as the only output of a
hydrogen fuel cell is pure water.
The NECAR 5 is the latest prototype fuel cell automobile by DaimlerChrysler. This
automobile is fuelled with liquid methanol which is converted into hydrogen and
carbon dioxide through use of an onboard fuel processor. The vehicle has virtually
no pollutant emissions of sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide or
particulates, the primary pollutants of the internal combustion engine. The efficiency
of a fuel cell engine is about a factor of two higher than that of an internal
combustion engine and the output of carbon dioxide is considerably lower.
The NECAR 5 drives and feels like a normal car. It has a top speed of over 150
km/hr (90 mph), with a power output of 75 kW (100 horsepower) [8]. It is also
believed that this vehicle will require less maintenance. It combines the low emission
levels, the quietness and the smoothness associated with electric vehicles, while
delivering a performance similar to that of an automobile with an internal combustion
engine. In April 1999 the California Fuel Cell Partnership was developed. Founding
members included DaimlerChrysler, the California Air Resources Board, the
California Energy Commission, Ballard Power, Ford, Shell and Texaco. The primary
objective was to help commercialize fuel cell technology for vehicles through joint
demonstration programs by the partners. Since then new participants have included
General Motors, Honda, Hyundai, Nissan, Toyota, Volkswagen, British Petroleum,
Exxon Mobil, Xcellsis, US Department of Energy and US Department of
Transportation. To date seven of the worlds ten leading auto manufacturers have
announced that they plan to introduce fuel cell automobiles beginning in the 2003 to
2005 timeframe. There are also plans for buses, trucks and trains all powered with
fuel cell engines. In 2000, Ballard completed a two-year program testing six fuel cell

28
buses, three in Vancouver, British Columbia and three in Chicago. The design and
maintenance requirements of fuel-cell vehicles as well as public acceptance were
included in the study. The results of the tests were exemplary. Thirty new buses
powered by Ballards fuel cell will be introduced to 10 European cities beginning in
2002 for additional field testing. The resulting data will be used to further develop a
commercial fuel cell bus.

7.2 Distributed power generation:

Electrical energy demands throughout the world are continuing to increase. In
Canada the demand is growing at an annual rate of approximately 2.6%. In America
the rate is about 2.4% (1997) [8], and in developing countries it is approximately 6%
(Khatib1998) [8]. Distributed power plants using fuel cells can provide part of the
solution. Distributed or decentralized power plants, contrasted with centralized
power plants, are plants located close to the consumer, with the capability of
providing both heat and electrical power (a combination known as cogeneration).
Heat, the by-product of electrical power generation, is transferred from the fuel cell to
a heat exchanger. The exchanger transfers the heat to a water supply, providing hot
water to local customers. The overall efficiency of a cogeneration system can be in
excess of 80 percent, comparatively high compared to a system producing electricity
alone. An increase in efficiency naturally corresponds to a decrease in fuel
consumption. Distributed power plants have many additional advantages. For
example, they can provide power to a remote location without the need of
transporting electricity through transmission lines from a central plant. There is also
an efficiency benefit in that the cost of transporting fuel is more than offset by the
elimination of the electrical losses of transmission. The ability to quickly build up a
power infrastructure in developing nations is often cited. Using fuel cell power plants
obviates the need for an electrical grid.
Grid Connect Application: Distributed power plants can provide either primary or
back-up power. In primary applications they can provide base-load power, operating
virtually continuously from the consumption of natural gas, reducing the demand
from the electrical grid. This not only decreases the cost of displaced power, but can
also result in a reduction of demand charges imposed by the utility. Should the
power plant provide an excess of electricity, the excess can be fed back into the
electrical grid, resulting in additional savings. In case of a power outage on the grid,
a distributed power plant can continue to provide power to essential services;
eliminating the need for both an uninterruptible power supply (UPS), presently
handled by lead-acid battery banks, and a stand-by generator, for extended periods
of power outage. An additional quality of a fuel cell power plant for UPS applications
is that the average down time is anticipated to be low, 3.2 to 32 seconds per year
[8] versus typically nine hours for a conventional battery-bank UPS (HDR
Engineering). For industries where UPS systems are critical, such as banking,
minimizing down time is of up most importance.

29
Non Grid Connect Application: Other applications for fuel cell distributed power
plants are also possible e.g. stand-alone back-up power generators. The fuel cell
plant can be started in seconds, supplying power for as long as required from stored
hydrogen, producing electrical power cleanly and virtually silently. Shown in Figure 7
is a prototype fuel cell distributed power plant, by Ballard Power. This unit provides
250 kilowatts of electricity and an equivalent amount of heat. This is enough power
for a community of about 50 homes, or a small hospital or a remote. This particular
unit incorporates a fuel processor so that natural gas can be used as a fuel. The fuel
processor converts the natural gas, through the process of reformation, into a
hydrogen-rich gas composed primarily of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The
hydrogen is used by the fuel cell and the carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere.
Eventually as an infrastructure for hydrogen develops, these units could be powered
with hydrogen directly without the need of a fuel processor. Ballard Power is
presently fieldtesting five of these units in the United States, Germany, Japan and
Switzerland, with four more units planned for 2002. Testing is expected to continue
until 2004 after which commercial introduction is planned (Ballard Power).

7.3 Residential Power:

Fuel cell power plants are also being developed by several manufacturers to provide
electricity and heat to single-family homes. Fuelled by either natural gas or propane,
these plants will be able to supply base-load power or all of the electricity required by
a modern-day home. Ballard Power has developed a one-kilowatt fuel cell designed
to supply both base-load electrical power as well as heat to a dwelling. This unit can
also be fuelled by natural gas. It does not provide enough power to supply the total
electrical demands of a residence, but it does shift a portion of the demand from the
electrical grid to natural gas. The electrical efficiency of this fuel cell system is rated
at 42% and the heat efficiency is rated at 43%. Therefore the combined cogeneration
efficiency of the system can be as high as 85% [8]. This particular generator is
targeted at the Japanese residential market. Ballards goal is to commence sales of
these units in 2004. Plug Power, based in Latham, New York has developed a new
fuel cell power plant that supplies seven kilowatts of electrical power to the home
plus heat, using either natural gas or propane as the fuel.This is enough power to
supply the electrical needs of a modern energy efficient house. At present, these
units are designed to be used in parallel with the grid. This means the fuel cell will
supply base-load power and the utility grid will handle momentary power surges.
Should the electric grid fail, the fuel cell operates as a back-up generator providing
power for the homes critical requirements. A fuel-cell power plant for residential
applications provides 7 kilowatts heat and electricity, enough power for a modern
energy efficient home. Second generation products will be designed to run
independent of the grid. During 2000, Plug Power installed and tested 52 systems in
the field and accumulated over 133,000 hours of system run-time. General Electric

30
which is marketing Plug Powers unit, has announced that commercial introduction of
this home fuel cell power plant is expected in 2002 (Plug Power).

7.4 Portable Power:

Several manufacturers are also developing fuel cell power supplies for portable
applications, providing a few watts up to several kilowatts of electricity. Fuelled by
stored natural gas, propane, methanol or hydrogen gas, portable fuel cells may one
day replace both gasoline and diesel-engine generators for portable applications as
well as conventional batteries for uses such as remote lighting, laptop computers
and mobile phones.
Compared with engine-driven mobile electrical generators, fuel cells have the
significant advantage of being quiet and having low emissions. As they have few
moving parts (only external pumps and fans) they are operate virtually silently. If
stored hydrogen is the fuel, again the only emission is pure water. A significant
advantage of the fuel cell over its battery counterpart is that of its energy density.
Portable power packs using fuel cells can be lighter and smaller in volume for an
equivalent amount of energy, particularly the direct methanol fuel cell. Note that the
comparison here is the fuel tank. The fuel cell makes sense when the energy
storage required by an application represents many hours of operation at full power.
The durability of batteries in this sort of application is at best a few hours. The size,
weight, and cost of energy storage for a fuel cell powerplant easily out competes
batteries. You do have the fixed cost (and size and weight) of the plant, which is a
function of power. This is why it is important to note that the advantage of fuel cells is
for low power, high energy applications. (Ric Pow of Pow Consulting, 2001) [8].
Rechargeable batteries will discharge over time; the colder the ambient temperature
the quicker they will discharge. Also the charge capacity of a rechargeable battery
decreases with the number of times of charge and discharge. Conversely, providing
the hydrogen supply is sealed correctly, a fuel cell will not discharge over time,
maintaining its full charge capacity almost indefinitely.
Direct methanol fuel cells were invented and initially developed at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory in Pasadena, California. They were designed to supply electricity for field
troops in the Armed Forces and for applications with NASA. The direct methanol fuel
cell has the advantage over the hydrogen fuel cell in that they can use a liquid fuel
i.e. methanol without the need for external reforming. Liquid fuel is easy to store and
has a high energy density compared to compressed hydrogen. At present, the direct
methanol fuel cell suffers from relatively low efficiency and high cost, owing to
required platinum loading compared to that of the hydrogen fuel cell. However, as
this improves, it is expected that the direct methanol fuel cell will play a leading role
in providing power for portable and possibly transportation applications. Ballard
Power, Motorola, the Los Alamos National Laboratory and Manhattan Scientific are
all actively pursuing the development of the direct methanol fuel cell. Motorola claims
that a portable cell phone will be able to remain fully charged on standby for a month

31
rather than days. The company has also announced that it plans to have its version
commercially available in three to five years.

Figure 17: Fuel Cell Car [7]

Figure 18: Portable Power [7]

32
 Figure 19: Fuel Cell Busses [7]

Chapter 8

Advantages and Disadvantages Of Fuel Cell:

Fuel cells have various advantages compared to conventional power sources, such
as internal combustion engines or batteries. Although some of the fuel cells'
attributes are only valid for some applications, most advantages are more general.

Benefits include:

Fuel cells have a higher efficiency than diesel or gas engines.

Most fuel cells operate silently, compared to internal combustion engines.
They are therefore ideally suited for use within buildings such as hospitals.
Fuel cells can eliminate pollution caused by burning fossil fuels; for hydrogen
fuelled fuel cells, the only by-product at point of use is water.
33
 If the hydrogen comes from the electrolysis of water driven by renewable
energy, then using fuel cells eliminates greenhouse gases over the whole
cycle.
Fuel cells do not need conventional fuels such as oil or gas and can therefore
reduce economic dependence on oil producing countries, creating greater
energy security for the user nation.
Since hydrogen can be produced anywhere where there is water and a
source of power, generation of fuel can be distributed and does not have to be
grid-dependent.
The use of stationary fuel cells to generate power at the point of use allows for
a decentralised power grid that is potentially more stable.
Low temperature fuel cells (PEMFC, DMFC) have low heat transmission
which makes them ideal for military applications.
Higher temperature fuel cells produce high-grade process heat along with
electricity and are well suited to cogeneration applications (such as combined
heat and power for residential use).
Operating times are much longer than with batteries, since doubling the
operating time needs only doubling the amount of fuel and not the doubling of
the capacity of the unit itself.
Unlike batteries, fuel cells have no "memory effect" when they are getting
refuelled.

Disadvantages:
Hydrogen is currently very expensive, not because it is rare (its the most common
element in the universe!) but because its difficult to generate, handle, and store,
requiring bulky and heavy tanks like those for compressed natural gas (CNG) or
complex insulating bottles if stored as a cryogenic (super-cold) liquid like liquefied
natural gas (LNG).
It can also be stored at moderate temperatures and pressures in a tank
containing a metal-hydride absorber or carbon absorber, though these are
currently very expensive.

34
 Chapter 9

Cost AND Durability Of Fuel Cells:

The high capital cost for fuel cells is by far the largestfactor contributing to the limited
market penetration of this technology. In order for fuel cells to compete realistically
with other contemporary power generation technologies, they must become more
competitive from the standpoint ofboth capital and installed cost (the cost per kilowatt
required to purchase and install a power system) [12].In the stationary power market,
fuel cells could become competitive if they reach an installed cost of $1,500 or less
per kilowatt. Currently, the cost is in the $4,000+ range per kilowatt. In the
automobile sector, a competitive cost is on the order of $60 - $100 per kilowatt, a
much more stringent criterion. The high capital cost (on a $/kW basis) today has led
to a significant effort focused cost reduction. Specific areas in which cost reductions
are being investigated include:
1. Material reduction and exploration of lower-cost material alternatives

2. Reducing the complexity of an integrated system

3. Minimizing temperature constraints (which add complexity and cost to the system)
4. Streamlining manufacturing processes
5. Increasing power density (footprint reduction)
6. Scaling up production to gain the benefit of economies of scale (volume) through
increased market penetration.
It is diffucult to obtain informations on the actual cost of fuel cells. Probably the must
realiable data are coming
Institut fur Kraft-Fahr-Zeuge of Aachen University (Germany) [42] (Table 2). The
Department of Energy (DOE) in USA claims to have reduced the cost of automotive
fuel cells from $275/kW in 2002 to $47/kW in 2012 and is targeting a cost of $30/kW
by 2017 [14]. These cost reductions reflect numerous individual advances in key
areas, including the development of durable membrane electrode assemblies
(MEAs) with low platinum group metal (PGM) content.

35
 Table 2: Cost for Fuel Cell Systems [14]

Demonstrated more than 2,500-hour (75,000 miles) durability of fuel cell systems in
vehicles operating under real-world conditions, with less than 10% degradation. This
is more than double the maximum durability of 950 hours demonstrated in 2006.
Improved the performance of stationary fuel cells, including development of a solid-
oxide fuel cell for microcombined heat and power applications with an almost 25%
increase in system power density, which has enabled a more than 30% reduction
instack volume and a 15% reduction in stack weight. Developed advanced
manufacturing methods and materials that enabled a 50% decrease in the cost of
gas diffusion layers since 2008.

36
 Figure 20: Fuel Cell System Cost Progresses [7]

Chapter 10

Hydrogen And Fuel Cell:

Hydrogen can be produced using diverse, domestic resources including fossil fuels,
such as natural gas and coal (with carbon sequestration); nuclear; biomass; and
other renewable energy technologies, such as wind, solar, geothermal, and hydro-
electric power [12]. The overall challenge to hydrogen production is cost reduction.
For cost-competitive transportation, a key driver for energy independence, hydrogen
must be comparable to conventional fuels and technologies on a per-mile basis in
order to succeed in the commercial marketplace. Hydrogen can be produced via
various process technologies, including thermal (natural gas reforming, renewable
liquid and bio-oil processing, and biomass and coal gasification), electrolytic (water
splitting using a variety of energy resources), and photolytic (splitting water using
sunlight via biological and electrochemical materials). Hydrogen can be produced in
large, central facilities (80500 kms from pointof use), smaller semi-central (located
within 40160 km of use) and distributed (near or at point of use). In order for
hydrogen to be successful in the market place, it must be cost-competitive with the
available alternatives. In the light-duty vehicle transportation market, this competitive
37
requirement means that hydrogen needs to be available untaxed at $2-$3/gge
(gasoline gallon equivalent). This price would result in hydrogen fuel cell vehicles
having the same cost to the consumer on a cost-per-mile-driven basis as a
comparable conventional internal-combustion engine or hybrid vehicle. A viable
hydrogen infrastructure requires that hydrogen be able to be delivered from where
it's produced to the point of end-use, such as a dispenser at a refueling station or
stationary power site. Infrastructure includes the pipelines, trucks, storage facilities,
compressors, and dispensers involved in the process of delivering fuel. The high
cost of hydrogen production, low availability of the hydrogen production systems,
and the challenge of providing safe production and delivery systems are all early
penetration barriers. There are few data on the cost, efficiencies, and availabilities of
integrated coal-to-hydrogen/power plants with sequestration options. Data on the
hightemperature production of hydrogen from nuclear power are limited. Likewise,
there is little operational, durability, and efficiency information for renewable
hydrogen production systems. Hydrogen delivery options need to be determined and
assessed as part of system demonstrations for every potential production
technology. Validation of integrated systems is required to optimize component
development.

Figure 21: Hydrogen Sources [7]

38
 Figure 22: Hydrogen From Electrolysis [7]

Chapter 11

Future Directions Of Fuel Cell Science And Technology:

Future development and implementation of fuel cell technology would depend on
upward trend in global oil price, depletion of oil wells, fall in oil well discovery and the
improvement of hydrogen energy infrastructure. The concern for environmental
pollution and damage from the emission of automobile, thermal power plant,
petroleum-crude refinery would catalyze the process of development unless financial
benefits in terms of lowering of pollution damage cost are perceived by users and the
manufacturers. Infrastructure development of the hydrogen energy encompasses
production, distribution, dispensing and safety regulations of fuels (e.g., hydrogen,
alcohol, esters and natural gases, naphtha and synthesis gases), which is directly
fed to the fuel cells or to the fuel processor. Out of these hydrogen and alcohols can
be generated from renewable sources (wind, solar power in water electrolysis,
biomass gasification and fermentation) and others including hydrogen and alcohol
can also be generated from fossil fuel. In the former case, green house gas emission
is much lower and almost negligible. One can dream of zero emission of air pollutant
and green house gases from automobiles and stationary power plants except for the
case of biomass gasification. In the latter case, the air pollutant will be generated in a
centralized location and cities will be free of pollution, which is otherwise generated
39
from automobile using internal combustion engine. It should be noted that the
hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (H2FCV) and H2FCV-hybrid electric vehicle offers least
environmental damage among all the advanced options. When fuelled with hydrogen
derived from natural gas, pollution damage costs are 1/8 as large as for today's
gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles without CO2 sequestration and 1/15 as
large with CO2 sequestration [15]. Although economics does not work out at present
for PEMFC (Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell) based automobile or SOFC
(Solid Oxide Fuel cell) based stationary power plant with present inadequate
hydrogen infrastructure but it is hoped that with the increase in crude price, no new
crude or gas reserve findings, increase in fuel cell stack efficiency and decrease in
cost of the fuel cell and improvement of hydrogen energy infrastructure facility, the
Fuel Cell Vehicle (FCV) and distributed power generation from fuel cell will become
more profitable leaving aside the cost benefits due to less environmental pollution.
Optimists are looking at 20% use of FCV in worldwide, 10% share of the domestic
power generation from fuel cell source and 50% share of portable electronic
equipment powered by fuel cell by 2020.

Chapter 12
Conclusion:

As it can be read from the previous chapters many technologies of fuel cells do exist
and each one of those technologies has its own strengths and weakness. Each
technology is well suited for certain environments of applications and has many
issues which actually prevents them to be fully commercialized. However there are
four technologies which, both due to the wide interest into the benefits they could
bring and the development level of the fuel cell type, are probably the most suited
technologies to be fully commercialized into the market in the nearest future. Those
technologies are the Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs), Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
(SOFCs), Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) and Direct Methanol
Fuel Cells (DMFCs). The first two, among all the technologies are probably the most
suited for applications regarding static power generation. The technology detains in
fact the greatest advantages in terms of: efficiency, fuel cell life cycle, flexibility
regarding the fuel used, simplicity of the design and contained costs.The second and
third one are the technologies in which most of the world hold the greatest interest
regarding all the other types of applications like: distributed power generation,
portable applications and all the applications concerning the automotive and
transportation sector. However this will only be possible with the development of a
suitable hydrogen network which concerns effective production and efficient
distribution (which involves finding effective solutions regarding the hydrogen storing
safety issues). This report, comparing the fuel cells technologies, want to be a good
instrument for all researchers and technicians interested to work in a field extremely
important for environment and for electrical energy.

40
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41