Sound Propagation in Elastic Materials
In the previous pages, it was pointed out that
sound waves propagate due to the vibrations
or oscillatory motions of particles within a
material. An ultrasonic wave may be visualized
as an infinite number of oscillating masses or
particles connected by means of elastic springs.
Each individual particle is influenced by the
motion of its nearest neighbor and
both inertial and elastic restoring forces act upon each particle.
A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency determined by its
spring constant k and its mass m. The spring constant is the restoring force
of a spring per unit of length. Within the elastic limit of any material, there is
a linear relationship between the displacement of a particle and the force
attempting to restore the particle to its equilibrium position. This linear
dependency is described by Hooke's
Law.
In terms of the spring model, Hooke's
Law says that the restoring force due to a
spring is proportional to the length that
the spring is stretched, and acts in the
opposite direction. Mathematically,
Hooke's Law is written as F =-kx,
where F is the force, k is the spring
constant, and x is the amount of particle
displacement. Hooke's law is represented graphically it the right. Please
note that the spring is applying a force to the particle that is equal and
opposite to the force pulling down on the particle.
The Speed of Sound
Hooke's Law, when used along with Newton's Second Law, can explain a
few things about the speed of sound. The speed of sound within a material
is a function of the properties of the material and is independent of the
amplitude of the sound wave. Newton's Second Law says that the force
applied to a particle will be balanced by the particle's mass and the
acceleration of the the particle. Mathematically, Newton's Second Law is
written as F = ma. Hooke's Law then says that this force will be balanced
by a force in the opposite direction that is dependent on the amount of
displacement and the spring constant (F = -kx). Therefore, since the
applied force and the restoring force are equal, ma = -kx can be
written. The negative sign indicates that the force is in the opposite
direction.
Since the mass m and the spring constant k are constants for any given
material, it can be seen that the acceleration a and the displacement x are
the only variables. It can also be seen that they are directly proportional.
For instance, if the displacement of the particle increases, so does its
acceleration. It turns out that the time that it takes a particle to move and
return to its equilibrium position is independent of the force applied. So,
within a given material, sound always travels at the same speed no matter
how much force is applied when other variables, such as temperature, are
held constant.
What properties of material affect its speed of sound?
Of course, sound does travel at different speeds in different materials. This
is because the mass of the atomic particles and the spring constants are
different for different materials. The mass of the particles is related to the
density of the material, and the spring constant is related to the elastic
constants of a material. The general relationship between the speed of
sound in a solid and its density and elastic constants is given by the
following equation:
Where V is the speed of sound, C is the elastic constant, and p is the
material density. This equation may take a number of different forms
depending on the type of wave (longitudinal or shear) and which of the
elastic constants that are used. The typical elastic constants of a materials
include:
Young's Modulus, E: a proportionality constant between uniaxial
stress and strain.
Poisson's Ratio, n: the ratio of radial strain to axial strain
Bulk modulus, K: a measure of the incompressibility of a body
subjected to hydrostatic pressure.
Shear Modulus, G: also called rigidity, a measure of a substance's
resistance to shear.
Lame's Constants, l and m: material constants that are derived from
Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio.
When calculating the velocity of a longitudinal wave, Young's Modulus and
Poisson's Ratio are commonly used. When calculating the velocity of a
shear wave, the shear modulus is used. It is often most convenient to make
the calculations using Lame's Constants, which are derived from Young's
Modulus and Poisson's Ratio.
It must also be mentioned that the subscript ij attached to C in the above
equation is used to indicate the directionality of the elastic constants with
respect to the wave type and direction of wave travel. In isotropic materials,
the elastic constants are the same for all directions within the material.
However, most materials are anisotropic and the elastic constants differ
with each direction. For example, in a piece of rolled aluminum plate, the
grains are elongated in one direction and compressed in the others and the
elastic constants for the longitudinal direction are different than those for
the transverse or short transverse directions.
Examples of approximate compressional sound velocities in materials are:
Aluminum - 0.632 cm/microsecond
1020 steel - 0.589 cm/microsecond
Cast iron - 0.480 cm/microsecond.
Examples of approximate shear sound velocities in materials are:
Aluminum - 0.313 cm/microsecond
1020 steel - 0.324 cm/microsecond
Cast iron - 0.240 cm/microsecond.
When comparing compressional and shear velocities, it can be noted that
shear velocity is approximately one half that of compressional velocity. The
sound velocities for a variety of materials can be found in the ultrasonic
properties tables in the general resources section of this site.
