PRACTICAL PHYSICS

VERNIER CALLIPERS
EXPERIMENT # 1 (A)
AIM

To measure the diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body, using vernier callipers.

Movable Jaws
Fixed Jaws C D S
Screw
Main Scale
0 1 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 E

P Metallic
strip
Vernier Scale

A B

Sphere

Fig. 1(A) . 1 Vernier callipers measuring diameter of a sphere.

APPARATUS
Vernier callipers, a spherical body (pendulum bob) or a cylinder.

THEORY

1. Vernier constant : It is the smallest distance that can be accurately measured with vernier scale. It is also known
as least count of that instrument.
VC = 1 MSD – 1 VSD also

value of 1 MSD
= Total Number of division on the vernier scale

2. Zero Error : When the two jaws A and B of the instrument are brought together to touch each other, then it
may happen that the zero of the vernier scale does not concide with the zero of the main scale. This defect
in the instrument is called the zero error.
A. (i) Positive zero Error : The zero error is positive when the zero mark of the vernier scale lies toward the right
side of the zero of the main scale. It is so called positive because the measured length is always more than
the actual length.

0 1 2 3

0 5 10

Positive Zero Error

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
(ii) Calculation of zero error : If Nth vernier division concider with a scale division of the instrument with vernier
constant VC, then the value of positive zero error is
e = + (N × VC)
(iii) Zero correction for the positive zero error : correction is negative which means
C = – e = – (N × VC)
(iv)The true reading is
Rt = R0 + C
= R0 – e
= R0 – (N × VC)
where R0 is the observed reading.
B. (i) Negative zero error : The zero error is negative when the zero mark of the vernier scale lies toward the left
side of the zero of the main scale. It is so called negative because the measured length is always less than
the actual length.

0 1

0 5 1
Negative Zero

(ii) Calculation of zero error : If Nth vernier division coincider with a scale division of the instrument with vernier
constant VC, than the value of negative zero error is
e = – (N × VC)
(iii) Zero correction for the negative zero error : Correction is positive which means
C = – e = – (– N × VC)
C = (N × VC)
(iv) The true reading is
Rt = R0 + C
= R0 – (– e)
= R0 + (N × VC)
where R0 is the observed reading
* zero correction C is always the negative of zero error e that C = – e.
3. If with the body between the jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of Nth division of main scale, then main
scale reading (M.S.R) = N.
If nth division of vernier scale coincides with any divisionof main scale, then vernier scale reading (V.S.R.)
= n × (L. C.) (L.C. is least count of vernier callipers)
= n × (V.C.) (V.C. is vernier constant of vernier callipers)
Total reading, T.R. = M.S.R. + V.S.R.
= N + n × (V. C.).

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
PROCEURE

1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e. least count (L.C.) of the vernier callipers and record it stepwise
2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero error. Do it three times
and record them. If there is no zero error, then record ‘zero error nil’.
3. Open the jaws, place the sphere or cylinder between the two jaws A and B and adjust the jaw DB, such that
it gently grips the body without any undue pressure on it. Tight the screw S attached to the vernier scale V.
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main scale reading just
before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called main scale reading (M.S.R.)
5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of the main scale.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the body by 90º for measuring the diameter in a perpendicular direction
(Fig.1 (A).2)

A B

D
AB CD
Fig.1(A).2 Measuring diameter in perpendicular directions. Mean diameter .
2
7. Repect steps 3, 4, 5 and 6 for three different positions. Record the observations in each set in a tabular
form.
8. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
9. Take mean of different values of diameter and show that in the result with proper unit.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers

1 M.S.D. = 1 mm
10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.
9
1 V.S.D. = M.S.D. = 0.9 mm.
10
Vernier Constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = (1 – 0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.
2. Zero error (i).......cm, (ii) ..........cm, (iii).............cm.
Mean zero error (e) =...........cm.
Mean zero correction (C) = – e = ........cm.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

3. Table for the Diameter (D)

Serial Main Scale Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading

No. Reading (N)
Of Observation (cm) No. of Vernier Value Observed Corrected
division [n × (V.C).] D0 = N + n D = D0 + C
coinciding × V.C.
(n) (cm) (cm) (cm)

(1) (2) (3a) (3b) (4a) (4b)

1.. (a) A B 1 6 6 × 0.01 = 0.06 1.06 D1 (a) =
(b) I D1 (b) =
2. (a) A B D2 (a) =
(b) I D2 (b) =
3. (a) A B D3 (a) =
(b) I D3 (b) =

(Note. Observation 1(a) is as sample)

CALCULATIONS
Mean corrected diameter
D1 (a ) D1 (b) D 2 (a ) D 2 (b) D3 (a ) D3 (b)
D=
6
RESULT
The diameter of the given sphere/cylinder is ...... cm.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pressure on it from the jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least as three different places.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The varnier scale may be loose on main scale.

2. The jaws may not be at right angles to the main scale.
3. The graduations on scale may not be correct and clear.
4. Parallax may be there in taking observations.

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EXPERIMENT # 1(B)
AIM

To measure the dimensions of a given regular body of known mass using a vernier callipers and hence find its
density.

APPARATUS

Vernier callipers, a small rectangular metallic block of known mass.

THEORY

(i) For measuring dimensions. If with the body between the jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies ahead of Nth
division of main scale, then main scale reading (M.S.R) = N.
If nth division of vernier scale coincides with any division of main scale, then vernier scale reading (V.S.R.)
= n × (L. C.) (L.C. is least count of vernier callipers)
= n × (V.C.) (V.C. is vernier constant of vernier callipers)
Total reading, T.R. = M.S.R. + V.S.R.
= N + n × (V. C.).
(ii) For volume
Volume of a rectangular block = Length × Breadth × Thickness (height)
i.e., V= bh.
Mass m
Density = i.e., =
Volume V

C D S
Main Scale
0 1 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 E
M

A B

Rectangular block

Fig. 1(B).1 Vernier callipers—Measuring dimensions of a rectangular metallic block.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

H G

Height
F

D C

dth
ea
Br
A Length B
Fig. 1(B).2 Rectangular metallic block.

PROCEDURE

1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e. least count (L.C.) of the vernier callipers and record it stepwise

2. Bring the movable jaw BD in close contact with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero error. Do it three times and
record them. If there is no zero error, then record ‘zero error nil’.

3. Open the jaws, place the sphere or cylinder between the two jaws Aand B and adjust the jaw DB, such that it gently grips the
body without any undue pressure on it. Tight the screw S attached to the vernier scale V.

4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main scale reading just
before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called main scale reading (M.S.R.)

5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of the main scale.

6. Repeat above steps for the other edge of same face of same dimension.

7. Repeat above steps for other face of same dimension.

8. Record your observations in tabular form.

9. Make calculations for each dimension applying zero correction.

10. Take mean of different values of same dimension.

11. Multiply the three mean dimensions to obtain volume of the block.

12. Calculate the density of the block material by dividing its known mass by obtained volume.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Known mass of the block, m =........g.

2. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the Vernier Callipers

1 M.S.D. = 1 mm

10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.
9
1 V.S.D. = M.S.D. = 0.9 mm.
10
Vernier constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = (1 – 0.9) mm = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm
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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
3. Zero error = (i).........cm, (ii) .........cm, (iii) .........cm,

Mean zero error (e) =.........cm

Mean zero correction (C) = – e = .........cm.

4. Table for the length ( )

Serial Side Main Scale Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading

No. Reading (N)
Of Observation (cm) No. of Vernier Value Observed Corrected
division [n × (V.C.)] 0 N n 0 C
coinciding (n) (cm) × (V.C.) (cm)
(cm)

(1) (2) (3) (4a) (4b) (5a) (5b)

1. AB 1
2. EF 2
3. CD 3
4. GH 4

5. Table for the breadth (b)

Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading

Serial Side Main Scale
No. Reading (N)
Of (cm) N.o of Vernier Value Observed Corrected
Observation division [n × (V.C.)] b0 = N + n b = b0 + C
coinciding (n) (cm) × (V.C.) (cm)
(cm)

(1) (2) (3) (4a) (4b) (5a) (5b)

1. BC b1
2. FG b2
3. DA b3
4. HE b4

6. Table for the height (h)

Serial Side Main S cale Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading

No. Reading (N)
Of Obs ervation (cm) No. of Vernier Value Obs erved Corrected
divis ion [n × (V.C.)] h0 = N + n h= h0 + C
coinciding (n) (cm) × (V.C.) (cm)
(cm)

(1) (2) (3) (4a) (4b) (5a) (5b)

1. CG h1 =
2. BF h2 =
3. HD h3 =
4. EA
h4 =

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CALCULATIONS

Mean corrected length of the block,

1 2 3 4
= = ..........cm
4
Mean corrected breadth of the block,
b1 b 2 b3 b 4
b= =............cm
4
mean corrected height of the block,
h1 h 2 h3 h4
h= =............cm
4
Volume of block, V = × b × h =............cm3.
Density of the block material,
m
= =............g cm–3
V
RESULT

Density of block material =............g cm–3

PRECAUTIONS

1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pressure on it from the jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least at three different places.

EXPERIMENT # 1(C)
AIM

To measure internal diameter and depth of a given beaker/calorimeter using a vernier callipers and hence find
its volume.

APPARATUS

Vernier callipers, a beaker or a calorimeter.

THEORY
(i) For measuring internal diameter and depth. If with the body between the jaws, the zero of vernier scale lies
ahead of Nth division of main scale, then main scale reading (M.S.R) = N.
If nth division of vernier scale coincides with any divisionof main scale, then vernier scale reading (V.S.R.)
= n × (L. C.) (L.C. is least count of vernier callipers)
= n × (V.C.) (V.C. is vernier constant of vernier callipers)
Total reading, T.R. = M.S.R. + V.S.R.
= N + n × (V. C.).

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
(ii) For volume. Volume of beaker or calorimeter = internal area of cross section × depth
2
D
or V= .d
2
where, D = internal diameter of beaker/calorimeter
d = depth of beaker/calorimeter.

Upper
Jaws
E
Beaker

Metallic strip
(a) (b)
Fig. 1(C). (a) Internal diameter of beaker. (b) Depth of beaker.

PROCEDURE

1. Determine the vernier constant (V.C.) i.e., least count of the vernier callipers and record it stepwise.
2. Bring the movable jaw BD inclose contact with the fixed jaw AC and find the zero error. Do it three times and
record it. If there is no zero error, then record, “zero error nil”.
Measurement of internal diameter
3. Put the jaw C and D inside the beaker or calorimeter and open them till each of them touches the inner wall
of the beaker or calorimeter, without any undue pressure on the walls. Tight the screw S attached to the vernier
scale V [Fig. 1(C) (a)].
4. Note the position of the zero mark of the vernier scale on the main scale. Record the main scale reading just
before the zero mark of the vernier scale. This reading (N) is called main scale reading (M.S.R.)
5. Note the number (n) of the vernier scale division which coincides with some division of the main scale.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 after rotating the vernier callipers by 90º for measuring internal diameter in a perpendicular
direction
7. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
Measurement of depth
8. Keep the right edge of main scale strip M on the upper edge of the beaker or calorimeter.
9. Press the jaw BD downwards sothat the thin metallic strip E on the back side of M moves downward. Continue
it till the outer edge of E touches the bottom of the beaker or calorimeter [Fig. 1(C) (b)].
10. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for four different position A,B,C and D along the circumference of the upper edge of the
beaker or calorimeter
11. Find total reading and apply zero correction.
12. Take mean of two different values of internal diameter and four different values of the depth.
13. Calculate the volume by using proper formula and show that in the result with proper unit.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
OBSERVATIONS

1. Determination of Vernier Constant (Least Count) of the vernier callipers

1 M.S.D. = 1 mm

10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D.

9
1 V.S.D = M.S.D. = 0.9 mm
10

Vernier constant, V.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = (1 – 0.9) mm

= 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm.

2. Zero error = (i)....... cm, (ii)....... cm, (iii)....... cm.

Mean zero error (e) =....... cm

Mean zero correction (C) = – (e) =........cm.

3. Table for the Internal Diameter (D)

Serial Main Scale Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading

No. Reading (N)
of Observation (cm) No. of Vernier Value Observed Corrected
division [n × (V.C.)] D0 = N + n D= D0 + C
coinciding (n) (cm) × (V.C.) (cm)
(cm)

(1) (2) (3a) (3b) (4a) (4b)

(a) A B D1 (a) =
(b) I D1 (b) =

4. Table for the depth (d)

Vernier Scale Reading Total Reading
Serial No. Position Main Scale
of Observation Reading (N)
(cm) No. of Vernier Value Observed Corrected
division [n × (V.C.)] d0 = N + n d = d0 + C
coinciding (n) (cm) × (V.C.) (cm)
(cm)
(1) (2) (3) (4a) (4b) (5a) (5b)

1. at A d1 =
2. at B d2 =
3. at C d3 =
4. at D
d4 =

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
CALCULATIONS

D1 (a ) D1(b)
Mean corrected internal diameter. D = = ........ cm
2
d1 d 2 d 3 d 4
Mean corrected depth, d = = ........ cm
4
2
D
Volume of beaker/calorimeter = d = ........ cm3
2

RESULT

The volume of the beaker/calorimeter is...... cm3.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Motion of vernier scale on main scale should be made smooth (by oiling if necessary).
2. Vernier constant and zero error should be carefully found and properly recorded.
3. The body should be gripped between the jaws firmly but gently (without undue pressure on it from the jaws).
4. Observations should be taken at right angles at one place and taken at least at three different places.

EXERCISE

Q.1 Vernier calliper is invented by -

(A) Pierre Query (B) George Vernier
(C) Piere Vernier (D) None

Q.2 Least Count of an instrument is -

(A) Minimum distance between two marks on the main scale.
(B) Minimum value which can measured by instrument.
(C) Minimum value which can accurately measured by instrument.
(D) None

Q.3 What is the value of least count of commonly available vernier callipers.
(A) 0.1 cm (B) 0.01 cm
(C) 0.001 cm (D) 0.0001 cm

Q.4 Zero error is positive of vernier when -

(A) Zero mark of vernier coincides with zero of main scale.
(B) Zero mark of vernier lies towards left of zero of main scale.
(C) Zero mark of vernier lies towards right of zero main scale.
(D) None

Q.5 For a more accurate vernier callipers -

(A) L.C. should be more (B) L.C. should be less
(C) accuracy does not depend on L.C. (D) None

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.6 A vernier callipers has its main scale of 10 cm equally divided into 200 equal parts. Its vernier scale of
25 divisions coincides, with 12 mm on main scale. The least count is -
(A) 0.020 cm (B) 0.002 cm (C) 0.010 cm (D) 0.001 cm

Q.7 One centimeter on the main scale of vernier callipers is divided into ten equal parts. If 10 divisions of vernier
scale coincide with 8 small divisions of the main scale, the least count of the callipers is -
(A) 0.005 cm (B) 0.05 cm (C) 0.02 cm (D) 0.01 cm

Q.8 n division of veriner scale of a vernier callipers coincide with (n – 1) divisions main scale. What is the least
count of the instrument if the length of one main scale division is 1 mm -

1 1
(A) 10 n cm (B) cm (C) n cm (D) cm
10 n 100n

Q.9 The main scale of a spectrometer is divided into 720 division in all. If the vernier scale consists of 30 divisions
the least count of the instrument is - (30 division of vernier scale coincide with 29 division of main scale)
(A) 0.1º (B) 1” (C) 1’ (D) 0.1”

Q.10 A vernier calliper has 20 divisions on the vernier scale, which coincide with 19 on the mains scale. The least
count of the instrument is 0.1 mm. The main scale division is of -
(A) 2 mm (B) 1 mm (C) 0.5 mm (D) 0.25 mm

(Q. 11 to 14) The smallest division on the main scale of a vernier callipers is 1 mm and 10th vernier division
coincides with 9th main scale division. When two jaws of the instrument are touched with each other, zero
of vernier scale coincides with zero of the main scale. [IIT-JEE 2005]

Q.11 The least count of the vernier callipers is -

(A) 0.01 mm (B) 0.1 mm (C) 0.1 cm (D) 0.1 m

Q.12 The side of a cube, when measured with the given instrument, gives 10 divisions on main scale and first division
of vernier scale coincides with main scale division. The side length of the cube is -
(A) 10 mm (B) 1 mm (C) 10.1 mm (D) 10.1 cm

Q.13 The volume of the cube, in correct number of significant figures, is -

(A) 0.03 cm3 (B) 1.03 cm3 (C) 1.1 cm3 (D) 1.031 cm3

Q.14 If mass of cube is 2.732 g, then the density of the cube, in correct number of significant figures, is -
(A) 2 g cm–3 (B) 2.6 g cm—3 (C) 2.65 g cm–3 (D) 2.7 g cm–3

Q.15 What is reading of vernier callipers as shown in figure below ?

0 1 2 3 4

0 5 10 V

(A) 1.05 cm (B) 1.055 cm

(C) 1.05 mm (D) 1.55 mm

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.16 In Fortin’s barometer 25 vernier scale divisions coincide with 24 divisions of main scale and there are 20 divisions
in one centimetre. To measure atmospheric pressure the main scale reading was 75.35 cm and 12th vernier
division coincides with one of main scale division. The correct value of pressure is -
(A) 75.362 cm (B) 75.374 cm (C) 75.37 cm (D) 75.36 cm

Q.17 The length of a cylinder is measured with the help of a vernier callipers whose nine divisions of the main scale
are equal to ten divisions of the vernier scale. Smallest division on the main scale is 0.5 mm. It is observed that
zero of vernier scale has just crossed the 78th division of the main scale, if fourth division of the vernier
coincides with any main scale division. The length of the cylinder is -
(A) 78.4 mm (B) 39.40 cm (C) 39.4 mm (D) 39.20 mm

Q.18 The main scale of a vernier callipers reads in millimeter and its vernier is divided into 10 divisions which coincide
with 9 divisions of the main scale. When the two jaws of the instrument touch each other the seventh division
of the vernier scale coincide with a scale division and the zero of the vernier lies to the right of the zero of
the main scale. Furthermore when a cylinder is tightly placed along its length between the two jaws the zero
of the vernier scale lies slightly to the left of 3.2 cm and the fourth vernier division coincides with a scale division
what’s the length of the cylinder -
(A) 3.14 cm (B) 3.07 cm (C) 3.19 cm (D) 3.24 cm

Q.19 The length of a cylinder is measured with the help of a vernier callipers whose smallest division on the main
scale is 0.5 mm and nine divisions of the main scale are equal to ten divisions of the vernier scale. It is observed
that 78th divisions of the main scale coincides with the sixth division of the vernier scale. Calculate the length
of the cylinder -
(A) 3.60 cm (B) 7.83 cm (C) 3.63 cm (D) 7.20 cm

Q.20 In an experiment the angles are required to be measured using an instrument 29 divisions of the main scale
exactly concides with the 30 divisions of the vernier scale. If the smallest division of the main scale is half a
degree (= 0.5º), then the least count of the instrument is – [AIEEE-2009]
(A) half minute (B) one degree (C) half degree (D) one minute

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. C C B C B B C B C A
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B C B C A B D B C D

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SCREW GAUGE
EXPERIMENT # 2(A)
AIM

To measure the diameter of a given wire using a screw gauge and find its volume.

Stud Wire Screw Nut Refrence Line

Main Scale
A B S N
H
E
5 K Ratchet
O

Stud R
Stem Circular Scale Thimble

U frame

Fig. 2 (A) Screw gauge—measuring diameter (thickness) of the wire.

APPARATUS

Screw gauge, wire, half meter scale.

THEORY

1. Pitch : It is defined as the linear distance moved by the screw forward or backward when one complete rotation
is given to the circular cap. It is also defined as the distance between two consecutive threads measured along
its axis.

dis tance travelled on the pitch scale

Pitch (p) =
number of solution

2. Least count (LC) : It is defined as the distance through which the screw moves (forward or backward) when
the cap is rotated through on division one the circular scale

Pitch of the screw

LC =
number of division on the circular scale

3. Zero Error (e) : When the two studs of the screw gauge are brought in contact without applying any under
pressure and if the zero of the circular scale does not concides with the refrance line then there is a zero error.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
A. (i) Positive zero error : If the refrence line is above the zero of the circular scale, then there is positive zero error.

Circular scale

5
0
0

Reference Line

Positive Zero Error

(ii) Calculation of zero error : If the zero of the circular scale lies N division below the refrence line, then the
magnitude of the positive error is e = + (N × LC)
(iii) Zero correction for the positive zero error : correction is negative which means
C = – e = – (N × LC)
(iv) The true reading is
Rt = R0 + C
= R0 – e
= R0 – (N × LC)
where R0 is the observed reading
B. (i) Negative zero error : If the refrence line is below the zero of the circular scale, then there is negative zero
error.

Circular scale

45

Reference Line

Negative Zero Error

(ii) Calculation of zero error : If the zero of the circular scale lies N divisions above the refrence line, then the
magnitude of negative error is
e = – (N × LC)
(iii) Zero correction for the negtive zero error : Correction is positive which means
C = – e = – (– N × LC)
C = (N × LC)
(iv) The true reading is
Rt = R0 + C
= R0 – (– e)
= R0 + (N × LC)
where R0 is the observed reading

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4. If with the wire between plane faces A and B, the edge of the cap lies ahead of Nth division of linear scale.
Then, linear scale reading (L.S.R.) = N.
If nth division of circular scale lies over reference line.
Then, circular scale reading (C.S.R.) = n × (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of screw gauge)
Total reading (T.R.) = L.S.R. + C.S.R. = N + n × (L.C.).
5. If D be the mean diameter and be the mean length of the wire. Then
2
D
Volume of the wire, V =
2

PROCEDURE

1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D.).

2. Determine the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge and record it stepwise.
3. Bring the plane face B in contact with plane face A and find the zero error. Do it three times and record them.
If there is no zero error, then record “zero error nil”.
4. Move the face B away from face A. Place the wire lengthwise over face A and move the face B towards face
A using the ratchet head R. Stop when R turns (slips) without moving the screw.
5. Note the number of divisions of the linear scale visible and uncovered by the edge of the cap. The reading
(N) is called linear scale reading (L.S.R.)
6. Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over reference line.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 after rotating the wire by 90º for measuring diameter in a perpendicular direction
8. Repeat steps 4, 5, 6 and 7 for five different positions separated equally throughout the length of the wire. Record
the observations in each set in a tabular form.
9. Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case.
10. Measure the length of the wire by stretching it along a half metre scale. Keeping one end of wire at a known
mark, note the position of other end. Difference in position of the two ends of the wire gives the length of the
wire. Do it three times and record them.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Determination of least Count of the Screw Gauge

1 L.S.D. = 1 mm
Number of full rotations given to screw =4
Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm
4 mm
Hence, pitch p= = 1 mm
4
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100
1 mm
Hence, least count, = = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm.
100
2. Zero Error. (i)...........cm, (ii)...........mm, (iii)...........mm,
Mean zero error (e) =.........mm,
Mean zero correction (C) = – e = ......... mm.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
3. Table for diameter (D)

Serial Linear Scale Circular Scale Reading Total Reading

No. Reading (N)
Of Observation (mm) No. of Circular Value Observed Corrected
Scale division [n × (L.C.)] D0 = N + n D = D0 + C
on reference × (L.C.)
line (mm) (mm) (cm)
(n)

(1) (2) (3a) (3b) (4a) (4b)

1. (a) A B 0 5 5 × 0.01 = 0.05 0.05 D1(a) =
(b) I D1(b) =
2. (a) A B D2(a) =
(b) I D2(b) =
3. (a) A B D3(a) =
(b) I D3(b) =
4. (a) A B D4(a) =
(b) I D4(b) =
5.(a) A B D5(a) =
(b) I D5(b) =

(Note. Observation 1(a) is as sample)

CALCULATIONS

Length of the wire, = (i) ............. cm, (ii) ............. cm, (iii) ............. cm.
Mean diameter of the wire,
D1 (a ) D1 (b) .......... D5 (a ) D5 (b)
D= =.........mm =.........cm
10
Mean length of the wire,

1 2 3
= =........cm
3
Volume of the wire,
2
D
V= =......cm3.
2

RESULT

The volume of the given wire is....... cm3.

PRECAUTIONS
1. To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K.
2. The screw should move freely without friction.
3. The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and added algebraically.
4. For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction to avoid back-lash error of the
screw.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
5. At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions and then the mean
of the two be taken.
6. Readings should be taken atleast for five different places equally spaced along the whole length of the wire.
7. Error due to parallax should be avoided.

EXPERIMENT # 2 (B)

AIM

To measure the thickness of a given sheet using a screw gauge.

APPARATUS

Screw gauge, sheet (it must be rigid).

THEORY

1. If with the wire between plane faces A and B, the edge of the cap lies ahead of Nth division of linear scale.
Then, linear scale reading (L.S.R.) = N.
If nth division of circular scale lies over reference line.
Then, circular scale reading (C.S.R.) = n × (L.C.) (L.C. is least count of screw gauge)
Total reading (T.R.) = L.S.R. + C.S.R. = N + n × (L.C.).
2. If D be the mean diameter and be the mean length of the wire. Then
2
D
Volume of the wire, V =
2

PROCEDURE

1. Find the value of one linear scale division (L.S.D.).

2. Determine the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge and record it stepwise.

3. Bring the plane face B in contact with plane face A and find the zero error. Do it three times and record them.
If there is no zero error, then record “zero error nil”.

4. Move the face B away from face A. Place the wire lengthwise over face A and move the face B towards face
A using the ratchet head R. Stop when R turns (slips) without moving the screw.

5. Note the number of divisions of the linear scale visible and uncovered by the edge of the cap. The reading
(N) is called linear scale reading (L.S.R.)

6. Note the number (n) of the division of the circular scale lying over reference line.

7. Repeat steps 4, 5, 6 for 5 different positions spread equally throughout the surface of the sheet. Record
observation in tabular form.

8. Find total reading and apply zero correction in each case.

9. Take mean of different values of thickness.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
OBSERVATIONS

1. Determination of least Count of the Screw Gauge

1 L.S.D. = 1 mm

Number of full rotations given to screw =4

Distance moved by the screw = 4 mm

4 mm
Hence, pitch p= = 1 mm
4
Number of divisions on circular scale = 100

1 mm
Hence, least count, = = 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm.
100
2. Zero Error. (i)...........cm, (ii)...........mm, (iii)...........mm,

Mean zero error (e) =.........mm,

Mean zero correction (C) = – e = ......... mm.

3. Table for the thickness (t)

Circular Scale Reading Total Reading

No. of Circular Value Observed Corrected
Serial Linear Scale Scale [n × (L.C.)] t0 = N + n t= t0 + C
No. Reading (N) (cm) division on × (L.C.)
of Observation reference line
(n) (mm) (mm) (mm)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

1. . t1 =
2. t2 =
3. t3 =
4. t4 =
5. t5 =

CALCULATIONS

1. Find value of t for each observation and write the observed value t0 in column (4a).
2. Write corrected value of t in column (4b).
3. Find mean of values of t recorded in column (4b).
t1 t 2 t3 t 4 t5
Mean thickness of the sheet, t = mm =..........cm
5

RESULT

The thickness of the given sheet is.......mm = ........cm.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

PRECAUTIONS

1. To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K.
2. The screw should move freely without friction.
3. The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and added algebraically.
4. For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction to avoid back-lash error of the
screw.
5. At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions and then the mean
of the two is taken.
6. Readings should be taken atleast for five different places equally spaced along the whole length of the wire.
7. Error due to parallax should be avoided.

EXERCISE
Q.1 Micrometer is the name of -
(A) Vernier callipers (B) Screw gauge
(C) Spherometer (D) None

Q.2 Pitch of a screw gauge -

(A) Axial advancement of M.S. in one rotation of circular scale.
(B) Transverse movement of M.S. in one rotation of circular scale.
(C) Axial advancement of circular scale when M.S. rotated by one rotation.
(D) None

Q.3 The metal of screw of screw gauge is -

(A) Tungsten (B) Lead
(C) Gun Metal (D) Iron

Q.4 What is the least count of commonly available screw gauge -

(A) 0.01 mm (B) 0.1 mm (C) 0.001 mm (D) 1mm

Q.5 Which screw gauge is more accurate -

(A) With a pitch of 0.5 mm (B) with pitch of 1 mm
(C) both (D) can’t say

Q.6 The +ve zero error is -

(A) when zero watch with base line (B) when zero is above the base line
(C) when zero is below the base line (D) none

Q.7 The pitch of a screw gauge is 0.5 mm. Its head scale contains 50 divisions. The least count of the screw gauge
is -
(A) 0.001 mm (B) 0.01 mm
(C) 0.02 mm (D) 0.025 mm

Q.8 The pitch of screw gauge is 0.5 mm and there are 50 division on the circular scale. In measuring the thickness
of a metal plate, there are five divisions on the pitch (or main) scale and thirty fourth division coincides with
the refrence line. The thickness of the metal plate is -
(A) 2.50 mm (B) 2.34 mm
(C) 2.44 mm (D) 2.84 mm

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.9 The distance advanced by screw of a screw gauge is 2 mm in four rotation. Its cap is divided into 50 divisions.
The screw reads 3 divisions on the main scale and 32 divisions on the cap, if there is no zero error then the
diameter of wire is -
(A) 3.32 mm (B) 1.82 mm (C) 2.87 (D) 4.72

Q.10 The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions on the circular scale. While measuring the
diameter of a wire, the linear scale reads 1 mm & 47th division on the circular scale coincides with the reference
line. The length of the wire is 5.6 cm. The curved surface area (in cm2) of the wire in appropriate number of
significant figures - [IIT-2004]
(A) 2.4 (B) 2.5 (C) 2.6 (D) 2.7

Q.11 Zero correction as per given figure of a standard screw gauge is -

1 2
0

(A) 0.002 cm (B) – 0.002 cm (C) – 0.003 cm (D) 0.003 cm

Q.12 Two full turns of the circular scale of a screw gauge cover a distance of 1 mm on its main scale. The total number
of division on the circular scale is 50. Further it is found that the screw gauge has a zero error of – 0.03 mm.
While measuring the diameter of a thin wire, a student notes the main scale reading of 3 mm and the number
of circular scale divisions in line with the main scale as 35. The diameter of the wire is - [AIEEE-2008]
(A) 3.73 mm (B) 3.67 mm
(C) 3.38 mm (D) 3.32 mm

Q.13 The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions on its circular scale. When nothing is put in
between its jaws, the zero of the circular scale lies 4 divisions below the refrence line when a steel wire is placed
between the jaws, two main scale divisions are clearly visible and 67 division on the circular scale are observed.
The diameter of the wire is -
(A) 2.67 mm (B) 2.04 mm
(C) 2.71 mm (D) 2.63 mm

Q.14 The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 100 divisions on the cap. When nothing is placed in between
its jaws, it reads – 5 divisions. When a wire is held there, the reading on the main scale is 2 mm and 69 division
on its cap. If the length of wire is 20 cm, the volume in mm3 will be -
(A) 2.74 × 103 (B) 2.69 × 103
(C) 1.18 × 103 (D) 1.88 × 103

Q.15 The pitch of a screw gauge is 1 mm and there are 50 divisions on its cap. When nothing is put in between the
studs, 44th division of the circular scale coincides with the refrence line. When a glass plate is placed between
the studs, the main scale reads three divisions and the circular scale reads 26 division. The thickness of the
plate is -
(A) 3.52 mm (B) 3.12 mm
(C) 3.64 mm (D) 3.40 mm

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.16 The circular divisions of shown screw gauge are 50. It moves 0.5 mm on main scale in one rotation. The diameter
of the ball is - [IIT-2006]
O 0
10 30
5 25
0 20

(A) 2.25 mm (B) 2.20 mm (C) 1.20 mm (D) 1.25 mm

Q.17 The main scale of a screw gauge reads in millimeter. The cap of the instrument is divided into 100 equal parts.
Find the diameter of a wire if no division on the main scale is completed and the cap has been moved through
37 division, the zero being – 3 division -
(A) 1.40 mm (B) 1.34 mm (C) 0.34 mm (D) 0.40 mm

Q.18 The pitch of a screw gauge is 0.5 mm and there are 100 divisions on it circular scale. The instrument reads
+ 2 divisions when nothing is put in between its jaws. In measuring the diameter of wire, there are 8 divisions
on the main scale and 83rd division coincides with the refrence line -
(A) 4.425 mm (B) 8.425 mm (C) 4.405 mm (D) 8.425 mm

Q.19 The pitch of a screw gauge is 0.5 mm and there are 50 divisions on circular scale. When there is nothing between
the two ends (studs) of screw gauge, 45th division of circular scale is coinciding with screw gauge, and in this
situation zero of main scale is not visible. When a wire is placed between the studs, the linear scale reads 2
divisions and 20th division of circular scale coincides with reference line. For this situation mark the correct
statement(s) -
(A) Least count of the instrument is 0.01 mm (B) Zero correction for the instrument is + 0.45 mm
(C) Thickness of wire is 1.65 mm (D) All of the above

Q.20 The following observations were made when a screw gauge was used to measure the diameter of a wire.
1. Number of turns of the screw = 6 [SCRA - 2007]
2. Distance through which the screw moved = 6 mm
3. Number of divisions on the head scale = 100
4. Mean of the zero correction = + 0.09 mm
5. Pitch scale reading = 2
6. Head scale reading = 42
What is the diameter of the wire ?
(A) 2.42 mm (B) 2.51 mm (C) 2.33 mm (D) 2.46 mm

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . B A C A A C B D B C
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans . C C D C C C D C D B

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

SIMPLE PENDULUM
EXPERIMENT # 3
AIM
To study dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum by plotting a graph between square of amplitude and time.

APPARATUS
Ticker timer, paper tape, meter scale, thread, clamp, metallic brick as bob, clamps, split cork and a spring balance.

THEORY
The energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is directly proportional to its amplitude. When the bob of a simple
pendulum is set into vibrations, its amplitude goes on decreasing with time due to friction of air and friction
at the point of support. Such vibrations whose amplitude decreases with time due to some dissipative force are
called damped vibrations. The vibrations of simple pendulum are also damped vibrations.
At any time t the energy Et is given by Et = E.e– t, where is the decay constant and energy E is given by
1
E= KA2 where A is the amplitude and K is force constant.
2

Split Cork
Stand

Thread

Clamps

Metallic
Brick
Ticker Paper Tape
Timer

PROCEDURE
1. Find the mass of the metallic brick by the spring balance.
2. Fix the clamp stand on the edge of the table with the help of clamps.
3. The one end of the thread with the metallic brick and pass the other end of the thread through the split cork
hold the cork in the clamp stand.
4. Fix the ticker timer at the same height above the ground on the brick is attach the paper tape at the centre of
the brick with the help of the cello tape.
5. Pull the brick towards the ticker timer and taut the paper tape. Start the ticker timer and release the brick.
6. As the brick reaches the outer extreme switch off the ticker timer.
7. Remove the paper tape. The pattern of dots obtained on the tape will be as shown below

C A B Paper tape

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
8. Mark the central dot A and the extreme dots B and C corrensponding to the extreme positions of the mettllick
brick.
9. Measure the distance of the dots from the central dot A.

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of for spring balance = ....... kg
Corrected mass of the metallic block = m = ...... kg
Time period of ticker-timer (one tick) = ...... sec
Length of simple pendulum, = L = ........ m

2
Side from central dot S. no. of dot from Dis placement from (A mplitude) Time Interval

central dot (A ) central dot A (m) = t = No. of dot x time period

A mplitude
1
Right 2
3
1
Left 2
3

GRAPH

2
A

X
O t
From the graph it is clear that Energy (Amp)2 and the energy of the pendulum decreases with time.

PRECAUTIONS
1. An inextensible and string thread should be used for making the pendulum.
2. The lower faces of the split cork should lie in the same horizontal plane.
3. The amplitude of ocsillation should be kept small.
4. The experiment should be performed at a place which in free from any air disturbance.
5. The metallic brick should be suspended close to the ground.
6. The metallic brick should move along the refrence line without any jerkey motion.

RESULT
The sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the bob (metallic block) of the simple pendulum is constant
within the limits of the experimental error. This shows that the energy is being transferred from kinetic to
potential and vice versa. From the above graph it is proved that there is dissipation of energy during SHM of
simple pendulum.
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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
PRECAUTIONS

1. Pendulum support should be rigid.

2. The amplitude should remain small.
3. Pendulum should be sufficiently long (about 2 metres)
4. Pulling string should be used to avoid spinning of the metallic block.
5. Paper tape should be attached to the centre of the bottom of the block.

SOURCE OF ERROR

1. The support may not be fully rigid.

2. Movement of metallic block may not be proper.

EXERCISE

Q.1 Any motion that repeats itself after a definite or fixed interval of time is known as -
(A) Projectile motion (B) Uniform motion
(C) Periodic motion (D) circular motion

Q.2 The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its mean position is called -
(A) Time period (B) Amplitude
(C) Frequency (D) None

Q.3 For a particle executing SHM which of the following statements holds good ?
(A) The mechanical energy of the particle remains constant
(B) The restoring force is maximum at extreme position
(C) The restoring force is always directed towards a fixed point
(D) All of these

Q.4 A particle (bobs) executes simple harmonic motion between x = – A and X = + A. The time taken for it to go
from 0 to A/2, A/2 to A is T1 and T2 respectively then - [IIT-2001]
(A) T1 < T2 (B) T1 > T2 (C) T1 = T2 (D) T1 = 2 T2

Q.5 For a simple pendulum undergoing SHM with small oscillations, which of the following describes the kinetic
energy of the bob and the tension of the thread supporting the bob at zero displacement -
(A) Kinetic energy (max), Tension (min) (B) Kinetic energy (0), Tension (max)
(C) Kinetic energy (max), Tension (max) (D) Kinetic energy (0), Tension (min)

Q.6 While studying the dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum by plotting a graph between square of amplitude
and time which of the following apparatus is not essential ?
(A) ticker timer (B) meter scale
(C) paper tape (D) stop watch

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.7 A particle is moving along x-axis under the influence of a force f = kx. Potential energy U at x = 0 is zero. Correct
relation between potential energy and x is shown by the curve (k is postive) - [IIT-2004]

U U U U

x x
(A) (B) (C) x (D) x

Q.8 In an experiment to find loss of energy w.r.t. time in the case of swinging simple pendulum the correct graph
between (amp)2 and time is -

a2 a2 a2
a2
(A) (B) (C) (D)

t t t t

A
Q.9 Amplitude of vibrations of simple pendulum is A. It becomes after 20 seconds. The amplitude after
3
60 seconds will be -

A A A A
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6 8 9 27

Q.10 Variation of energy of the bob E moving in viscous medium as function of time t is shown graphically as -

E0
E0 E0 E0

(A) E (B) E (C) E (D) E

O t O t O t O t

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . C B D A C D A A D B

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

METRE SCALE
EXPERIMENT # 4
AIM

To determine the mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of moments.

APPARATUS

A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge with sharp edge, a weight box, a body of unknown mass.

THEORY

Metre scale as a beam balance :

(a) Introduction : Like a physical balance, a metre scale can be used as a beam balance making use of the same
principle of moments.
Besides it has adjustable power arm and weight arm about fulcrum whose length can be adjusted.
(b) Diagram : See fig.

0 20 50 60 70 80 90 100

Unknown body Paper pan

Standard weights
mg
Wedge Mg
Figure (a) Metre-scale balance.
Power and weight arms of equal length.

0 20 50 60 70 80 90 100

Unknown body Paper pan

Standard weights
mg
Wedge Mg
Figure (b) Metre-scale balance.
Power and weight arms of unequal length.
(c) Construction (Arrangement) : The metre scale is balanced by putting its 50 cm mark over the sharp edge of
a heavy broad wedge which works as fulcrum. In this position the weight of the metre scale and reaction of
the wedge, balance each other.
(d) Working : The body is tied to a strong and light thread loop and suspended on the left of the wedge on some
fixed mark. (Say 20 cm in diagram)
A light paper pan is suspended by a strong and light thread on the right. Weights are put on the pan. The
position of the loop of the pan and weight in it are so adjusted that the metre scale becomes horizontal again.
Position of thread of the loops and the amount of weights in the pan are noted.
Mass of the body is calculated using following theory.
(e) Theory : If m and M be the mass of the body and mass of the weight used and a1 and a2 be the distance of
their loops from wedge. Then, power (mass) arm = a1, weight arm = a2
From principle of moments mg a1 = Mg a2
No.70, Panduranga Nagar Near Adigas Restaurant, Bannerghatta Road Bengaluru 27
 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

Ma 2
or m= , which can be calculated.
a1
(f) Two different methods :

(i) Arm lengths fixed and equal and weight adjustable.

The thread loops are suspended at position forming both arm of equal length. Weights in the paper pan are
adjusted till the metre scale becomes horizontal. (figure (a)).
In this case a1 = a2 = a
Hence, mga1 = Mga2
or m=M
A physical balance makes use of this method.

(ii) Masses and power arm fixed and weight arm adjustable.
Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1.
Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight loop thread in and out till the metre scale becomes horizontal
(figure (b))
In this case a1 = a, a2 = A
Hence mga1 = Mga2, becomes mg a = MgA
A
or m =M
a

PROCEDURE

(i) First method

1. Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it at the sharp edge of the broad heavy wedge at 50 cm mark.
2. Suspended the body of unknown mass by a loop thread at a fixed mark on the left of the wedge.
3. Suspended paper pan at same distance on the right of the wedge with some weights in it.
4. Adjust the weights in paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the mass of the weights in the pan.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three time by increasing the length of the arms in equal steps keeping the lengths equal.
7. Record the observations as given below in table.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

S. No. Length of weight M as s of W eight in the Unknown mas s

(or power) arm Paper pan (body)
a (cm) M (g) m(g)
1. 30 M 1 = 20 m1 = M 1 = 20
2. 35 M 2 = 20 m2 = M 2 = 20
3. 40 M 3 = 20 m3 = M 3 = 20
(Note : Observations are as sample)
m1 m 2 m 3
Mean mass, m= g = ... g
3
It will be found that M1 = M2 = M3 = m in all cases.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
RESULT

The unknown mass of the body, m = 20 g

(ii) Second method

1, 2.Step 1 and 2 of first method.

3. Suspend the paper pan on the right of the wedge with some known weight in it.
4. Adjust the distance of the paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the position of the paper pan and thus length of the weight arm.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing the mass of the weights by equal amount.
7. Record the observations as given below in table.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Fixed length of power arm = a = 25 cm

S. No. Mass of weight Length of the Unknown mass
in the paper pan Weight arm (body)
M(g) A(cm) m(g)
M1A 1
1. 20 A 1 = 30 m1 = = 24
a
M2 A 2
2. 30 A 2 = 20 m2 = = 24
a
M3 A 3
3. 40 A 3 = 15 m3 = = 24
a

(Note : Observations are as sample)

m1 m 2 m 3
Mean mass, m= g = ... g
3
It will be found that m1 = m2 = m3 = m in all cases.

RESULT

The unknown mass of the body, m = 24 g

PRECAUTIONS

1. The wedge should be broad and heavy with sharp edge.

2. Metre scale should have uniform mass distribution.
3. Threads used for loops should be thin, light and strong.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The wedge may not be sharp.

2. Metre scale may have faulty calibration.
3. The threads used for loops may be thick and heavy.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

EXERCISE

Q.1 For a body free to turn about a point or axis of rotation the turning effect produced by a force applied on a
body, is called -
(A) Torque (B) Moment of force
(C) None (D) Both

Q.2 The point about which the body is free to turn is called -
(A) yield point (B) equilibrium point
(C) fulcrum (D) breaking point

Q.3 For a body in equilibrium under the action of several forces acting in one plane, vector sum of moments about
fulcrum of all the forces acting in a plane on the body will be -
(A) maximum (B) minimum
(C) Infinite (D) zero

Q.4 A beam balance or physical balance works on the principle of -

(A) energy conservation (B) angular momentum conservation
(C) moments (C) gravitational pull

Q.5 In measurement of mass of a given object by the principle of moments, the meter scale is hung from its mid-
point. A known weight of mass 2 kg is hung at one end of meter scale and unknown weight of mass m kg is
hung 20 cm from the centre on other side. The value of m is -
(A) 2 kg (B) 5 kg
(C) 2.5 kg (C) 0.8 kg

Q.6 A mass 60 gram is suspended at 30 cm mark of a metre scale pivoted at mid-point. Then at what location, a
weight of 40 gram can keep the metre scale horizontal ?
(A) 30 cm (B) 70 cm
(C) 80 cm (D) 95 cm

Q.7 A student is asked to measure the mass of stone with the help of metre scale in the laboratory. He balances
the metre scale taken uniform at 50 cm mark. He suspends the stone tied to a light thread at 20 cm mark and
a standard weight of 0.98 N at 70 cm mark. The correct value of mass of stone will be -

200
(A) 100 g (B) g
3

(C) 150 g (D) 10 g

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.8 In an experiment to find mass of a body with the help of meter rod. Following data is recorded where length
of fixed arm (power arm) is 25 cm
mass at weight pan (g) length of weight arm is (cm)
20 30
32 20
60 10
the calculated mass is -
(A) 42.5 g (B) 42.3 g
(C) 24.8 g (D) 24.5 g

Q.9 A body weighs 34.2 g when placed in one pan of a balance and 30 g when placed in other one. What is the
true mass of the body if the arms have unequal length -
(A) 34.2 g (B) 32.03 g
(C) 30 g (D) 33.03 g

Q.10 An object is weighed on a balance whose pans are not equal in masses when placed in the left pan, the object
appears to weigh 10.30 g but when placed is the right pan, it appears to weigh 12.62 g. The correct mass of
the object is -
(A) 10.30 g (B) 12.62 g
(C) 11.46 g (C) 12.40 g

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . D C D C B C B D B C

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

YOUNG’S MODULUS
EXPERIMENT # 5
AIM

To determine the Young’s Modulus of the material of a given wire using Searle’s apparatus.

APPARATUS
1
Searle’s apparatus, two long steel wires of same length and diameter, a meter scale, a screw gauge, eight kg
2
slotted weights and a 1 kg hanger.

DESCRIPTION OF SEARLE’S APPARATUS

Construction and Working : Searle’s apparatus is used to find

Young’s modulus of wire. Searle’s apparatus consists of two
metallic frames P and Q (see figure) held together by cross bars
B1 and B2. The two metallic frames are suspended from a rigid A C
support with the help of wires W1 (compensating wire) and W2
(experimental wire, whose ‘Y’ is to be determined) from a rigid W1 W2
support. To keep the wire W1 taut, a constant weight W is
B2 D
attached to the frame P. To cause extension in the experimental B
wire W2, slotted weights of magnitude half kilogram each are
slipped to the hanger H attached to the frame Q.
B1
One end of a spirit level S is pivoted to the frame P and the
S
other end rests on the tip of micrometer screw, which can be
moved in the frame Q along a vertical scale marked in millimetres.
The micrometer screw is adjusted so that the spirit level is in the
horizontal position. This is so, when the bubble of the spirit
P Q
level stands exactly in the centre. On loading the hanger H, the
wire W 2 is elongated and the frame Q gets lowered. The
micrometer screw is raised till the bubble again stands in the
H
centre. The distance by which the screw is moved measures the
increase in length produced in the wire W2 due to the load
W
added in the hanger.
In order to determine Young’s modulus of a wire with Searle’s
apparatus, one should know up to what value of the load, the
wire can be loaded. If the wire is loaded beyond the elastic limit, Figure : Searle's apparatus
the strain no longer remains proportional to stress and increase
in length begins to take place much rapidly. Further, when the
load is removed, the wire does not return to its original length.
Now, there is a permanent increase in length.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
THEORY

If a wire of length L and radius r be loaded by a weight Mg and if be the increase in length.

Mg
Then, Normal stress =
r2

and Longitudinal strain =

L
Normal stress
Hence, Young’s modulus =
Longitudinal strain
Mg / r 2 MgL
or Y= or Y=
/L r2
Knowing L and r, and finding for known Mg, Y can be calculated.

PROCEDURE
1. Take two steel wires of same length and diameter and tight their ends in torsion screws A, B and C, D as shown
in diagram. Wire AB becomes experimental wire and wire CD becomes auxiliary wire.
2. Suspend a 1 kg dead load from hook of frame P.
1
3. Suspend a 1 kg hanger and eight kg slotted weights from hook of frame Q. The experimental wire becomes
2
taut.
4. Remove kinks from experimental wire by pressing the wire between nails of right hand thumb and first finger
(through a handkerchief) and moving them along the length of the wire.
5. Remove all slotted weights from hanger. Now each wire is equally loaded with 1 kg weight.
6. Measure length of experimental wire from tip C to tip D using a metre scale.
7. Find the pitch and the least count of the screw gauge.
8. Measure diameter of the experimental wire at five different places, equally spaced along the length (near two
ends, two quarter distance from ends and middle). At each place, measure diameter along two mutually
perpendicular directions. Records the observations in the table.
9. Note the breaking stress for steel from table of constants. Multiply that by the cross-section area of the wire
to find breaking load of the wire. The maximum load is not to exceed one-third of the breaking load.
10. Find the pitch and the least count of the spherometer screw attached to frame Q.
11. Adjust the spherometer screw such that the bubble in the spirit level is exactly in the centre. Note the reading
of the spherometer disc. This reading is recorded against zero load.
1
12. Gently slip a kg slotted weight in the hanger and wait for two minutes to allow the wire to extend fully. Bubble
2
moves up from the centre.
13. Rotate the spherometer screw to bring the bubble back to centre. Note the reading of the spherometer disc. This
1
reading is recorded against kg load in load increasing column.
2
1
14. Repeat steps 12 and 13 till all the eight kg slotted weights have been used (now total load on experimental
2
wire is 5 kg which must be one-third of the breaking load).
15. Now remove one slotted weight (load decreasing), wait for two minutes to allow the wire to contract fully. Bubble
moves down from the centre.
16. Repeat step 13. The reading is recorded against load in hanger in load decreasing column.
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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
17. Repeat steps 15 and 16 till all the eight slotted weights are removed (now load on experimental wire is 1 kg the
initial load).
(Observations for same load in load increasing and in load decreasing column must not differ much. Their mean
is taken to eliminate the error.)
18. Record your observations as given below.

OBSERVATIONS
Length of experimental wire CD, L = .... cm ; = .... m
Measurement of diameter of wire
Pitch of the screw gauge (p) = 0.1 cm
Number of divisions on the circular scale = 100
0 .1
Least count of screw gauge (L. C.) = = 0.001 cm
100
Zero error of screw gauge (e) = .... cm.

Table 1. Diameter of Experimental wire

Circular Scale Reading
Serial Linear Scale Total Reading
No. of division Value
No. of Reading N + n × (L.C.)
on reference line n × (L.C.)
Obs. N (cm) d (cm)
(n) (cm)
(1) (2) (3a) (3b) (4)
1 d1 =
2 d2 =
3 d3 =
4 d4 =
5 d5 =
6 d6 =
7 d7 =
8 d8 =
9 d9 =
10 d 10 =

Measurement for extension of wire

Breaking stress for steel (from table), B = .... N m–2
Area of cross-section of wire, r2 = .... cm2 = .... m2
Breaking load, = B r2 = .... N
B. r 2
= = .... kg (1 kg = 9.8 N)
9 .8
1/3rd of breaking load = .... kg
Pitch of spherometer screw, (p) = 0.1 cm
Number of divisions in the disc = 100
0 .1
Least Count of spherometer (L.C) = = 0.001 cm
100

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Table 2. Load and extension

Spherometer screw Reading Extension

Serial Load on
Load Load Mean for load
No. of hanger x y
increasing decreasing z= 2.5 kg
Obs. M (kg) 2
x (cm) y (cm) (cm) ( cm )
(1) (2) 3(a) (3b) (3c) (4)
1 0.0 z1 =
2 0.5 z2 =
3 1.0 z3 =
4 1.5 z4 =
5 2.0 z5 =
6 2.5 z6 = 1 (z 6 z 1)
7 3.0 z7 = 2 (z 7 z2)

8 3.5 z8 = 3 (z8 z3 )

9 4.0 z9 = 4 ( z9 z4)

CALCULATIONS

From table (1)

Mean observed diameter of the wire,
Extension ( )

d1 d 2 .... d10
d0 = = .... cm.
10
Mean corrected diameter of the wire,
d = (d0 – e) = .... cm = .... m.
Mean radius of wire,
d
r= = .... m. Load (M)
2
From table (2)
Mean extension for 2.5 kg load
1 2 3 4
= = .... cm = .... m.
4
From formula,
MgL 2.5 9.8 L
Y= 2 = Nm–2.
r r2

Calculation of M/ from graph

Plot a graph between M (column 2) and z (column 3c) taking M along X-axis and z along Y-axis. The graph comes
to be a straight lines. From it for a known value of M can be calculated. The same value can be used to get
a single average value of Young’s modulus Y.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

RESULT
1. The Young’s modulus for steel as determined by Searle’s apparatus.
= .... Nm–2.
2. Straight line graph between load and extension shows that stress strain. This verifies Hooke’s law.
Percentage Error
Actual value of Y for steel (from tables)
= .... Nm–2
Difference in values = .... Nm–2
Difference in values
Percentage error = = ..... %.
Actual value
It is within limits of experimental error.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Both the wires (experimental and auxiliary) should be of same length, material and thickness.
2. Both the wires should be supported from same rigid support.
3. Kinks should be removed from experimental wire before starting experiment.
4. Diameter of wire should be measured at different places and along two mutually perpendicular directions at every
place.
5. Slotted weights should be added and removed gently.
6. Two minutes wait should be made after adding or removing a weight.
7. Load should be increased or decreased in regular steps.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Experimental wire may not have uniform cross-section throughout.
2. The slotted weights may not have standard weight.

EXERCISE

Q.1 The property by virtue of which it regains its original shape or size after the deforming force is removed known as-
(A) Resistivity (B) Capillarity
(C) Elasticity (D) None

Q.2 The limiting value of the stress upto which the direct proportionality between stress and strain is maintained
will be -
(A) Elastic limit (B) Breaking point
(C) Yield point (D) Breaking stress

Q.3 A point on the stress-strain curve at which the wire begins to flow and thins out uniformly even without any
increase in the load is -
(A) Breaking point (B) Yield point
(C) Breaking stress (D) None

Q.4 A point in stress-strain curve, when the wire goes on increasing in length without increase in load, a stage comes
at which the wire ultimately breaks is -
(A) Yield point (B) Breaking point
(C) Breaking stress (D) Elastic limit

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

Q.5 The minimum value of the load with which the wire breaks is called -
(A) Yield point (B) Breaking point
(C) Breaking stress (D) None

Q.6 Longitudinal strain is equal to -

Change in volume Change in length

(A) (B)
Original volume Original length
(C) Young’s modulus (D) Bulk modulus

Q.7 Young’s modulus of elasticity of a material is equal to -

(A) tensile stress (B) strain

tensile stress
(C) (D) None
Longitudinal strain

Q.8 In stress-strain graph, yield point, breaking point and elastic limit are respectively represented by points -

Q R
P
stress

strain
(A) Q, R, P (B) P, R, Q
(C) R, Q, P (D) P, Q, R

Q.9 Young’s moduls of a wire can be worked out by knowing length of wire, extension of wire, load and diameter
of wire etc. The quantity which should be measured more accurately is -
(A) length of wire (B) extension in wire
(C) load applied (D) diameter of wire

Q.10 In Searle’s apparatus we have two wires. During experiment we study the extension in one wire. The use of
second wire is -
(A) to support the apparatus because it is heavy and may not break single wire
(B) to compensate the changes in length caused by changes in temperature of atmosphere during experimentation
(C) to keep the apparatus in level so that extension is measured accurately
(D) all the three above

Q.11 In Searle’s apparatus two wires are used to suspend the apparatus from rigid support. The two wires -
(A) must be identical in all respects
(B) must have same thickness and length
(C) must be of same meterial and same length
(D) may be any wire as support wire of same length

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

Q.12 The device which measures the extension of wire in Searle’s apparatus for Young’s modulus of elasticity is -
(A) vernier callipers (B) screw gauge
(C) spherometer (D) metre scale

Q.13 The air bubble in sprit level in Searle’s apparatus is at centre. With increase in length of experimental wire
towards your right hand, the air bubble will shift towards your -
(A) right towards experimental wire (B) towards compensating wire
(C) towards either of them (D) does not shift

Q.14 Hooke’s law is applied to calculate the extension produced by load suspended. The load suspended on the
experimental wire in Young’s modulus experiment can have -
(A) any value (B) should not exceed breaking load

1 1
(C) should not exceed of breaking load (D) should not exceed of breaking load
2 3

Q.15 The teacher allows all the students of a class to perform the experiment to determine the Young’s modulus of
elasticity with the same experimental wire. It does not give correct result to the last student because of -
(A) elastic limit (B) elastic fatigue
(C) plasticity (D) permanent set

Q.16 While measuring the Young’s modulus of Elasticity a student gets value Y during winter. Repeating the same
experiment with the same material during summer, the value will be -
(A) equal to Y (B) more than Y
(C) less than Y (D) None of these

Q.17 Student A finds the Young’s modulus of a given wire of length , then student B finds the Young modulus of
the same wire of length 2 using the same load. Then -
(A) reading of B will be half of A’s reading (B) reading of B will be twice of A’s reading
(C) reading of B will be same as of A’s reading (D) reading of B will be one fourth of A’s reading

Q.18 A student performed an experiment with four different wires P, Q, R and S of the same material and of same
length and plotted load versus elongation graph
S
R
Q
load
P

Elongation
the thinest wire he used is -
(A) S (B) R (C) Q (D) P

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.19 In an experiment four different sets of wire of same material are used. Which of these will have the largest
extension when the same tension is applied -
(A) length = 50 cm, diameter = 0.5 mm (B) length = 100 cm, diameter = 1 mm
(C) length = 200 cm, diameter = 2 mm (D) length = 300 cm, diameter = 3 mm

Q.20 The adjacent graph shows the extension ( ) of a wire of length 1m suspended from the top of a roof at one
end and with a load W connected to the other end. If the cross sectional area of the wire is 10–6 m2. Young’s
modulus of the material of the wire is -

4
3
(× 10–4 m)
2
1

20 40 60 80
W (N)

(A) 2 × 1011 N/m2 (B) 2 × 10–11 N/m2

(C) 3 × 10–12 N/m2 (D) 2 × 10–13 N/m2

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . C A B B C B C A D B
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans . A C B D B C C D A A

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

SURFACE TENSION
EXPERIMENT # 6 (A)

AIM

To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.

APPARATUS

Three capillary tubes of different radii and a tipped pointer clamped in a metallic plate with a handle, travelling
microscope, clamp and stand, a fine motion adjustable height stand, a flat bottom open dish, clean water in a
beaker, thermometer.

THEORY

Rise of liquid level in a capillary tube (Ascent formula) :

Let a capillary tube be dipped in a liquid which makes concave meniscus in the tube. Due to surface tension,
the tube molecules exert a force T on the liquid molecules in the unit length of the circle of contact of the liquid
surface with the tube. This force acts at an angle (angle of contact) with the wall of the vessel [fig. (a)].
Components T sin perpendicular to the wall of the tube cancel for the whole circle. Component T cos along
the wall of the tube become added. For the tube of radius r, the circle of contact has circumference 2 r and
the upward force on all molecules becomes 2 rT cos .
It is this upward force that pulls the liquid upward in the capillary tube. The liquid rises in the capillary tube
upto a height till the weight of the liquid risen equals this force.
Let the liquid rise upto a height h(as measured for the lower meniscus B) and let the meniscus ABC have
hemispherical shape [Fig. (b)].
Then, voume of the liquid risen upto lower meniscus = r2h.
Volume of liquid in meniscus above B [Fig. (b)]
= Volume of cylinder of radius and height r – Volume of hemisphere of radius r
2 1
= r2 . r – r3 = r3
3 3
T cos T cos

A C
T sin r T sin
B
T T
h

A r D r C

B
(a) (b)

Fig. : 6.(1) Water level rising in a glass capillary tube

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Total volume of the liquid risen

1 r
= r2h + r3 = r2 h
3 3
If liquid has a density , then

r
mass of liquid risen = r2 h
3
r
and weight of the liquid risen = r2 h g
3

For equilibrium,

r 2T cos r
r2 h g = 2 r T cos or h= –
3 r g 3
1
[From above we find that h , i.e., liquid rises more in a capillary tube of small radius]
r
(h r / 3)r g
Also, T=
2 cos
Measuring height h of liquid risen in capillary tube and knowing other quantities, surface tension of liquid (T),
can be calculated.

r hr g
[In practice, is neglected as compared to h, then T = ]
3 2 cos

TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
Q

Eye-Piece
E

Compound Microscope
Q R

Objective O
Main Scale

P
P
V

L L
Fig. : 6. (2) Travelling microscope

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
A travelling microscope is a device which is used for the accurate measurement of very small distances.
Basically, it is a compound microscope fixed on a strong metallic horizontal platform which can be balanced with
the help of levelling screws L and L [Fig. 6.(2) ]. The compound microscope has ability to slide or travel both
along horizontal and vertical levels. Due to the horizontal or vertical travelling of the microscope, we have named
it as a travelling microscope.
The compound microscope consists of two convex lenses called objective O which is placed closed to the object
and eye-piece E placed near the eye of an observer. The objective O is a simple convex lens small aperture and
a small focal length. These two lenses are placed in two distinct tubes placed coaxially. To focus object the tubes
can be moved by using a rack and pinion arrangement R. The microscope has a crosswire in front of eye-piece
which serves as a reference mark. The object to be seen is placed in front of the objective and the image is
viewed through the eye piece. The image fomed is virtual, magnified and inverted.
The distance through which the microscope moves can be read with the help of a vernier scale (V) moves with
the microscope along with the scale engraved on the frame work. The horizontal movement of microscope is
done with the help of screw P in the [Fig. 6. (2)] and the vertical movement of microscope is done with the help
of screw Q whereas the horizontal and vertical shifting for fine adjustment microscope can be done with the
help of fine screws P and Q .

PROCEDURE

DIAGRAM

Capillary
tubes

Handle
Clamp Metallic
plate

Pointer

Stand Dish

Adjustable
stand

Fig. 6.(3): Measurement of surface tension by capillary rise method

(a) Setting the apparatus

1. Place the adjustable height stand on the table and make its base horizontal by levelling screws.

2. Take dirt and grease free water in an open dish with flat bottom and put it on the top of the stand.

3. Take three capillary tubes of different radii (ranging from 0.05 mm to 0.15 mm).

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
4. Clean and dry them, clamp the capillary tubes in a metallic plate in order of increasing radius. Also clamp a
pointer after third capillary tube.
5. Clamp the horizontal handle of the metallic plate in a vertical stand, so that the capillary tubes and the pointer
become vertical.
6. So adjust the height of metallic plate that the capillary tubes dip in water in open dish.
7. Adjust the position of the pointer, such that its tip just touches the water surface.
(b) Measurement of capillary rise
8. Find the least count of the travelling microscope for the horizontal and the vertical scale. Record the same in
the note-book.
9. Raise the microscope to a suitable height, keeping its axis horizontal and pointed towards the capillary tubes.
10. Bring the microscope in front of first capillary tube (which has maximum rise).
11. Make the horizontal cross wire just touch the central part of the concave meniscus (seen convex through
microscope [fig. 6.4(b)]
12. Note the reading of the position of the microscope on the vertical scale.
13. Now move the microscope horizontally and bring it in front of the second capillary tube.
14. Lower the microscope and repeat steps 11 and 12.
15. Repeat steps 13 and 14 for third capillary tube.
16. Lower the stand so that pointer tip becomes visible.
17. Move the miscroscope horizontally and bring it in front of the pointer.
18. Lower the microscope and make the horizontal cross wire touch the tip of the pointer. Repeat step 12.
(c) Measurement of the internal diameter of the capillary tube.
C D

Capillary
B tube

Fig. 6.4 (a) Fig. 6.4 (b) Fig.6. 4 (c)

19. Place the first capillary tube horizontally on the adjustable stand.
20. Focus the microscope on the end dipped in water. A white circle (inner bore) surrounded by a green circular
strip (glass cross-section) will be seen [fig. 6.4(c)].
21. Make horizontal cross-wire touch the inner circle at A. Note microscope reading on vertical scale.
22. Raise the microscope to make the horizontal cross-wire touch the circle at B. Note the reading (the difference
gives the vertical internal diameter AB of the capillary tube).
23. Move the microscope on horizontal scale and make the vertical cross wire touch the inner circle at C. Note
microscope reading on horizontal scale.
24. Move the microscope to the right to make the vertical cross-wire touch the circle at D. Note the reading (the
difference gives the horizontal internal diameter CD of the capillary tube).
25. Repeat steps 19 to 24 for other two capillary tubes.
26. Note temperature of water in dish.
27. Record your observations as given below.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

OBSERVATIONS

Least count of travelling microscope (L.C.) = ..... cm.

Table for height of liquid ris e
Reading of Menis cus Reading of Pointer Tip
Serial Total Total Height
No. of M.S.R V.S.R. Reading M.S.R V.S.R. Reading h 1 – h 2
Capillary N n × (L.C.) N + n(L. C.) N n × (L.C.) N + n(L. C.)
tube (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) = h (cm)
h 1 (cm) h 2 (cm)
(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (3a) (3b) (3c) (4)
1.
2.
3.

Table for internal diameter of the capillary tube

Microscope Reading for cross

Internal Diameter
Serial Wire in position
Internal radius
No. of
Mean
Capillary Vertical Horizontal d
(A) (B) (C) (D) AB CD = r (cm)
tube AB CD 2
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) 2
(cm) (cm)
d(cm)
(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (2d) (3a) (3b) (3c) (4)
1.
2.
3.

Temperature of water, (t) = .... ºC.

Density of water at observed temperature, = .... g cm–3
Angle of contact of water in glass, = 8º
i.e., cos = 0.99027 taken as 1.

CALCULATIONS
From formula,
r ( h r / 3) g
T =
2 cos
Put values of h (column 4-first table) and r (column 4-second table) for each capillary tube separately and find
the value of T (in dynes cm–1).
Find mean value,
T1 T2 T3
T =
3
= ....... dynes cm–1.
RESULT
The surface tension of water at tºC = ....... dynes cm–1.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
PRECAUTIONS

1. Capillary tube and water should be free from grease.

2. Capillary tube should be set vertical.
3. Microscope should be moved in lower direction only to avoid back lash error.
4. Internal diameter of capillary tube should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
5. Temperature of water should be noted.
SOURCES OF ERROR
Water and capillary tube may not be free from grease.

EXPERIMENT # 6 (B)

AIM
To study the effect of the detergent on surface tension by observing capillary rise.

APPARATUS
Three capillary tubes of different radii and a tipped pointer clamped in a metallic plate with a handle, travelling
microscope, clamp and stand, a fine motion adjustable height stand, a flat bottom open dish, clean water in a
beaker, thermometer.

THEORY
A detergent when added to distilled water it reduces surface tension of water. If we use same capillary tube
to study the rise of pure distilled water and then the rise of detergent mixed water (solution), we shall find that
the rise will be lesser in case of solution. If quantity of detergent (solution concentration) is increased, rise will
be still lesser.

PROCEDURE
1. Set the apparatus as in previous Experiment.
2. Find the rise of pure distilled (grease free) water through the capillary tube following all the steps of previous
Experiment.
3. Take a known volume of distilled water from same sample.
4. Dissolve a small known mass of a detergent in the water to make a dilute solution.
5. Find the rise of the solution in same capillary tube. The rise will be less than that for pure water.
6. Add double mass of detergent in same volume of water to have a solution with double concentration.
7. Find the rise of this concentrated solution in same capillary tube. The rise will be still lesser.
8. Repeat with solution of same detergent having increased concentration. Rise will decrease as concentration
increases.
[ Note : Do not make solution too much concentrated to effect density]

OBSERVATION

The rise in capillary tube decreases with addition of detergent in pure water with more addition of detergent,
rise becomes lesser and lesser.

RESULT

The detergent reduces the surface tension of water.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

PRECAUTIONS

1. Capillary tube and water should be free from grease.

2. Capillary tube should be set vertical.
3. Microscope should be moved in lower direction only to avoid back lash error.
4. Internal diameter of capillary tube should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
5. Temperature of water should be noted.

SOURCES OF ERROR

Water and capillary tube may not be free from grease.

EXERCISE
Q.1 While measuring surface tension of water using capillary rise method the necessary precautions to be taken
care of is/are -
(A) Capillary tube should be clean while water should have some grease
(B) Both capillary tube and water should be clean
(C) No need to take care of temperature of water
(D) None of the above

Q.2 To determine the surface tension of water, the radius of meniscus is measured with the help of -
(A) spherometer (B) screw gauge
(C) travelling microscope (D) micrometer

Q.3 A, B and C are three capillary tubes. Material of A and B is same whereas that of C is different. Radius of B
and C is same whereas that of A is double of any one of them. Then in an experiment to determine surface tension-
(A) results are same in the case of A and B only
(B) results are same in the case of B and C only
(C) rise of liquid will be same in B and C but less in A
(D) rise of liquid will be different in all the tubes

Q.4 P, Q and R are three capillary tubes of same radius and same material, P is closed from top, Q is open from top
and R is partially closed from top is taken for the experiment. Height of rise of liquid in tubes in ascending order is -
P Q R

(A) P, Q, R (B) Q, P, R (C) R, P, Q (D) Q, R, P

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.5 A capillary tube (P) is dipped in water. Another identical tube Q is dipped in a soap-water solution which of
the following shows the relative nature of the liquid colunm in the two tubes ? [AIEEE-2008]

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

Q.6 To mesure the height of water level a student sees the pointer tip through the travelling microscope he must
have seen this image -

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Q.7 At constant temperature if a graph is drawn between the capillary height and radius of the capillary tube for
a given liquid. Which of the following will it be -

(A) (B) (C) (D)

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.8 While performing the experiment to find out the surface tension of water, Ajay got the height of the water
6 cm during winter. Repeating the same experiment during summer, the height would be -
(A) h > 6 (B) h = 6 (C) h < 6 (D) h = 12

Q.9 To observe, how is the surface tension of water affected on dissolving a detergent in it experimentally, student
must observe that -
(A) pure water rises to a higher level in the same capillary tube whereas detergent solution rises to a lesser
height
(B) the height of detergent solution is more than the rise of water in an identical capillary tube
(C) same rise of water and detergent solution in both the tubes
(D) water rises in the capillary tube but detergent solution depressed in the tube

Q.10 While measuring surface tension of water using capillary rise method the reading, when pointer was observed
found at 3.3 cm whereas when meniscus was measured found at 6.3 cm and the horizontal vernier reading were
2.3 cm and 3.3 cm respectively. If every precaution is taken care of, then surface tension of water is -
(A) 1.72 N/m (B) 2.77 N/m
(C) 0.77 N/m (D) 1.67 N/m

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . B C D D B C A C A C

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY
EXPERIMENT # 7

AIM

To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring the terminal velocity of a given
spherical body.

APPARATUS

A half metre high, 5 cm broad glass cylindrical jar with millimetre graduations along its height, transparent
viscous liquid, one steel ball, screw gauge, stop clock/watch, thermometer, clamp with stand.

THEORY

Terminal velocity :
(a) Definition : The maximum velocity acquired by the body, falling freely in a viscous medium, is called terminal
velocity.
(b) Expression : Considering a small sphere of radius r of density falling freely in a viscous medium (liquid) of
density . The forces acting on it are :
4
The weight of the sphere acting downward = r3 g
3
4
The upward thrust = Weight of the liquid displaced by the sphere = r3 g
3
The effective downward force,
4 3 4 3
mg = r g– r g
3 3
4 3
= r ( – )g
3
Upward force of viscosity, F =6 rv
When the downward force is balanced by the upward force of viscosity, the body falls down with a constant
velocity, called terminal velocity.
Hence, with terminal velocity,
4 3
6 rv = r ( – )g
3
2
2 r ( )g
or Terminal velocity, v =
9
This is the required expression.

2 r2 ( )g
Terminal velocityv =
9
2 r2 ( )g
or =
9 v
knowing r, and , and measuring v, can be calculated.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

DIAGRAM

Clamp

Thermometer

Liquid
Stand
Steel ball

Glass
cylinder

Scale

PROCEDURE

1. Clean the glass jar and fill it with the viscous liquid, which must be transparent.
2. Check that the vertical scale along the height of the jar is clearly visible. Note its least count.
3. Test the stop clock/watch for its tight spring. Find its least count and zero error (if any)
4. Find and note the least count and zero error of the screw gauge.
5. Determine mean radius of the ball.
6. Drop the ball gently in the liquid. It falls down in the liquid with accelerated velocity for about one-third of the
height. Then it falls with uniform terminal velocity.
7. Start the stop clock/watch when the ball reaches some convenient division (20 cm; 25 cm; .....).
8. Stop the stop clock/watch just when the ball reaches lowest convenient division (45 cm).
9. Find and note the distance fallen and time taken by the ball.
10. Repeat steps 6 to 9 two times more.
11. Note and record temperature of the liquid.
12. Record your observations as given ahead.

OBSERVATIONS

Least count of vertical scale = .... mm.

Least count of stop clock/watch = .... s.
Zero error of stop clock/watch = .... s.
Pitch of the screw (p) = 1 mm.
Number of divisions on the circular scale = 100
1
Least count of screw gauge (L.C.) = = 0.01 mm
100
Zero error of screw gauge (e) = .... mm.
zero correction of screw gauge (C) = (–e) = .......... mm

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Diameter of spherical ball
(i) Along one direction, D1 = .... mm
(ii) In perpendicular direction, D2 = .... mm
Terminal velocity of spherical ball
Distance fallen S = .... cm
Time taken, t1 = .... s
t2 = .... s
t3 = .... s
CALCULATIONS
D1 D 2
Mean diameter D= mm
2
D
Mean radius r = mm = .... cm
2
t1 t 2 t 3
Mean time t = = .... s
3
S
Mean terminal velocity, v = = .... cm s–1
t
2r 2 ( )g
From formula, = = .... C.G.S. units.
9v

RESULT
The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid at temperature ( ºC) = .... C.G.S. units.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Liquid should be transparent to watch motion of the ball.
2. Balls should be perfectly spherical.
3. Velocity should be noted only when it becomes constant.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The liquid may be have uniform density.
2. The balls may not be perfectly spherical.
3. The noted velocity may not be constant.

EXERCISE
Q.1 While performing an experiment to find coefficient of viscosity the ball should be -
(A) centrally dropped in the glass jar
(B) dropped along the calibrated side of glass jar
(C) dropped along the opposite side of calibrations
(D) dropped in any manner but slowly

Q.2 While performing an experiment to find coefficient of viscosity to avoid the formation of air bubble around the
surface of steel balls -
(A) the balls should be kept absolutely dry before dropping them
(B) the balls should be rinsed with acetylene
(C) the balls should be wetted with the used viscous liquid
(D) the balls should be dropped gently
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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.3 A lead ball is dropped in a long tube containing honey. Which of following statements is true ?
(A)It will fall with same constant acceleration less than g because of force of buoyancy
(B) It will come to rest at some position inside the tube, not at the bottom, due to opposing viscous drag and
force of buoyancy
(C) The opposing forces of buoyancy and viscosity will ultimately make it to fall with constant velocity
(D) Lead ball (having more density than honey) will fall with acceleration due to gravity

Q.4 A solid sphere falls with a terminal velocity of 32 m/s in air. If it is allowed to fall in vacuum, then -
(A) the terminal velocity will be 32 m/s
(B) the terminal velocity will be less than 32 m/s
(C) the terminal velocity will be greater than 32 m/s
(D) there will be no terminal velocity

Q.5 A body is dropped in a viscous liquid. The motion of body can described by velocity time graph as -

v
v v v
(A) (B) (C) (D)

O t O t O t O t

Q.6 A student marks two points A and B at a distance l on a tube filled with glycerine having density and places
a funnel on its top end. He dips a lead shot of density in glycerine and places it gently on glycerine in funnel,
after lead shot achieves terminal velocity, he starts stop watch as lead shot passes point A and stops the watch
as lead shot passes through B. He notes down the time taken by lead shot falling from A to B. The terminal
velocity of lead shot as calculated by him is -

Funnel
2r 2 ( )g
(A) v =
9
Cork
2r ( )g Clamp
(B) v2 =
9
Paper Strip
l
(C) v =
t
Glycerine
t Stand Paper Strip
(D) v =
l
Lead Shots

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.7 The graph between terminal velocity (along y-axis) and square of radius (along x-axis) of spherical body of
density allowed to fall through a fluid of density is a -
(A) straight line with positive slope (B) straight line with negative slope
(C) straight line perpendicular to x-axis (D) straight line perpendicular to y-axis

Q.8 A student did the experiment with liquid in summer and get the value of coefficient of viscosity X, when he
repeats the experiment in winter with the same liquid. The reading Y this time would be -
(A) equal to X (B) more than X (C) less than X (D) very much less

Q.9 The terminal velocity of sphere dropped in a long tube of viscous medium is not -
(A) directly proportional to the difference in density of body and medium
(B) directly proportional to the radius of body
(C) directly proportional to the square of radius of body
(D) inversely proportional to the coefficient of viscosity

Q.10 In an experiment to determine the coefficient of viscosity of oil, a copper sphere of radius r is dropped in a tank
of oil. The average time is t for the sphere to fall between two levels h distance apart. The density of oil is
and density of sphere is . The coefficient of viscosity of oil is -

2r 2 t 2r 2 h 2 r 2h 2r 2 h
(A) ( – )g (B) ( – )g (C) g( – ) (D)
9h 9t 9 t 9 t

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . A C C D B C A B B A

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

EXPERIMENT # 8(A)

AIM
To determine specific heat of a given solid (lead shots) by method of mixtures.

APPARATUS

Solid (lead shots), copper calorimeter with copper stirrer and lid, calorimeter jacket (wooden box with coating
of insulating material inside), hypsometer, heating arrangement tripod, burner and wire gauze or a hot plate, two
Celsius thermometers graduated in 0.2ºC. Water and a physical balance, weight box and milligram fractional
weights.

THEORY

The law of mixtures states that when two substances at different temperatures are mixed, i.e., brought in thermal
contact with each other, then the heat is exchanged between them, the substance at higher temperature loses
heat and that at lower temperature gains heat. Exchange of heat energy continues till both the substances attain
a common temperature called equilibrium temperature.
The amount of heat energy lost by the hotter body is equal to the amount of heat energy gained by colder
body, provided (i) no heat is lost to the surroundings and (ii) the substances mixed do not react chemically to
produce or absorb heat. In brief, the law mixtures is written as :
On mixing of two substances at different temperatures, if no heat is lost to surroundings ; at the equilibrium
temperature,
Heat gained = Heat lost
For a body of mass m, and specific heat s, when its temperature falls by , the amount of heat lost by it is
given as
Q = m.s.
The same formula is used for the amount of heat gained by colder body where would be the rise in
temperature.

SPECIFIC HEAT

Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance
through one degree celsius.
S.I. unit of specific heat is J kg–1 K–1. Convenient measures of mass in the lab is gram and temperature is ºC
so we express specific heat as J g–1 ºC–1.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

Celsius thermometer TA
TB, range 0ºC to 100ºC.
(0.2ºC least count)

Lead shots
Hypsometer

Steam S
N

Cotton

Stirrer

Jacket

Fig. 8.1 : Hypsometer for generating steam and Fig. 8.2 : Calorimeter containing known mass of water,
heating the given solid. stirrer and a thermometer placed inside a jacket.

PROCEDURE

1. To ensure that two thermometers read the temperature of a body exactly the same, one is compared with the
other one which is taken as the standard thermometer.
Mark the thermometer used for measuring temperature of water in calorimeter at room temperature as T A and
the other used in hypsometer as TB. Suspend them side by side from a clamp stand and note their readings.
The error in the temperature measured by thermometer B, is
e = TB – TA
The correction is (– e).
The correction (– e) is algebracally added to readings of temperature recorded by thermometer T B used
hypsometer.
2. Take about 100 grams of lead shots in the tube of hypsometer and add sufficient quantity of water in the
hypsometer.
3. Insert the thermometer marked TB in the tube such that its bulb is surrounded by lead shots and fix the tube
inside the mouth of hypsometer.
4. Place the hypsometer on the wire gauze placed on the tripod and start heating it using the burner.
Note : Alternatively, hot plate may be used in place of tripod and burner arrangement.

MEASURING MASSES

5. Ensure that the physical balance is in proper working condition and on turning the knob, the pointer moves
equal divisions on the left and right sides of the zero mark of the scale provided at the back of pointer.
6. Check that the calorimeter is clean and dry. Use a piece of cloth to rub it and shine its surface. Weigh the
calorimeter along with stirrer, note the reading as mc.
7. weigh the calorimeter with stirrer and lid. Record it as m1.
8. Place few pieces of ice in a beaker containing water such that its temperature becomes 5 to 7ºC below the room
temperature. Fill 2/3 of the calorimeter with cold water from the beaker and ensure that no moisture from air
should condense on the surface of the calorimeter, clean the surface if at all the drops appear.
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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
9. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer, lid and water in it.
10. Place the calorimeter in the jacket. Insert thermometer labelled as A through the lid cover of calorimeter and hold
it in a clamp provided on the jacket such that the bulb of thermometer is well immersed in water but does not
touch the bottom of the calorimeter.
11. Note and record the temperature of water in the calorimeter.
12. Observe the temperature of the solid in hypsometer at intervals of two minutes till the temperature becomes
steady. After the temperature becomes steady for about 5 minutes, record it as 2. Apply the correction (– e)
to it and write the corrected temperature of solid.
13. Note the temperature of cold water in the calorimeter once again. This is to be taken as the reading for
calculations. Immediately after this, remove the cork along with thermometer from the copper tube of hypsometer.
Take out the tube, raise the lid of calorimeter and transfer the hot solid quickly to water in the calorimeter without
any splash of water.
14. Stir the water in the calorimeter till the temperature of the mixture becomes steady. Note the equilibrium
temperature reached by the hot solid and the cold water in the calorimeter.
15. Gently take the thermometer out of the water in the calorimeter. Take care that no water drops come out of the
calorimeter along with the thermometer.
16. Take out the calorimeter from the jacket and weigh the calorimeter with stirrer, lid, water and solid in it. Record
it as m3.

OBSERVATIONS
Room temperature reading by thermometer A, TA = ..................... ºC
Room temperature reading by thermometer B. TB = ..................... ºC
Correction required for thermometer B, e = TA – TB
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer, m = ...................... g
Specific heat of the material of calorimeter, copper from tables, sc = 0.4 J/g/ºC,
Specific heat of water sw = 4.2 J/g/ºC
Water equivalent of calorimeter, W = m1 (sc /sw)
* when sw for water is taken as 1 cal/g/ºC

0.4
W = m × s1 otherwise write W as W = m × 4.2
g

Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + lid = m1 = ................... g

Mass of calorimeter + lid + cold water = m2 = ................... g
Temperature of cold water in calorimeter, 1 = ................... g
Steady temperature of solid in hypsometer by thermometer B, 2 = ................... ºC
Corrected temperature of solid, 2 2 = 2 + (– e) = ................... ºC
Final, i.e. equilibrium temperature of the mixture e = ................... ºC
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + lid + water + solid = m3 = ................... g

CALCULATION
(a) Let the specific heat of solid be S J/g/ºC
Mass of cold water in calorimeter, mw = m2 – m1 = .................... g

sc
Water equivalent of calorimeter + stirrer, W=m× s
w

Rise in temperature of cold water and calorimeter and stirrer, e – 1 = ..............ºC

Amount of heat gained by cold water and calorimeter = (mw + W) × sw × ( e – 1) = .............. J ...(1)
where specific heat of water = sw = 4.2 J/g/ºC

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
(b) Mass of solid added to cold water, ms = m3 – m2 = ............. g
Rise in temperature of solid, 2 – e = ............. ºC
Assumed value of specific heat of solid, s = ............. J/g/ºC
Heat lost by hot solid = mass × sp. heat × fall of temperature = (m3 – m2) s ( 2 – e) .... (2)
Applying law of mixtures, keeping in view the conditions,
Heat lost = Heat gained
Equating (2) and (1)
(m3 – m2) s ( 2 – e) = (mw + W) sw ( e – 1)

(m w W ) ( e 1 ). s w
s = (m m ) ( = ...................... J/g/ºC
3 2 2 e)

s may be written in S.I. unit as J/kg/ºC, by multiplying the calculated value above by 1000.

RESULT

Specific heat of given (solid), s = ............... J/kg/°C

Value from tables st = ............ J/kg/ºC

s st
Percentage Error in the value of S = s t × 100 = ........... %

PRECAUTIONS

1. Physical balance should be in proper working condition

2. Sufficient quantity of water should be taken in the boiler of the hypsometer
3. The calorimeter should be wiped clean and its surface should be shining so as to minimise any loss of heat
due to radiation.
4. The thermometers used should be of the same range and their least counts be compared before starting the
experiment. Cold water in calorimeter should not be so cold that it forms dew droplets on the outer surface
of calorimeter. Solid used should not be chemically reactive with water.
5. Hypsometer, burner and heating system should be at sufficient distance from the calorimeter so that
calorimeter absorbs no heat from them.
6. The solid should be heated such that its temperature is steady for about 5 to 7 minutes.
7. The solid should be transferred quickly so that its temperature when dropped in water is the same as
recorded.
8. Water should not be allowed to splash while dropping the solid in water in the calorimeter.
9. After measuring equilibrium temperature, the thermometer when removed should not have any water droplets
sticking to it.
10. Cold water taken in the beaker should be as much below temperature as the equilibrium temperature after
adding solid is expected to go above it. This is to take care of heat absorbed from surroundings by cold
water or that lost by warm water during the course of experiment. It would be of interest to know that this
correction had been thought of by count Rumsfort in 19th century.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Radiation losses can be minimised but cannot be completely eliminated.

2. During transfer of hot solid into calorimeter, the heat loss cannot be accounted for.
3. Though mercury in the thermometer bulbs have low thermal capacity, it absorbs some heat and lowers the
temperature to be measured.
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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

EXPERIMENT # 8 (B)

AIM

To determine the specific heat of a given liquid (kerosene or turpentine oil) by method of mixtures.

APPARATUS

A calorimeter with stirrer and lid cover. The lid cover having provision of two holes for passing thermometer
and stirrer. A jacket for calorimeter. A thermometer having 0.5ºC least count. Given liquid (it should be non-
volatile) kerosene oil or turpentine oil. A cylindrical piece of metal (about 6 to 8 cm long and about 1 cm diameter),
cotton thread about 20 cm long to tie the metal piece with it and it should be non-slipping. Beaker with water,
tripod stand, wire gauze, burner or hot plate, physical balance and weight box and fractional weights.

THEORY

Specific heat : The heat capacity of a substance of any kind is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of its unit mass through 1 kelvin.
Symbol used for it is s or c and S.I. unit of specific heat is J per kg per K. (J kg–1 K–1)
Note : To determine the specific heat of a solid in the lab, it is convenient to measure mass in gram and
temperature in ºC. Therefore; the value of specific heat is determined as Jg–1 ºC–1 and then converted into S.I.
unit J kg–1 K–1.

Thermometer
(0ºC – 100ºC) in 0.5ºC
Thread
Boiling Water

Solid (metal piece)

Copper stirrer

Heating set up Felt or glasswool

Oil (experimental Liquid)

Outer Jacket
Calorimeter

Figure (A): Experimental set up for determining specific heat of given liquid (kerosene oil)

Water Equivalent of Calorimeter : It is the equivalent amount of water which will need the same amount
of heat for certain rise of temperature as required by the calorimeter for the same rise of temperature.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Water equivalent is generally written as W. For a calorimeter of mass m and of specific heat of its material
as s, its water equivalent :

s c (material of calorimeter, copper)

W =m× s w ( water )

400 J kg 1 º C 1
=m×
4200 kg 1 º C 1

= m × 0.095 g
Method of mixtures : In this method a hot substance is added to a cold substance such that both the substances
mutually exchange heat till they reach an equilibrium temperature common to both. Care is usually taken that
no heat is lost to the surroundings.
Law of mixtures : In very brief, in method of mixtures when no heat is lost anywhere else to surrounding etc.
at thermal equilibrium.
Heat gained by colder body = Heat lost by hotter body
The amount of heat exchanged ‘ Q’ = m.s. where m is mass, of the substance, s thermal specific heat and
is change in temperautre.
For a colder body, is rise in temperature ( e – 1) e and 1being equilibrium temperature and initial
temperatures respectively.
For hotter body, is fall in temperature ( 2 – e) 2 and e are respectively the initial temperature of hot body,
and equilibrium temperature of the mixture.
Method of mixtures is used for determining specific heat of substances; solids or liquids.

PROCEDURE
1. Set the beaker, tripod, wire gauze and burner as shown in fig.(A) and fill the beaker to half of its volume with
tap water and start heating the water.
2. Tie the cylindrical metal piece tightly using one end of machine thread. Make sure that the thread does not
slip from the piece and about 10 cm of thread is there for suspending the metal piece in water.
3. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer, in physical balance, Record its mass as m1.
4. Fill the calorimeter (3/4) with given liquid whose specific heat is to be determined.
5. Weigh the calorimeter + stirrer + given liquid (oil). Record the mass as m2.
6. Read the temperature of oil in the calorimeter and record it as 1 ºC.
7. Wet the metal piece, shake it and weigh it in physical balance. Record the mass as m3.
8. The metal piece is suspended by thread and placed in the beaker of water. Start heating the water and boil it
with metal piece inside for about 20 minutes.
9. When the sample has been in boiling water for enough time duration (say, 15 minutes) such as to attain
temperature of boiling water (100 ºC), once again note the temperature of oil in the calorimeter, lift the metal piece
by thread and transfer it quickly to the calorimeter.
10. Ensure that there is minimum loss of heat during transfer of metal piece, to achieve this, the jacket of calorimeter
is held close to the hot water bath and sample of metal is transferred quickly without splashing any oil.
11. It is advisable to given metal piece a little shake to remove any adhering hot water just before transfering it
to liquid.
Also the metal piece is made wet before weighing with a view not to add any weight of adhering water (point 7).
12. The lid cover is kept over the calorimeter immmediately after transfer of hot solid in the oil and the mixture is
well stirred till final steady temperature (equilibrium temperature, is reached).
13. Record the equilibrium temperature as e.
Record your readings and observations as follows :

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

OBSERVATIONS
1. Mass of calorimeter + stirrer, m1 = ................................. g
2. Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + oil, m2 = ................................ g
3. Temperature of oil in the calorimeter, 1
= ................................. ºC
4. Mass of the cylindrical piece tied to thread, m3 = ................................ g
5. Temperature of boiling water in the beaker, i.e., temperature of metal piece 2 = 100ºC
6. Steady equilibrium temperature of mixture e
= ................................ ºC

CALCULATIONS
Water equivalent of calorimeter,
Specific heat of material of calorimeter
W = mass × Specific heat of water

s c of copper 400
= m1 × s of water = m1 × = m1 × 0.095
w 4200
Mass of oil, m = m2 – m1 = ........................ g
Water equivalent of calorimeter, W = m1 × 0.095 (for copper calorimeter)
Temperature of oil in calorimeter 1
= ............................ ºC
Equilibrium temperature e
= ............................ ºC
Rise in temperature of calorimeter, stirrer and oil ( )1 = e – l
Heat gained by calorimeter = W × ( e – 1)
Heat gained by oil, = (m2 – m1) × s × ( e – 1)
= m s ( e – 1)
Total heat gained, ( Q)1 = (W + m.s ) ( e – 1) ....(1)
Temperature of hot solid, cylinder piece 1
= 100ºC
Equilibrium temperature e
= ....................... ºC
Fall in temperature ( Q)2 = (100 – e) = ....................... ºC
Mass of solid piece, m3 = ....................... g
Specific heat of metal of solid piece of metal (.... name of the metal used) from tables
s = ....................... J g–1 ºC–1
Heat lost by hot solid,
( Q)2 = m3 × s × ( 2 – e) = m3 × s × (100 – e) ....(2)
Applying law of mixture : equating (1) and (2)
( e – 1) (W + m.s ) = m3 × s × (100 – e)
m 3 . s(100 e) W
Specific heat of liquid, s = m( e – = ................ J g–1 ºC–1
1) m
s value may be written in S.I. unit, J kg–1 ºC–1 by multiplying the above value by 1000.

RESULT
Specific heat of given oil (kerosene oil) s = .................... J kg–1 K–1
Value of specific heat of kerosene oil from tables, st = ....................J kg–1 K–1
Note : To write the value in S.I. unit, kelvin is used for temperature, so ºC is replaced by K.
s st
Percentage error in value of S = st × 100 = .................. %

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
PRECAUTIONS
1. Solid piece is weighed before heating in boiling water.
2. Sufficient amount of liquid (at least half filled calorimeter) should be taken
3. The calorimeter should be wiped clean and its surface should be shining so as to minimise loss of heat due
to radiation.
4. Solid should be heated in boiling water for sufficient time duration so as to attain the steady temperature of
boiling water.
5. The solid should be transferred quickly, so as not to lose much heat and it should be transferred carefully not
to splash and lose any mass of liquid.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Even though the metal piece is kept in boiling water, it may not exactly attain its temperature.
2. Small losses of heat due to radiation to atmosphere during transfer of solid to oil or from the surface of the
calorimeter are inevitable.

EXERCISE
Q.1 Calorimeters are generally made up of which of the following material -
(A) glass (B) metal
(C) wood (D) either (A) or (C)

Q.2 In laboratory for the experiments, we generally use copper calorimeter, the reason could be -
(A) it is easily available (B) it is cheap
(C) specific heat of copper is small (D) density is lesser than other

Q.3 To determine the specific heat of a solid by the method of mixture we use one of the apparatus, named as -
(A) Calorimeter (B) Hypsometer (C) Sphygometer (D) Hygrometer

Q.4 In an experiment to find the specific heat, specific heat numerically comes out infinite, what should a student
concludes -
(A) heat is given out
(B) heat is taken in
(C) No change in temperature takes place whether heat is taken in or given out
(D) All of the above

Q.5 A student finds out specific heat for three different substance P, Q, and R of equal mass under same condition
and plots the temperature v/s time graph. Which substance will have the highest specific heat ?

P
Q
Temp. (T) R

time (t)
(A) P (B) Q
(C) R (D) all have equal specific heat

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.6 A student supplies heat to a certain homogenous sample of matter at a uniform rate. Its temperature is plotted
against time as shown. Then -

(A) its specific heat capacity is greater in the solid state than in the liquid state
(B) its specific heat capacity is greater in the liquid state than in the solid state
(C) its specific heat capacity is equal in the solid state than in the liquid state
(D) can’t get any inforation selected to specific heat

Q.7 Two identical calorimeters x and y contain two different liquids. They are heated at same rate. The temperature
time graphs are plotted as shown in figure. If Sx and Sy are the specific heats of liquids, then -

x
y

Q
(Heat)

0 t(time)
(A) Sx > Sy (B) Sx = Sy
(C) Sx < Sy (D) desired information cannot be obtained

Q.8 A body of mass 50g at 100ºC is dropped into 100g of water at 20ºC contained in a copper calorimeter of mass
50g. The final temperature attained is 30ºC. What is the specific heat of the material of the body when the specific
heat of copper is 0.09 cal/gºC ?
(A) 0.198 cal/gºC (B) 0.188 cal/gºC (C) 0.298 cal/gºC (D) 1.298 cal/gºC

Q.9 200 g of solid ball at 20ºC is added to 200 g of water in calorimeter having water equivalent of 50 g at 80ºC.
The final temperature is 60ºC. The specific heat of solid is -
(A) 0.625 cal g–1 ºC–1 (B) 6.25 cal g–1 ºC–1 (C) 1.6 cal g–1 ºC–1 (D) 0.4 cal g–1 ºC–1

Q.10 A brass ball of mass 100 g is heated to 100ºC and then dropped into 200 g of turpentine in a calorimeter at 15ºC.
The final temperature is found to be 23ºC. If specific heat of brass is 0.092 cal/gºC and water equivalent of
calorimeter is 4 g, the specific heat of turpentine is -
(A) 0.07 cal/gºC (B) 0.21 cal/gºC (C) 0.35 cal/gºC (D) 0.42 cal/gºC

ANSWER KEY
Qus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B C B C C B C C A D

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

PLOTTING A COOLING CURVE

EXPERIMENT # 9
AIM

To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting a cooling curve.

APPARATUS

Newton’s law of cooling apparatus (a thin-walled copper calorimeter suspended in a double walled enclosure)
two thermometers, clamp and stand, stop clock/watch.

THEORY

Newton was the first person to investigate the heat lost by a body in air. He found that the rate of loss of heat
is proportional to the excess temperature over the surroundings. This result, called Newton’s law of cooling,
is approximately true in still air only for a temperature excess of 20 K or 30 K.
Consider a hot body at a temperature T placed in surroundings at temperature T 0.

dQ
Rate of loss of heat = –
dt

dQ
Using Newton’s law of cooling, – (T – T0)
dt

dQ
or = – k (T – T0), where k is a constant of proportionality whose value depends upon the area and nature
dt
of surface of the body.
If the temperature of the body falls by a small amount dT in time dt, then
dQ = mcdT
where m is the mass of the body and c is the specific heat of the material of the body.

dT
Now, mc = – k(T – T0)
dt

dT k
or =– (T – T0)
dt mc

dT k
or = – K(T – T0) Here, K cons tan t
dt mc

The negative sign indicates a decrease in temperature with time.

Again, dT = – K dt
T T0

1
Integrating, dt
T T0 dT = – K

or loge (T – T0) = – Kt + C ......(1)

where C is a constant of integration.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

loge (T – T0)
t X
This is the equation of a straight line having nagative slope (– K) and intercept C on Y-axis. Figure shows the
graph of loge (T – T0) versus time t. While t has been treated as the x-variable, loge (T – T0) has been treated
as the y-variable.
If Tm is the maximum temperature of hot body, then at t = 0 from equation (i)
log (Tm – T0) = C
log (T – T0) – log (Tm – T0) = – kt

T T0
log Tm T0 = – kt

T T0
–kt
Tm T0 = e

so (T – T0) = (Tm – T0) e–kt

Clamp

Stirrer

Lid

Hot water

Stand Calorimeter

Double walled
container

Cooling Calorimeter

No.70, Panduranga Nagar Near Adigas Restaurant, Bannerghatta Road Bengaluru 64

PRACTICAL PHYSICS
PROCEDURE
1. Fill the space between double wall of the enclosure with water and put the enclosure on a laboratory table.
2. Fill the calorimeter two-third with water heated to about 80°C.
3. Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure along with a stirrer in it. Cover it with a wooden lid having a
hole in its middle.
4. Suspend from clamp and stand, one thermometer in enclosure water and the other in calorimeter water.
5. Note least count of the thermometers.
6. Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note its least count.
7. Note temperature (T0) of water in enclosure.
8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make it cool uniformly.
9. Just when calorimeter water has some convenient temperature reading (say 70°C), note it and start the stop
clock/watch.
10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every 5 minutes . The temperature falls quickly in the
beginning.
11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature becomes slow note temperature at interval of two minutes for 10 minutes and
then at interval of 5 minutes.
13. Stop when fall of temperature becomes very slow.
14. Record your observations as given ahead.

OBSERVATIONS
Least count of enclosure water thermometer = .............°C
Least count of calorimeter water thermometer = .............°C
Least count of stop clock/watch = ............ s.

Table for time and temperature

Serial No. Time for cooling Temperature of Temperature of water Difference
of Obs. t(min) water in calorimeter in enclosure of temperature log10 (T – T0)
(T )°C (T0) °C (T – T0)°C
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

CALCULATIONS

1. Temperature of water in enclosure will be found to remain same. If not then take its mean is T 0.
2. Find temperature difference (T – T0) and record it in column 5 of the table.
3. Plot a graph between time t (column 2) and temperature T (column 3), taking t along X-axis and T along
Y-axis. The graph comes to be as shown in given figure. It is called ‘cooling curve’ of the liquid.

No.70, Panduranga Nagar Near Adigas Restaurant, Bannerghatta Road Bengaluru 65

 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Graph between time and temperature (Cooling curve)
Scale :
X - axis : 1 cm = 5 minutes of t
Y - axis : 1 cm = 5° C of T

Y
70
65

60

55

50
(T – T0)
45

40

35
30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 X
Time (t) in minute

[COOLING CURVE]

RESULT

The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly as difference of temperature goes on decreasing.
This is an agreement with Newton’s law of cooling.

PRECAUTIONS

1. Double-walled enclosure should be used to maintain surrounding at a constant temperature.

2. Stirring should remain continuous for uniform cooling

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Surrounding temperature may change.

2. The stirring of hot liquid may not be continuous.

No.70, Panduranga Nagar Near Adigas Restaurant, Bannerghatta Road Bengaluru 66

PRACTICAL PHYSICS

EXERCISE
Q.1 Newton’s law of cooling can be used in the laboratory for the determination of the -
(A) specific heat of the gases (B) the latent heat of gases
(C) specific heat of liquids (D) latent heat of liquids

Q.2 Which of the following statements is true for Newton’s law of cooling ?
(A) It is valid for cooling by conduction
(B) It is valid for cooling by convection
(C) It is valid for cooling by radiation
(D) It is valid for cooling by any mode of transmission of heat

Q.3 Experimental verification of Newton’s law of cooling is valid for -

(A) large temperature difference i.e. 30ºC to 85ºC between hot liquid and surrounding
(B) very large difference i.e. 5º to 95ºC between hot liquid and surrounding
(C) small temperature difference i.e. 30ºC to 35ºC between hot liquid and surrounding
(D) any temperature difference

Q.4 Graph showing variation of rate of cooling of hot body with temperature difference between body and surrounding
is -

dQ
dQ
dt
dt
(A) (B)

O (T – T0) O (T – T)0

dQ
dQ dt
(C) dt (D)

O (T – T)0 O (T – T)0

Q.5 In an experiment hot water cools from 75ºC to 70ºC in time T1, from 70ºC to 65ºC in time T2 and from 65ºC to
60ºC in time T3, then we can conclude that -
(A) T1 = T2 = T3 (B) T1 > T2 > T3
(C) T1 < T2 < T3 (D) T1 > T2 < T3

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.6 A block of metal is heated to a temperature much higher than the room temperature and allowed to cool in a
room free from air currents. Which of the following curves correctly represents the rate of cooling ?

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Q.7 For a small temperature difference between the body and the surroundings the relation between the rate of loss
of heat R and the temperature of the body is plotted by a student. It should be -

R R
(A) (B)

R R
(C) (D)

Q.8 In an experiment a student takes a hollow copper sphere S and a hollow copper cube C, both of negligible thin
walls of same area and mass, are filled with water at 90ºC and allowed to cool in the same environment. The
graph that correctly represents their cooling -

C
T T
(A) C (B)
S
t t

C, S
C
T T
(C) (D)
S
t t

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.9 Water and turpentine oil (specific heat less than that of water) are both heated to same temperature T. Equal
amounts of these placed in identical calorimeters and then left in air in an experiment conducted by a student -

T
(Temp.) P
Q
t (Time)

(A) their cooling curves will be identical

(B) P and Q will represent cooling curves of water and oil respectively
(C) Q and P will represent cooling curves of water and oil respectively
(D) None of the above

Q.10 A student performs Newton’s law of cooling experiment with hot metallic spheres of radius r. It’s rate of cooling
should be -
(A) Independent of r (B) Proportional to r
(C) Proportional to r2 (D) Proportional to 1/r

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans . C B C A C B C C B D

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

VELOCITY OF SOUND
EXPERIMENT # 10
AIM
To find the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube by two resonance positions
method. (To calculate the velocity of sound at 0°C.)

APPARATUS
Resonance tube, two tuning forks of known frequencies 512 Hz and 480 Hz, a rubber pad, one thermometer,
plumb line, set squares, water in a beaker.

THEORY
Let 1 and 2 be the length of the air column for the first and the second resonance respectively with a tuning
fork of frequency n then,

1
= /4 and 2
= 3 /4 (from first and second resonance respectively)
3
so 2
– 1
= –
4 4

= 2
– 1
2
= 2( 2
– 1
)
v = n

so v = 2n ( 2 – 1) knowing 1 and 2, v can be calculated. If t be the temperature of the air in air column of
the resonance tube then from formula

273 t
vt = v0 where v0 is velocity of sound at 0ºC.
273

273
v0 = vt which can also be calculated.
273 t

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

Tuning fork a
Clamp
b stand
0 O
1= 4 10 R

20
Reservoir
30

40

Resonance Rubber tube

50

METER SCALE
tube
60

70

80
Clamp
90
100 Pinch cock
Metallic
tubes
Wooden
board

Levelling screws

Figure : Resonance tube apparatus

PROCEDURE
1. Set the resonance tube vertical by making the base horizontal, using leveling screws. Test it with plumb line.
2. Fix the reservoir R in the upper most position.
3. Loose the pinch cock P completely and fill the reservoir and metallic tube completely with water by a beaker.
4. Tight the pinch cock, lower the reservoir and fix it in the lowest position.
5. Take tuning fork of more frequency. (It will be smaller in size and will give shrill sound.) Vibrate it with a rubber
pad and hold it with its vibrating prongs in vertical plane just over the end of the metallic tube.
6. Loose the pinch cock to make water level fall down in the metallic tube. Tight the pinch cock when some sound
is heard in metallic tube.
7. Vibrate the tuning fork again and put it as before. Loose the pinch cock a little to make water level fall by 1mm.
Note change in loudness of sound.
8. Repeat step 7 till sound heard from the metallic tube has maximum loudness which sound like whistle
(The air column is in resonance with the tuning fork).
9. Note the position of water level in glass tube against meter scale (using set square). Record it in ‘first
resonance—water level falling’ column.
10. Lower the water level by about 1 cm and tight the pinch cock.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
11. Raise the reservoir and fix it again in upper most position.
12. Repeat step 7. This time water level will rise. Raise it by 1 mm and note the change in loudness of sound.
13. Repeat step 12 till sound heard from metallic tube has maximum loudness again.
14. Note the position of water level in glass tube against meter scale (step 9).Record it in ‘first resonance–water
level rising’column.
15. Lower the reservoir and fix it in the lowest position.
16. Lower the water level to about three times the reading of first resonance.
17. Repeat steps 5 to 9. Record the water level position in ‘second resonance–water level falling’ column.
18. Repeat steps 10 to 14. Record the water level position in ‘second resonance–water level rising’ column.
19. Repeat steps 13,14 and 18 three times.
20. Note and record frequency of tuning forks which is engraved on them.
21. Find temperature of air in air column of the resonance tube by suspending a thermometer in it.
(Note . Find this temperature in the beginning and at the end. Use its mean in calculation.)
22. Record your observations as given below.

OBSERVATIONS
Temperature of air in air column :
(a) in the beginning, t1 = .........°C
(b) at the end, t2 = ........°C
t1 t 2
Mean temperature, t= = 30°C
2
Frequency of first tuning fork, n1 = 512 Hz
Frequency of second tuning fork, n2 = 480 Hz

Table for resonant length of air column

Frequency of Resonance No. of Position of water level of resonance Mean length
tuning fork observations (mean of three
Water level Water level Mean
n (Hz) observation in
falling rising (cm)
column 4c)
(cm) (cm)
cm
(1) (2) (3) (4a) (4b) (4c)
1
First 2
3 1 1 6 .1
n 1 = 512
1
Second 2
3 2 5 0. 3
1
First 2
3 1 1 7. 3
n 2 = 480
1
Second 2
3 2 5 3.9
(Note : The ideal observations are as sample.)

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

CALCULATIONS

For first tuning Fork v1 = 2n1 ( 2

– 1
)
For second tuning Fork v2 = 2n2 ( 2
– 1
)

v1 v 2
Mean velocity at room temperature, vt =
2

273
velocity at 0ºC v0 = vt = .................... m/sec.
273 t

or by using v0 = vt – 0.61t can be calculated.

RESULT

Velocity of sound in air at 0°C = ....................... m/sec.

Actual value = 332 m/s

difference
Percentage error = × 100 = .................%
332

PRECAUTIONS

1. Resonance tube should be vertical.

2. Pinch cock should be tight.
3. Tuning fork should be vibrated gently by a rubber pad.
4. Prongs should be vibrated in a vertical plane above the mouth (end) of the metallic tube.
5. Prongs should not touch the end of the metallic tube.
6. Reading for water level falling and rising should be noted.
7. Reading should be noted using a set square.
8. While measuring air temperature, thermometer bulb should not touch water or sides of resonance tube.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. Resonance tube may not be vertical.

2. Pinch cock may be loose.
3. The edge of open end of metallic tube may not be at zero of meter scale but this error gets eliminated in
( 2 – 1).
4. Air in air column is denser than open air outside. This may reduce velocity.
5. Air in air column has humidity. This may increase velocity.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

EXERCISE

Q.1 Waves produced in the air column of resonance tube is -

(A) longitudinal progressive (B) longitudinal stationary
(C) transverse progressive (D) transverse stationary

Q.2 In the experiment to determine the speed of sound using a resonance column - [IIT-2007]
(A) prongs of the tuning fork are kept in vertical plane
(B) prongs of the tuning fork are kept in horizontal plane
(C) in one of the two resonances observed, the length of the resonating air column is close to the wavelength
of sound in air
(D) in one of the two resonances observed, the length of the resonating air column is close to half of the
wavelength of sound in air

Q.3 Ajay finds out velocity of sound by using distil water as liquid. Sanjay does it using turpentine oil (density
is more then distil water) with the same tuning fork. If in Ajay’s case the resonance was found at length , than
in sanjay’s case the resonance -
(A) will be at length more than (B) will be at length less than
(C) will be at the same length as (D) none of these

Q.4 The resonance length obtained with given tunning fork is l. A little ice is added to water the resonance length
will be -
(A) > l (B) < l
(C) = l (D) depends on frequency of tunning fork

Q.5 The resonance length obtained with given tunning fork is l in winter. In summer the resonance length will
be -
(A) > l (B) < l
(C) = l (D) depends on frequency of tunning fork

Q.6 The resonance tube is replaced by another tube of larger diameter. The resonance length with second tube
will -
(A) increases (B) decreases
(C) remain the same (D) depend on diameter of tube

Q.7 While measuring the speed of sound by performing a resonance column experiment, a student get’s the first
resonance condition at a column length of 18 cm during winter. Repeating the same experiment during summer,
she measures the column length to be x cm for the second resonance. Then - [AIEEE-2008]
(A) x > 54 (B) 54 > x > 36 (C) 36 > x > 18 (D) 18 > x

Q.8 Diameter of tube is 3.3 cm. First resonance length with tunning fork is 18 cm. The second resonance length
is -
(A) 53 cm (B) 54 cm (C) 55 cm (D) 56 cm

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.9 First resonance length with a tunning fork of frequency 512 Hz is 18 cm. Using same apparatus the first
resonance length with tunning fork of frequency 256 Hz is -
(A) 54 cm (B) 36 cm
(C) more than 36 cm (D) little less than 36 cm

Q.10 Which of the following graphs represent resonance length with frequency of tunning fork used ?

(A) (B)

O O
l l

(C) (D)

O O
l l

Q.11 A student records the values of first resonance length as 16.2 cm and second resonance length as 50.8 cm. The
wavelength of the stationary longitudinal waves in air is -
(A) 34.6 cm (B) 69.2 cm (C) 67.0 cm (D) 66.8 cm

Q.12 A tunning fork of frequency 480 Hz is sounded on a resonance tube, it produces first and second resonance
length as 18.0 cm and 56.0 cm. The velocity of sound measured by him is -
(A) 332 m/s (B) 350 m/s (C) 365 m/s (D) 380 m/s

Q.13 The first resonance length observed by a student is 20.3 cm and second resonance length is 62.7 cm. The end
correction is -
(A) 1.8 cm (B) 0.9 cm (C) 2.7 cm (D) 3.6 cm

Q.14 A glass tube 1 m long is immersed in water. A tunning fork of 480 Hz is used to produce resonance. If the velocity
of sound is 340 m/sec. The number of resonances heard till the tube comes out of water is -
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4

Q.15 A tuning fork of frequency 340 sec–1 vibrates just above a cylindrical tube. Height of tube is 120 cm. If the
velocity of the sound is 340 m/sec. What should be the minimum height to which the water should be filled
in the tube to perform experiment ?
(A) 52 cm (B) 25 cm (C) 54 cm (D) 45 cm

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.16 In an experiment, a resonance air column of length 20 cm resonates with a tuning fork of frequency 250 Hz. The
speed of sound in air is -
(A) 300 m/sec (B) 200 m/sec (C) 150 m/sec (D) 75 m/sec

Q.17 If the velocity of sound in air is 336 m/sec. The maximum length of a closed pipe that would produce a just
audible sound will be -
(A) 3.2 m (B) 4.2 m (C) 8.4 m (D) 1.6 m

Q.18 Velocity of sound of frequency 200 vibration per second when compared with another sound wave of 400
vibrations per second resonance tube in air is -
(A) same (B) half (C) double (D) four time

Q.19 In an experiment, it is desired to decrease the fundamental resonance frequency in a tube which is closed at
one end. This can be achieved by -
(A) Replacing the air in the tube by hydrogen gas
(B) Increasing the length of the tube
(C) Decreasing the length of the tube
(D) Opening the closed end of the tube

Q.20 A student performed the experiment to measure the speed of sound in air using resonance air-column method.
Two resonances in the air-column were obtained by lowering the water level. The resonance with the shorter
air-column is the first resonance and that with the longer air-column is the second resonance. Then -
[IIT-2009]
(A) the intensity of the sound heard at the first resonance was more than that at the second resonance
(B) the prongs of the tuning fork were kept in a horizontal plane above the resonance tube
(C) the amplitude of vibration of the ends of the prongs is typically around 1 cm
(D) the length of the air-column at the first resonance was somewhat shorter than 1/4 th of the wavelength
of the sound in air

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B A C C A C A D C B
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. B C B C D B B A B A ,D

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

RESISTANCE BY OHM’s LAW

EXPERIMENT # 11
AIM

Verify Ohm’s law for the given unknown resistance (say a 60 cm constantan wire). Plot a graph of potential
difference versus current. From the slope of the graph and length of the wire, calculate the resistance per cm
of the wire.

K Battery
+ –

+
Ammeter
– Rh
Resistance Wire

+ –

Voltmeter
Fig. 11.1 Circuit diagram

E1 E2
Rheostat

Plug key

Dry-cells Resistance
Wire
Connecting wire
+

Fig. 11.2 Assembly circuit diagram

APPARATUS

Resistance wire (60 cm constantan wire or a standard resistance coil) ; an ammeter (1.5A range); D.C.voltmeter
(1.5 V range); Rheostat; one way plug key, An accumulator or dry cells or a battery eliminator and connecting
copper wires.

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS

THEORY

Ohm’s Law states that when a steady current flows through a conductor, the ratio of the potential difference
between the ends of the conductor and the current flowing through it is a constant, provided the physical
conditions of the conductor such as length, temperature, density etc., do not change.
If V represents the potential difference between the two ends of a conductor and I the current flowing in it,
then
V I

V RI where R is the constant of proportionality..

V
or = R ; R is the resistance of the conductor..
I
When the potential difference V is measured in volts and the current I in amperes, the resistance R is measured
in ohms.
To establish current-voltage relationship (or Ohm’s Law) it is to be shown that a change in potential difference
at the two ends of a conductor means a corresponding change in current in such a manner that the

is a constant.

A graph drawn with potential difference along X-axis and current along Y-axis should be a straight line. This
line is termed as the characteristic of the conductor having resistance and will have different inclinations for
different conductors.

PROCEDURE

1. Draw a neat circuit diagram showing the connections to be made as shown in Fig. (11.1)
2. Arrange the apparatus on the working table in the laboratory and assemble the circuit connections as shown
in Fig 11.2.
3. The ammeter is connected in series with the given resistance wire (R) or standard unknown resistance and the
voltmeter is connected in parallel i.e., across it. The current must enter the ammeter and the voltmeter through
their terminals marked +ve. The rheostat must be connected through one of its lower terminals and the upper
terminal.
4. Note the zero-errors of the ammeter and voltmeter, it any Also before sending the current through the circuit
note the least count of the voltmeter and the ammeter and record these in the observation tables.
5. Insert the plug key K, slide the rheostat contact starting from the left end to the right end see that the deflections
in the voltmeter and ammeter are such as to give at least ten independent sets of observations.
6. Now start the rheostat contact at one end so that a small current passes in the resistance wire or the standard
resistance coil. Note down the potential difference between the ends of the experimental resistance wire i.e.,
voltmeter reading and the current flowing in it i.e., ammeter reading.
Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both the voltmeter and ammeter give full division readings (not in
fractions). Note down these voltmeter and ammeter readings.
7. Take at least ten sets of such independent observations.
8. Measure the length of the experimental wire just outside the binding terminals.
9. Plot a graph showing the potential difference between the ends of the experimental wire along the Y-axis and
the current through the conductor along the X-axis selecting proper scales.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Value of each small division on ammeter

(or least count of ammeter) =.......................ampere
zero correction for ammeter = .....................ampere
Value of each small division on voltmeter (or least count of Voltmeter) = ....................Volt.
Zero correction for Voltmeter = ......................Volt

Since the comes a constant quantity, hence current-voltage relationship is established i.e.,
voltage (V) current (I) or Ohm’s Law is verified.
S.No. Voltmeter reading V (volt) Ammeter reading I (Amp) Potential difference
(Potential difference) (Current) (Current)

Observed Corrected Observed Corrected V

= a constant
(V) in volts (I) in amperes I
= R (in ohms)
(Unknown resistance)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Since the graph between the potential difference and current is a straight line (Fig. 11.3), the law has also been
verified graphically or the voltage-current relationship i.e., voltage current is also verified graphically. In fact

the ratio is the resistance of the experimental wire in ohms.

Q
(XQ , YQ ) Scale : Along X-axis
YQ
........DIV. = ........amperes
Along Y-axis
P
T ........DIV. = ...........volts
YP (XP,YP)

XP XQ
X
O Current (I) in amperes

Fig. 11.3

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Calculation of resistance per cm of the given resistance wire from the slope of the graph :
The slope of a graph at a given point is the slope of the tangent to it at that point. The graph between the
potential difference (V) in volts and current (I) in amperes is a straight line (Fig. 11.3 ). To measure the slope
of this straight line, select two points P(XP, YP) , Q(XQ, YQ) on the line, not necessarily observational points
which are well separated record from the graph. If the values of YP,XP (at P ) and of YQ and XQ (at Q).
Then the slope is :

YQ – YP QT .......V
= = =R
XQ – X P TP .......A

= ...........ohm

gives the resistance (R) in ohms of the given resistance wire.

Length of the wire outside the terminals L = ......cm

R ......ohm
Resistance per cm of the wire = = = ......ohm / cm
L ........cm

RESULT

(i) Since the ratio comes a constant quantity so ohm’s law gets verified.

(ii) The graph of potential difference versus current is a straight line and the slope of this line gives the resistance
R of the given resistance wire in ohms.

Here R = ..........ohm.

Length of the wire = L = ........cm

Resistance per unit

R
length of the wire = = ...........ohm/cm
L

PRECAUTIONS

1. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with sand paper.

2. Ammeter and voltmeter should be of proper range.
3. A low resistance rheostat should be used. Rheostat must be connected through one of its lower terminals and
the upper terminal.
4. Ammeter is to be connected in series with the circuit and the voltmeter in parallel with the unknown resistance
i.e., the given resistance wire.
5. Positive of the ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to positive electrode of the battery.
6. The connections should be tight, short and straight.
7. The wires should only be connected at the terminals and not in between.
8. Get your circuit connections checked by the teacher before passing the current.
9. Do not pass current into the wire for a longer interval of time otherwise due to large heating, the ratio V/ I may
not remain constant.
10. Measure only that length of experimental resistance wire which is just outside the binding terminals.

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS

EXERCISE

Q.1 To find the value of resistance R using Ohm’s law, we are given four voltmeters as below. Which one will you
prefer to be connected in the circuit ?
(A) 1.5 V, 10,000 (B) 2.0 V, 20,000 (C) 1.5 V, 1000 (D) 10 V, 20,000

Q.2 In above question which ammeter will you prefer ?

(A) 1 A, 10 (B) 2 A, 0.01 (C) 1 A, 0.001 (D) 10 A, 1

Q.3 To get the most accurate value of resistance in the given circuit, which combination of ammeter and voltmeter
will you prefer ?

+ – K
()
Rh
–
A+
R

V
+ –

(A) A voltmeter and an ammeter both of maximum resistances

(B) A voltmeter of maximum resistance and ammeter of minimum resistance
(C) A voltmeter of minimum resistance and ammeter of maximum resistance
(D) A voltmeter and an ammeter both of minimum resistance

Q.4 Which of the following circuit is correct for verification of Ohm’s law ? [IIT-2003, WB-2006]

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Q.5 While measuring resistance of wire, we should allow the current through resistance R -
(A) for shortest possible interval of time
(B) any interval of time
(C) for long interval of time so that it becomes steady
(D) No such precaution should be observed

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.6 In the verification experiment of Ohm’s law if we let the circuit closed for some time, then the reading of
ammeter and voltmeter respectively -
(A) increases, decreases (B) decreases, increases
(C) both increases (D) both decreases

Q.7 In the verification experiment of Ohm’s law unknown resistance should be high because high resistance -
(A) is easily available (B) do less power loss, so less heating
(C) do more heating (D) none
1 1
Q.8 In the verification experiment of Ohm’s law graph between & will be -
V i
(A) straight line (B) circular
(C) parabolic (D) none

Q.9 The V-I graph for a conductor makes an angle with V-axis. Here V denotes the voltage and I denotes current.
The resistance of conductor is given by -
(A) sin (B) cos (C) tan (D) cot

Q.10 Variation of current passing through a conductor as the voltage supplied across its ends as varied is shown
in the adjoining diagram. If the resistance (R) is determined at the points A, B, C and D we will find that -
D
C

V B

I
(A) RC = RD (B) RB > RA (C) RC > RB (D) RA > RC

Q.11 A student plotted a graph between potential difference and current flowing through a resistor to verify ohm’s
law, the resistance of the wire is -

(A) 0.5 (B) 1 (C) 1.5 (D) 2

Q.12 The verification of Ohm’s law by using voltmeter-ammeter method, if ammeter is connected in parallel to resistor,
then V-i curve would be where V voltmeter reading and i ammeter reading -

V V V V

(A) (B) (C) (D)

i i i i

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PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.13 In the measurement of resistance of a wire using Ohm’s law, the plot between V and I is drawn as shown.

V(volt)
(3, 3)

(1, 1.2) (2, 2.2)

I(amp)

The resistance of the wire is -

(A) 0.833 (B) 0.9
(C) 1 (D) None of these

Q.14 In the experiment, to find the resistance of a given wire by using Ohm’s law, teacher recommends that +ve
terminals of ammeter and voltmeter both should be connected to +ve terminal of the battery but you have
connected +ve of ammeter with –ve of voltmeter. Your circuit diagram is -
(A) correct
(B) terminals of ammeter be reversed
(C) terminals of voltmeter be reversed
(D) terminals of ammeter and voltmeter may be connected in any order

Q.15 By mistake a student connects a voltmeter in series and an ammeter in parallel with a resistance in an electrical
circuit. Then -
(A) voltmeter will be damaged, ammeter will not be damaged
(B) ammeter will be damaged, voltmeter will not be damaged
(C) both will be damaged
(D) none will be damaged

Q.16 A student connects a voltmeter V having resistance of 200 in series with unknown resistance R. If battery
voltage is 20 V and voltmeter reads 5 V. If ammeter is ideal ammeter, then the ammeter reading and resistance
R are -

A
V
200 R

(A) 0.05 A, 200 (B) 0.033 A, 400

(C) 0.025 A, 600 (D) 0.02 A, 800

Q.17 The following four wires are made up of the same material and are at the same temperature. Which one of them
is best suited for the Ohm’s law experiment -
(A) length = 50 cm, diameter = 0.5 mm (B) length = 100 cm, diameter = 1 mm
(C) length = 200 cm, diameter = 2 mm (D) length = 300 cm, diameter = 3 mm

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 PRACTICAL PHYSICS
Q.18 In the following circuit diagram which is used to verify Ohm’s law, the galvanometers G1 and G2 are actually
acts as -

G1
G2

10–3 100 106

(A) G1 is voltmeter, G2 is ammeter (B) G1 is ammeter, G2 is voltmeter

(C) both are voltmeter only (D) both are ammeter only

Q.19 Ajay performed an experiment to verify Ohm’s law by taking two wires of different thickness but of same material
and length. If the graph shows the following behaviour for wire A and B, then rB/rA (where r is radius) is -

V B

(A) equal to one (B) less than one (C) greater than one (D) data insufficient

Q.20 Voltage V and current I graph at two different temperatures T 1 and T2 were noted in an experiment. The relation
between T1 and T2 is -

T1

T2
V

I
(A) T1 > T2 (B) T1 T2 (C) T1 = T2 (D) T1 < T2

ANSWER KEY
Qus . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ans. B C B B A D B A D D
Qus . 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. D D C A D C A B C A

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