Chapter 3

3.1 Project Design and Analysis

This project explains how the IR led continuously strikes infrared beams on

the photodiode. As a result the trigger pin (2nd pin) of 555 will get the positive voltage

from Vcc. Hence its output will remain LOW as 555 monostable multivibrators gets a

HIGH output only on negative trigger.

3.1.1 Project Components

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical

voltage. Their primary voltage is greater than their
secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down"
the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step down
transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a country
with a 220v supply. Step down transformers convert
electrical voltage from one level or phase configuration
usually down to a lower level. They can include features for
Figure 3.1 Step-down electrical isolation, power distribution, and control and
transformer instrumentation applications. Step down transformers
typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction between
coils to convert voltage and/or current levels. Step down
transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated
wire wound around a core made of iron. When voltage is
applied to one coil (frequently called the primary or input) it
magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the
other coil, (frequently called the secondary or output). The
turns ratio of the two sets of windings determines the
amount of voltage transformation.

IN4001 is a rectifier diode; This is an electrical device that

converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only
one direction. Rectifiers have many uses, but are often
Figure 3.2 IN4001 found serving as components of DC power supplies and
Diode high-voltage direct current power transmission systems.
Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct
current for use as a source of power. As noted, detectors of
radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems
flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave,
the process of rectification alone produces a DC current
that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current.

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 Electrolytic capacitors (e-caps) are polarized capacitors
whose anode electrode (+) are made of a special metal on
which an insulating oxide layer originates by anodization
(forming), which acts as the dielectric of the electrolytic
Figure 3.3 Electrolytic capacitor. The large capacitance of electrolytic capacitors
Capacitor makes them particularly suitable for passing or bypassing
low-frequency signals up to some mega-hertz and storing
large amounts of energy. They are widely used for
decoupling or noise filtering in power supplies and DC link
circuits for variable-frequency drives, for couple signals
between amplifier stages, and store energy as in a flash
lamp.

A ceramic capacitor is a fixed value capacitor in which

ceramic material acts as the dielectric. It is constructed of
two or more alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer
acting as the electrodes. The composition of the ceramic
material defines the electrical behavior and therefore
applications. Ceramic capacitors are divided into two
application classes:
Class 1 ceramic capacitors offer high stability and low
Figure 3.4 Ceramic losses for resonant circuit applications.
Capacitor Class 2 ceramic capacitors offer high volumetric efficiency
for buffer, by-pass, and coupling applications.

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple
"feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback
control loops. It may use an electromechanical mechanism,
or electronic components. Depending on the design, it may
be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as
computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC
voltages used by the processor and other elements. In
Figure 3.5 Voltage automobile alternators and central power station generator
Regulator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In
an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators
may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so
that all customers receive steady voltage independent of
how much power is drawn from the line.

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component

that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.
Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time,
act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic
circuits, resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust
signal levels, bias active elements, and terminate
Figure 3.6 Fixed Resistor
transmission lines among other uses. High-power resistors,
that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat,
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 may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution
systems, or as test loads for generators. Fixed resistors
have resistances that only change slightly with temperature,
time or operating voltage.

A potentiometer, informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor

with a sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable
voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and
the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. The
measuring instrument called a potentiometer is essentially a
voltage divider used for measuring electric potential
Figure 3.7 Potentiometer (voltage); the component is an implementation of the same
principle, hence its name. Potentiometers are commonly
used to control electrical devices such as volume controls
on audio equipment.

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a

variety of timer, pulse generation, and oscillator applications.
The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an
oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up
to four timing circuits in one package.
In a stable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous
stream of rectangular pulses having a specified frequency.
Figure 3.8 555 Timer Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge
pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2) is connected between
the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and
threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the
capacitor is charged through R1 and R2, and discharged
only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance to ground
during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore
discharging the capacitor.

The BC548 is a general-purpose NPN bipolar junction

transistor commonly used in European and American
electronic equipment. It is notably often the first type of
bipolar transistor hobbyists encounter, and is often featured
in designs in hobby electronics magazines where a general-
purpose transistor is required. This device is designed for
Figure 3.9 BC548
use as general purpose amplifiers and switches requiring
Transistor
collector currents to 300 mA.

The 1N4001 is for use in general purpose rectification of

power supplies, inverters, converters and freewheeling
diodes application.
The 1N4000 series are general purpose silicon diodes
Figure 3.10 IN4001 commonly used as blocking diodes or as rectifiers in power
Rectifier Diode supplies to convert AC power to DC. The 1N4001 is rated at
1-Amp and has a Peak Inverse Voltage rating of 50v.

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 A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that
converts direct current electrical power into mechanical
power. The most common types rely on the forces produced
by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some
internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic;
to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of
Figure 3.11 DC Motor the motor. Most types produce rotary motion; a linear motor
directly produces force and motion in a straight line.
DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could
be powered from existing direct-current lighting power
distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be controlled
over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or
by changing the strength of current in its field windings.
Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances.

An IR sensor consists of two parts, the emitter circuit and

the receiver circuit. This is collectively known as a photo-
coupler or an optocoupler.
The emitter is an IR LED and the detector is an IR
photodiode. The IR phototdiode is sensitive to the IR light
emitted by an IR LED. The photo-diodes resistance and
output voltage change in proportion to the IR light received.
This is the underlying working principle of the IR sensor.
Figure 3.12 IR LED The type of incidence can be direct incidence or indirect
incidence. In direct incidence, the IR LED is placed in front
of a photodiode with no obstacle in between. In indirect
incidence, both the diodes are placed side by side with an
opaque object in front of the sensor. The light from the IR
LED hits the opaque surface and reflects back to the
photodiode.

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light

energy to produce electric current. Sometimes it is also
called as photo-detector, a light detector, and photo-sensor.
These diodes are particularly designed to work in reverse
bias condition, it means that the P-side of the photodiode is
Figure 3.13 Photodiode associated with the negative terminal of the battery and n-
side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. This
diode is very complex to light so when light falls on the
diode it easily changes light into electric current. The solar
cell is also branded as large area photodiode because it
converts solar energy into electric energy. Though, solar cell
works only in bright light.

Microphones convert sound signals into electrical signals.

Speakers do the exact opposite: they convert electrical
signals into audible (sound) signals.
Every speaker has a nominal resistance or, more accurately,
an impedance that represents the average resistance
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 Figure 3.14 Speaker between the speaker leads. Thus, speakers behave similarly
to resistors when placed in series and in parallel.
Frequency response, an important speaker characteristic,
represents the frequency range over which a speaker can
successfully propagate sound waves.

3.2 Project Components:

Sn Quantity Details
1 1 pc Step down transform 12V
2 4 pcs Bridge wave rectifier diode 4001
3 1 pc 100F, 1000 F, 0.22 F Capacitor
4 1 pc LM7805 Voltage Regulator
5 1 pc 100K Potentiometer
6 1 pc IR LED
7 6 pcs 1K, 1K, 100K Resistor
100 , 120 , 470, 0.56 5W
8 1 pc 555 Timer
9 2 pcs BC548 NPN Transistor, BC140
10 1 pc Speaker
11 1 pc 6V DC Motor
Table 3.1 Project Components

The table 3.1 shows are the materials the researchers used for burglar alarm circuit.

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3.3 Circuit Diagram

Figure 3.12 Circuit Diagram

In this project, it explains how the IR led continuously strikes infrared beams

on the photodiode. As a result the trigger pin (2nd pin) of 555 will get the positive

voltage from Vcc. Hence its output will remain LOW as 555 monostable multivibrator

gets a HIGH output only on negative trigger. The researcher observe when an

intruder cuts the IR beam, photodiodes act as an open circuit. Thus 2nd pin gets

negative through resistor R2 turning the monostable output to HIGH. The researcher
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knows the output pin is connected to the base of a NPN switching transistor through

a resistor R3. Thus the transistor becomes ON giving power to the buzzer, connect a

relay instead of the buzzer. The project use two 1.5 battery (AA size) to power the IR

led. Photo diode should be connected in reverse bias mode (i.e. anode to negative

and cathode to positive). Then it conducts when IR beams hits on it, else it acts as an

ordinary diode.

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