OPEN-ENDED

QUESTIONS
AND THE PROCESS STANDARDS
Educating studentsfor life, not for testsimplies incorporating open-ended
questions in your teaching to develop higher-order thinking.

Wendy B. sanchez

A
ll societies need citizens who can know and do not knowmuch more than what
solve complex problems and apply they knew before they started using open-ended
knowledge in a variety of contexts questions. Teachers are almost always surprised,
as well as citizens who can work a little disappointed, but often excited about what
collaboratively to solve problems they discover.
and communicate solutions to math- I will share some student responses from the
ematics education stakeholders. We must edu- class of a high school mathematics teacher with
cate students to use NCTMs Process Standards whom I have worked. Ms. Yoder has high expecta-
(NCTM 2000) and move beyond being able to tions of her students. Her students work together
work routine exercises on standardized tests. We to solve problems that require a high level of
are not educating students for tests; we are edu- cognitive demand; the kind of thinking neces-
cating them for life. All stakeholders need to see sary to solve the problems forces students to build
this broader picture and support teachers in this connections to underlying concepts and mean-
broader purpose. ing (Stein et al. 2009, pp. 12). After having her
As a high school mathematics teacher and students work some of the problems presented
mathematics teacher educator, I have used open- here, Ms. Yoder commented, I was dismayed at
ended questions as part of my own teaching prac- the lack of depth and the simplicity of some stu-
tice. Open-ended questions, as discussed here, are dents responses. I have always felt that I teach
questions that can be solved or explained in a vari- on a conceptual level, and I do a lot of listening to
ety of ways, that focus on conceptual aspects of students conversations to assure myself that the
mathematics, and that have the potential to expose level of understanding meets my hopes and expec-
students understanding and misconceptions. tations. . . . But I have rarely required my students
When working with teachers who are using open- to write about mathematics. After using these
ended questions with their students for the first problems with her students, Ms. Yoder reflected,
time, I have found that they learn a considerable Asking these questions made me rethink my
amount, as I did, about what their students both means of assessing students.

206 MatheMatics teacher | Vol. 107, No. 3 October 2013

Copyright 2013 The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. www.nctm.org. All rights reserved.
This material may not be copied or distributed electronically or in any other format without written permission from NCTM.
 When we think about assessment in this era these Process Standards? Consider the following
of No Child Left Behind, we often think about statement by a BC Calculus student:
high-stakes standardized tests, which are typically
multiple-choice tests. So much of what happens My experience in the pastand not to hate on the
in mathematics classes is focused on preparing teachers Ive hadbut theyve never really encour-
students to succeed on these tests. As I work with aged us to think. Its all been cookie-cutter questions,
teachers, they express high levels of anxiety about even with word problems. I remember my algebra 1
making sure that their students are prepared for teachershe had a little trick for everything. Of
these high-stakes tests. Mathematics education course, I dont remember the trick now, and I dont
stakeholdersincluding teacher educators, admin- remember why I was doing it. I felt like there were a
istrators, teachers, students, and parentsneed to lot of shortcuts, and I was never really taught why we
reflect on what standardized tests can and cannot were using them. So I memorized everything, which
measure. Even more important, they must evalu- is what Ive been doing ever since (Stockton 2010).
ate the educational significance of those ideas that
standardized tests cannot assess. This student was lamenting her inability to solve
NCTMs Process StandardsProblem Solving, a complex problem. A student capable of handling
Reasoning and Proof, Communication, Connec- the difficult BC Calculus curriculum expressed her
tions, and Representationare difficult to assess own disappointment that the focus of her education
with multiple-choice tests. For example, one aspect had been procedural.
of the Communication Standard requires students As teachers struggle to ensure that students are
to communicate their mathematical thinking able to answer questions correctly on procedural
coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and oth- tests, many are desperate to find ways to help them
ers (NCTM 2000, p. 60). This standard cannot be remember strategies and steps to find correct solu-
assessed through multiple-choice questions. tions. However, problems that people encounter in
If we do not teach what is not tested, what are everyday life and careers rarely require rote appli-
the implications of not preparing students to meet cation of procedures.

Vol. 107, No. 3 October 2013 | MatheMatics teacher 207

 OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS CAN FOCUS
25
INSTRUCTION ON PROCESS STANDARDS
Using NCTMs Process Standards as a guide,
20
teachers can make questions more open and more
15
focused on conceptual understanding.
Consider this traditional question:
10
y=x2+9
Expand (x + 3)2.
5

2
We could revise this question in several ways. If
y = (x + 3)
20 10 10 20
we wanted to address the Communication Standard,
we could ask students to explain how they deter-
5
mined their answer. We could take the question even
further to incorporate other Process Standards. We
10
could capitalize on a common student error and ask
students to explain why (x + 3)2 x2 + 9. Now we
15
have expanded the question to include the Commu-
20
nication Standard and the Reasoning and Proof Stan-
dard. We could go even further to address the Repre-
Fig. 1 students might also argue that y = (x + 3)2 and y = x2 sentation Standard by asking students to give two or
+ 9 are, respectively, horizontal and vertical shifts of y = x2. three different explanations of why (x + 3)2 x2 + 9.
A typical first explanation that students provide
is this:

(x + 3)2 means (x + 3)(x + 3). I can use the distribu-

tive property to multiply these two binomials so I
get x2 + 3x + 3x + 9, which equals x2 + 6x + 9, which
is not the same as x2 + 9.

Asking students for another explanation forces

them to consider a different representation. For
example, they might choose a numerical representa-
tion and substitute a numerical value for x. Their
explanation might then be something like this:

Fig. 2 algebra tiles geometrically represent the statement (x + 3)2 x2 + 9. Let x = 2. (x + 3)2 = (2 + 3)2 = 25.
x2 + 9 = 22 + 9 = 13. Because 25 13, (x + 3)2
9
x2 + 9.
A(-2, 8) 8

7
Students could also consider a graphical repre-
6 C(10, 6) sentation and show that the graphs of y = (x + 3)2
5
and y = x2 + 9 are different (see fig. 1). They could
4
even consider the problem geometrically by using
3
algebra tiles (see fig. 2).
2 If we teachers intentionally consider NCTMs
B is the midpoint of EC
1 B Process Standards when writing questions, we can
12 10 8 6 4 2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
make18sure that students are required to use the pro-
16
1 cesses. With this particular question, we also coun-
2 ter a common student error in several ways. By
3 seeing multiple representations, students are more
E(-4, -4) 4 likely to avoid the error later on.
5 What Process Standards might students use to
6 D(8, -6) solve the following problem?
7

8 Use three different methods to show that ABC

Fig. 3 slopes, the Pythagorean 9theorem, congruent triangles, and dot products may is a right angle. Explain your reasoning. (See
all be used to show that ABC is a right angle. fig. 3 for solution.)

208 MatheMatics teacher | Vol. 107, No. 3 October 2013

 In solving this problem, students might use the
midpoint formula to determine the coordinates of
point B and then show that AB2 + BC 2 = AC 2. In
this way, they verify that triangle ABC is a right
triangle because its sides satisfy the Pythagorean (a)
theorem and that, therefore, angle ABC is a right
angle. Or, using the distance formula, students Response A
might show that AE = AC; then, using the side-side-
side postulate, they can show that ABC ABE.
Therefore, ABE ABC because corresponding Response B
parts of congruent triangles are congruent. Because

these two angles are congruent EC and form a linear
pair, they must be right angles. Response C
Still another wayto solve
this
 problem is to com-
pute the slopes of EC and AD and show that their
product is 1. More advanced students can demon- (b)
strate the dot product
 of [7, 5] (the rectangular vec-
tor from B to C) andAD[5, 7] (the rectangular vector Fig. 4 sherris solution (a) is incorrect. typical student responses are shown in (b).
from B to A) is 0, making the two vectors orthogo-
nal (perpendicular).
When students are required to provide multiple
solutions, they often use a variety of representations.
As they explain their reasoning, they are commu-
nicating. Although students need to rely on some
procedural knowledge to answer this problem, they
have to decide which procedures would apply to it.
They are not provided with a step-by-step procedure;
consequently, they are involved in problem solving
as well as reasoning and proof. They are making con-
nections among a variety of mathematical topics
slope, congruent triangles, midpoints, the distance
formula, the Pythagorean theorem, and vectors.

WRITING OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

Open-ended questions can be written using vari-
ous templates, several of which are discussed here. Fig. 5 students are asked to provide a possible equation to match this graph.
Teachers who are just beginning to use open-ended
assessment can use these templates for creating 3. Sherri claims that the solution set of the com-
their own questions. We provide examples of sev- pound inequality x 3 or x 5 is shown in
eral types, and for one question of each type, we figure 4. Explain why Alaines solution is incor-
provide sample student responses. rect. Provide the correct solution and explain
how you know your solution is correct.
Template 1: Whats Wrong with This?
The earlier question about expanding (x + 3)2 is an Question 3 was designed to counter the com-
example of this type of question used to identify mon student error of thinking that or always means
errors and misconceptions. We can ask students that the arrows on the graph of a linear inequality
to identify errors and explain why they are errors. should point in opposite directions. Of course,
This template is useful for getting students to think the correct solution set of the linear inequality is
critically about common misconceptions. x 3 because the or means one or the other or both.
Some possible questions using this template follow: Therefore, any real number greater than or equal to
3 would be in the solution set.
1. Provide two different explanations as to why None of the students who answered the question
you cannot simplify the expression (x + 3)/3. (even those whose solutions are not shown in
2. Bert was trying to graph y = (x 3)2. He said fig. 4b) provided the correct solution. They focused
that he could simply shift the graph of y = x2 on the direction of the inequality sign rather than
three units to the left. Convince Bert that his on the meaning of the conjunction or. Student B
method is incorrect. appears to have some misconception about

Vol. 107, No. 3 October 2013 | MatheMatics teacher 209

 Response A Create a system of linear equations that has the solution (2, 3). Explain how you
determined your system.

Response B

Response C

Fig. 6 students nd it difcult to create a linear system when given the solution.

changing the direction of an inequality sign, an procedures that I taught them, but they did not really
equal to, and a colored dot. know what a system of linear equations was or what
a solution of a system of linear equations was.
Template 2: Create an Example or a Situation Ms. Yoders students responses are informative
This form of question is similar to the form of the (see fig. 6). Student A describes shifts of graphs
questions for the game show Jeopardy. We give of quadratic functions, whereas student B found a
students some parameters and ask them to come up single line that contained the point (2, 3). I think
with an example or situation that fits the parame- that students A and B would do just fine on a stan-
ters. We give them the answer and have them come dardized test about systems of linear equations.
up with the question. Like my students who got every problem correct
Some possible questions using this template on my test except this one, these students might be
follow: able to answer standard questions without really
understanding what a system of linear equations is.
1. Give a possible equation for the graph shown After reading these responses, however, I am much
in figure 5. Explain how you determined your more confident that student C has a deeper under-
answer. standing of systems of linear equations than either
2. On a coordinate grid, plot and give the coordi- of the other two students.
nates of four points that are the vertices of a
rhombus. Explain how you know that your fig- Template 3: Who Is Correct and Why?
ure is a rhombus. This form of open-ended questionWho is correct
3. Create a list of ten different numbers whose and why?can be used to set up two opposing
median is 9. Explain how you know that the arguments. Then students can defend one or the
median is 9. other argument.
4. Give two complex numbers whose sum is 7 + 9i. Some possible questions using this template
Explain how you know that your two numbers follow:
have the given sum.
5. Create a system of linear equations that has the 1. Lucinda thinks that the grades in mathematics
solution (2, 3). Explain how you determined class should be calculated using the mean. Norm
your system. thinks that the grades should be calculated using
the median. With whom do you agree and why?
The first time I used open-ended questions in my 2. Daniella is thinking about a particular quadratic
teaching, I included question 5 on an exam. Many function. Terry says that if Daniella told him the
students got every question correct except this one. zeros of the function, he could tell her the equa-
The first section of the exam asked students to tion of the function. Daniella maintains that
solve these systems of linear equations by graph- Terry would need more information. Who is
ing; the second section, to solve by substitution; the correct and why?
third section, to solve by elimination; and the fourth 3. Candace said that if she solves the same system
section, to solve by any method. Then I added this of linear equations as Jermaine, they could get
single open-ended question, and my students were two different answers and both be correct. Jer-
thrown. I knew then that not only was I asking the maine disagreed, saying that if they got two dif-
wrong questions; I was also focusing my instruc- ferent answers, one of them must be incorrect.
tion on the wrong things. My students could follow Who is correct and why?

210 MatheMatics teacher | Vol. 107, No. 3 October 2013

 Response A

Response B

Response C

Fig. 7 Only one of these students fully understands the question.

Question 3 also was designed to get at the mean- responses to open-ended questions give teachers so
ing of the solution of a system of linear equations. much more information about students ways of
From the responses, it appears that only student C thinking and misconceptions, and these can pro-
(see fig. 7) seems to understand the main point of vide important avenues for further investigation of
the questionthat two lines can intersect only in mathematics. When students answer higher-order
one point. questions driven by the Process Standards and
focused on meaning, they will be prepared for any
A Caution about These Templates test we give themin school or in life.
The templates presented here can be useful in giv-
ing teachers a place to start when writing open- ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ended questions, but teachers must be cautious I wish to thank Tom Cooney, who taught me most
when using them. Just because a question fits a of what I know about open-ended assessment.
template does not necessarily mean that the ques- Much of the work presented in this article built on
tion is open ended or of high quality. work published previously at www.heinemann
For example, we could ask the earlier question .com/math (Cooney et al. 2002). I also wish to
in this way: thank Ms. Yoder. Thanks as well to LouAnn Lovin
for her feedback on drafts of this article.
Jasmine solved x + 3 = 5 and got x = 2. Stuart
solved x + 3 = 5 and got x = 8. Who is correct REFERENCES
and why? Cooney, Thomas J., Wendy B. Sanchez, Keith R.
Leatham, and Denise S. Mewborn. 2002. Open-
This form of the question is no different from ask- Ended Assessment in Math. www.heinemann
ing the traditional question Solve x + 3 = 5 for x. .com/math.
The formulation does not involve the conceptual National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
underpinnings of equation solving. (NCTM). 2000. Principles and Standards for School
Mathematics. Reston, VA: NCTM.
PREPARATION FOR LIFE Stein, Mary Kay, Margaret S. Smith, Marjorie A.
Teachers are under more pressure than ever to ensure Henningsen, and Edward A. Silver. 2009.
that students perform well on standardized tests. Implementing Standards-Based Mathematics Instruc-
Consequently, many are using more multiple-choice tion: A Casebook for Professional Development.
questions to prepare their students. School districts 2nd ed. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers
are using benchmark testing to assess students prog- of Mathematics.
ress toward meeting standards and prepare them for Stockton, James. 2010. A Study of the Relationship
accountability tests. These are all perfectly reasonable between Epistemological Beliefs and Self-regulated
strategies, but mathematics education stakeholders Learning among Advanced Placement Calculus
must keep in mind the limits of these accountability Students in the Context of Mathematical Problem
tests. If we think about the purpose of schooling from Solving. PhD diss., Kennesaw State University.
a broader perspective and about preparing students to
solve the kinds of problems that they will encounter WENDY B. SANCHEZ, wsanchez@
in societynot just about preparing them for stan- kennesaw.edu, is an associate professor
dardized testswe need different strategies. of mathematics education at Kennesaw
Open-ended questions can help teachers focus State University in Georgia, where she
their instruction and assessment on NCTMs Pro- teaches secondary school mathematics content and
cess Standards and on reasoning and sense making, methods courses. Her interests include assessment,
which really is the heart of mathematics. Moreover, preservice teacher education, and self-study.

Vol. 107, No. 3 October 2013 | Mathematics Teacher 211