Disintegration of Pakistan and Efforts of Nation Building (1971-1977).
Introduction:
Disintegration means collapse or breakdown and Nation-Building means the broad process through
which nations come into being.
Why Nation Building for Pakistan?
Pakistan was established in 1947 as a separate homeland for the Muslims of India. The driving force
behind the setting up of this new state was the better educated Muslims (often from trading,
administrative and intellectual professions) of Muslim minority provinces of central India. The
inhabitants of Muslim majority provinces (Punjab, Sindh, N.W.F.P, Balochistan and Bengal) had been less
enthusiastic. They joined the cause of the “Pakistan Movement” only during the last one or two years
before the foundation of Pakistan. Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League perceived the Muslims
of India to be a distinct “Muslim-Nation” as opposed to a “Hindu-Nation” (The Two Nation Theory). As a
result, when Pakistan came into existence it consisted of a wide variety of ethnic diversity and linguistic
groups and subgroups which had very little in common besides being Muslim. Two official languages
(Urdu and English) along with six or seven other regional ones are an indication of linguistic wealth, if
not homogeneity. The founding fathers had to deal with the task to bring about what they had insisted
upon initially that was to make Pakistan into a “Nation” and to integrate several ethnic groups into a
single national community without over-using the only bond they had in common: religion. Nation
Building was to generate the Nation that the Nation-State desired.
Reasons of Disintegration of Pakistan:
Some of the reasons that lead to the disintegration of Pakistan and created a rift between the two
wings, East Pakistan and West Pakistan are discussed below which eventually lead to the start of a brutal
Civil War within the nation and resulted in the creation of the state of “Bangladesh”.
Geographical Location:
Geographically Pakistan was not a politically compact unit because it consisted of two wings which were
separated by a distance of at least 1000 miles. With the passage of time, the binding force of Islamic
Ideology weakened and regional feelings suffered under Hindu influence. The geographical distance
between two wings served as a barrier in the way of complete political harmony.
Irresponsible Leadership of Muslim League:
There is no doubt that All-India Muslim League played a very important role in the creation of Pakistan
but after the independence Pakistan, Muslim League fell victim of party dissention and lack of
leadership. After the death of Quaid-e-Azam in 1948 and the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951,
the political leaders of PML joined the race for power and gave preference to personal interests over
national interests. As a result, corruption, bribery, black-marketing and anti-state activities became
order of the day. In East Pakistan, PML suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Awami League.
Unfortunately, after the death of Quaid-e-Azam and Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan could not get sincere
leadership like them. To make things worse Malik Ghulam Mohammad as the second Governor-General
set new traditions in the country. The tussle between the Bengalis and the Punjabis brought the country
on the brink of catastrophe. Under these circumstances, the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan could not
frame the constitution in time and nine years elapsed in this process. Delay in constitution-making
allowed the anti-state elements to prosper at the cost of national unity.
Sheik Mujib-ur-Rehman’s Six-Point Programme:
The Awami League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rehman won the 1970 election based on the Six-Point
Programme which had been announced by him in February 1966. It demanded greater autonomy for
the east. Yahya Khan tried to get Mujib to tone down his demands. Mujib was willing to negotiate only
when he was proclaimed prime minister of Pakistan. The Six-Points were inevitably rejected by Ayub
Khan as threatening the essential unity of Pakistan. Mujib was arrested on 18thApril 1966 on the charge
of conspiring with India to lead a breakaway state in Bengal but released for talks with the government
after seeking a political settlement with the combined opposition. Bhutto refused to cooperate. He also
announced that the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP) would not attend the inaugural session of the National
Assembly to be held in Dhaka on 3rdMarch 1971. Bhutto said that if any PPP members attended the
session he would “break their legs” and warned Yahya Khan that there would be trouble in West
Pakistan if Mujib was allowed to assume office before an agreement had been reached with other
parties. Under pressure from both political and military circles in West Pakistan Yahya announced the
postponement of the calling of the National Assembly on 1stMarch just two days before the Assembly
was due to meet. No future date was given for its meeting.
There was predictably violent reaction to this news in East Pakistan. Strikes, demonstrations and mass
civil disobedience amounted to open defiance of the government in Islamabad. Taxes were no longer
paid; martial law regulations were ignored and power of the central government no longer extended to
the East. Army was deployed to control the situation. General Tikka Khan was appointed as chief martial
law administrator and governor in East Pakistan which was seen as an open threat to Mujib, as Tikka
Khan was known for his advocacy of military solutions to political problems.
A last effort was made to resolve the crisis peacefully in talks from 15thto 25th March 1971 between
Yahya and Mujib in Dhaka. They were joined by Bhutto on 21st March. The main problem was one of
mutual mistrust and reluctance to share power. All negotiations were broken off between the
government and the Awami League and mass arrests and killings started on the night of 25/26th March.
Mujib was amongst those who were arrested, but many of his senior colleagues managed to escape to
India.
Civil War and the Independence of Bangladesh:
The Pakistan Army was used, to try and re-establish the authority for the military government in West
Pakistan. The Awami League, the undisputed party of East Pakistan was banned. Yahya Khan claimed
that such measures were necessary to prevent the situation from getting any worse and claimed that
Mujib was planning to declare independence very soon. The use of military force resulted in thousands
of civilian deaths. On 26th March, a secret radio broadcast announced the proclamation of the
“Sovereign People’s Republic of Bangladesh” and on the same day complete press censorship was
imposed and all political activity throughout Pakistan was banned. The Pakistan Army was ordered to
take control of the whole province leading to the outbreak of civil war. Millions of Bengali refugees
crossed the border and entered India, relations between India and Pakistan deteriorated sharply.
On 31stMarch 1971, the Indian Parliament passed a resolution to support the people of Bengal. A rebel
Bengali military force by the name of Mukti Bahini (Liberation Army) began to take shape. It was trained
and armed by the Indian Army and included units of Bengali, ex-Pakistani soldiers. With the majority of
East Pakistan’s military forces joining the rebels, a violent civil war began with civilians on both sides
being the majority of the victims. Rebels and accusation of atrocities were made from both sides. The
Pakistan Army was fighting to gain control over a region the Government had lost all control of. The
international dimension widened when the Soviet Union and India signed a “Treaty of Peace Friendship
and Cooperation” in August 1971. Pakistan looked to its traditional allies of China and United States in
the event of war with India but had received no firm pledges from either. Both China and the United
States were privately advising Pakistan to find a political solution in East Pakistan and to come to an
agreement with the Awami League. This advice was ignored by General Yahya Khan who was confident
that the Pakistan Army could deal with both the Mukti Bahini and the Indian Army.
Military activity over the eastern border of India and Pakistan increased. On 21st November, the Mukti
Bahini, backed and equipped by the Indian Army launched an offensive on Jessore, a town in East
Pakistan. On 29th November, the provisional government of Bangladesh was announced. Yahya Khan
responded to attack by declaring a state of emergency and asked the population to be prepared for war.
Indian forces built up around East Pakistan waiting for orders to attack. On 3rd December, the Pakistan
Air Force launched an attack on military targets in north India. On 4th December, a full Indian ground,
naval and air attack started.
On 6th December, the Indian government officially recognized the provisional government of Bangladesh
which led to Pakistan breaking off diplomatic ties with India. Indian forces closed in around Dhaka and
had the city surrounded within two weeks of launching their offensive. On 16th December 1971, General
Niazi, the Pakistan Army commander in East Pakistan, was instructed by Yahya Khan to offer an
unconditional surrender on behalf of Pakistan Army. The war had hardly lasted three weeks and to make
matters worse the Pakistan Army surrendered with over 90,000 soldiers and with ammunition supplies
which were deemed sufficient for months. The Army was demoralized and simply lost the will to fight
for territory they knew no longer was part of Pakistan. With the city of Dhaka in Bengali and Indian
hands, revenge by the Mukti Bahini was taken on anyone who had or was suspected of having
collaborated with the Pakistan Army.
On 20th December, Yahya Khan resigned as president and Bhutto who had been sent to United Nations
to plead Pakistan’s case by Yahya, assumed power. On 21st December 1971, the “Republic of
Bangladesh” was officially declared. Mujib who had been moved to West Pakistan at the start of the civil
war was released by Bhutto on 8th January 1972. He returned to Bangladesh on 10th January and was
sworn in as its first Prime Minister. Muslims of the subcontinent now had two homelands, but this was
the worst possible way for it to have happened.
Main Features 1971-1977:
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s Time in Office and the Restoration of Confidence:
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto assumed the role of both president and chief martial law administrator on 20th
December 1971. He was possibly the first civilian martial law administrator in world history. He had a
difficult task ahead of him, as he had to deal with a defeated military, a shattered government and a
demoralized population. Bhutto distanced himself from the whole war incident and blamed it on the
army and Yahya Khan.
Bhutto rose to the occasion with an energetic and confident start. He was intelligent, tireless and
resourceful, having had previous government experience. He addressed the country’s most outstanding
problems and quickly tried to restore the country’s pride at home and image abroad. The PPP had
received most of its votes from the rural and urban masses of Sindh and Punjab, where the population
voted for a party with a radical manifesto and promise of “Food, Clothes and Houses.” Bhutto set into
motion discussions on a new constitution and took steps to rebuild a stagnant economy Bhutto’s biggest
worry was the constant threat of Pakistan Army which had the power to hinder his plans and to prevent
this from happening he asked for the resignation of the commander-in-chief of the army and head of
the air force. He appointed General Tikka Khan to the highest rank and renamed the post as “Chief of
Army Staff”.
Another event that took was the opening of the Karakoram Highway on 16th February 1971, the link
between the two countries China and Pakistan. It was also known as the “Friendship Highway” in China.
One of the purposes it served was that trade, import and export was made easy, quick and efficient
between the two neighboring countries.
The Simla Agreement of 1972:
On the diplomatic front Bhutto attempted to get the captured soldiers back from Indian prisoner war
camps. The prisoners were returned under the terms of an agreement at Simla on 2nd July 1972, signed
with the prime minister of India, Indira Gandhi. The Simla Agreement was a simple document as the
terms stated that the Pakistani prisoners of war would be returned and in exchange Pakistan had to
agree that in the future, the Kashmir problem would be discussed directly with India and not on
international forums. Bhutto felt this was a price worth paying and given the circumstances few would
criticize him for accepting these terms. He managed not to give up Pakistan’s claim to speak for Kashmir
and was supported by relatives of Pakistani prisoners of war who demonstrated before the Simla
Summit that Pakistan should not allow the Indians to blackmail them over the return of those prisoners.
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was one of the rare political leaders who had natural instinct and broad vision to read
the political situation vigilantly. Bhutto’s shrewdness and farsightedness led Pakistan towards a
successful Nuclear Program. The pursuit of Nuclear Technology created hype in the political world
especially in the sub-continental region. When India started her nuclear program it created a threat for
Pakistan so it was Bhutto who initiated PAK-Nuclear Program on a serious note. During Bhutto’s regime
it was realized that now the time has come that Pakistan should prepare a firm bases for it. He started
working to establish its nuclear program. In 1956 Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) was
founded but this department only started conducting serious business under Bhutto which in future
proved to be the Father Institution for Pakistan’s Nuclear Program.
On 24th January 1972 Bhutto gathered the country’s top 50 scientists with the purpose to devise a plan
to start a nuclear program for Pakistan. In spite of opposition and criticism received from global powers
Pakistan stuck to the plan and continued with her policy. Bhutto sought help from China and North
Korea to develop nuclear arsenals. Bhutto’s incentive brought talented and expert people in this field, to
the center mainly Abdul Qadeer Khan who was especially invited by Bhutto himself. Later he became
“Father of Bomb”.
During Bhutto’s era different Uranium enrichment plants were placed at various parts of country such
as; Dera Ghazi Khan, Karachi, Islamabad, Kahuta, and Chaklala etc. These plants started working way
before Dr. A.Q Khan’s arrival but the real process started after his arrival. He reached out to the rest of
the Islamic world particularly rich oil states of Middle East, Libya, and Saudi Arabia for monetary
support. In early 1970’s, billions of dollars also flowed from Iran and Saudi Arabia to Pakistan. The pro-
Islamic or friendly policy of Bhutto towards the Islamic world became the main factor for the financial
assistance for Pakistan’s atomic program. Many covert uranium enrichment plants were launched in
spite of resistance and securities from USA, United Nations and other European powers. Surprisingly
PAK-Nuclear Program ran secretly without any apparent hindrance. After India’s first explosion of the
atom bomb on 18th May 1974. Pak-Army collaborated with PAEC to help the Kahuta enrichment plant in
1976.All the major designs for Pakistan’s Nuclear Program were made by Bhutto, which gave invincibility
to Pakistan’s defense.
On 14th March he enforced a new education policy which was free education in all public and private
schools and on 1st May 1972 Labor Day was celebrated for the first time in Pakistan.
The 1973 Constitution:
One of the most pressing and important tasks for the new government was to draft a new constitution.
When martial law was finally lifted, the Assembly was summoned in April 1972 on the basis of the 1970
election results in West Pakistan. A committee was set up of politicians from different parties. There
were disagreements within the committee as to whether the new constitution should bring in
parliamentary rule or presidential system of government. It took the constitutional committee eight
months before it submitted its report on 10th April 1973. The draft constitution was passed by the
Assembly by 135 votes in favor. It was brought into force on 14th August 1973 and Bhutto was elected
prime minister by the National Assembly 0n 12th August. The constitutions main features were:
Pakistan shall be a federal republic with a parliamentary system of government. The prime minister shall
be the head of government, elected from the majority party.
The special position of Islam as state religion shall be emphasized and both prime minister and president
are required to be Muslim.
Pakistan shall be declared an Islamic Republic.
A bill to amend the constitution shall need a two-thirds majority in the lower house and a majority in the
upper house.
All fundamental human rights shall be guaranteed that the stipulation was added that it was subject to
“reasonable restrictions imposed by law”.
The Supreme Courts and High Courts shall be given the power to enforce fundamental rights.
The president shall act in accordance with the binding advice of prime minister and all orders of the
president shall be countersigned by the prime minister.
The Senate or upper house shall be elected mostly from the provincial governments and so for the first
time interests of the provinces shall be safeguarded at the center. The Senate shall not be dissolved
even in emergencies.
In case of emergencies, the federal government can pass legislation on anything and can even suspend
fundamental freedoms.
Urdu shall be the official language of the country with English to be retained for the next 15 years.
Pakistan shall be a federal state so residuary power shall rest with the provinces not the central
government.
The 1973 Constitution marked a return to a parliamentary form of democracy. There were also
concessions made to provinces to lessen fears that the central government would overrule them on
every issue. Another advantage that the constitution had was that it had been agreed and voted on by a
democratically elected Assembly. This gave it greater authority and even though it was suspended under
the next martial law, it was restored in 1985 and remain in place to date.
Political Events under Bhutto:
The 1973 Constitution revived the power of the National Assembly and as a result political parties
became more important. The PPP was the biggest and most influential party in the National Assemble
and Sindh and Punjab Provincial Assemblies. In the Balochistan and N.W.F.P Provincial Assemblies the
National Awami Party and Jamiat-ul-Ulema-i-Islam parties were stronger and working together as a
coalition held the most seats. This gave the two parties enough strength to try to force through changes
that would maintain the autonomy of the provincial assemblies.
On 27th April the PPP and NAP/JUI coalition signed an agreement from which both sides would benefit.
One of the terms of the agreement was that in return for their support for the PPP in the National
Assembly, the NAP/JUI could have a free hand in their provinces. However, the agreement came to an
end just one year later when the central government dismissed the governors of Balochistan and the
N.W.F.P. The Balochistan government was dismissed and an uprising by the Balochis ensued that took
almost five years to suppress. After committing thousands of troops and large supplies of military
equipment loaned by Iran, the Pakistan Army was eventually successful. The uprising had destroyed any
idea of provincial autonomy. It had also once again brought the army into politics at the very time when
the new constitution was trying to re-establish parliamentary democracy.
On 30th December 1973 Bhutto laid the foundation stone of Pakistan Steel Mill.
Constitutional Changes and Some Minor Events:
Amendments to the Constitution of Pakistan:
This is a list of all the amendments made to Pakistan’s Constitutionwhich had been passed by the Parlia
ment.
4th May, 1974:Redefined the boundaries of Pakistan and removed references to East Pakistan.The territo
ries of Pakistan shall comprise of:
The Province of Baluchistan, the North-West Frontier, the Punjab and Sind.
The Islamabad Capital Territory hereinafter will be referred to as the Federal Capital.
The Federally Administered Tribal Areas and such territories as are or may be included in Pakistan,
whether by accession or otherwise.
7th September 1974: Defined a Muslim and declared the status of Ahmadis as minority and non-Muslim.
A person who does not believe in the absolute and unqualified finality of the Prophethood of
Muhammad (P.B.U.H), the last of the Prophets or claims to be a Prophet, in any sense of the word or of
any description whatsoeveror recognizes such a claimant as a Prophet or religious reformer is not a Musl
im for the purposes of the Constitution or Law.
18thFebruary 1975: Extended the period of preventive detention,who is acting or attempting to act in a
manner prejudicial to the integrity, security of defense of Pakistan or any part thereof or who commitsor
attempts to commit any act which amounts to an anti-national activity as defined in a Federal Law oris a
member of any association which has for its object, or which indulges him, any such anti-national activit
y.
27th July 1975: Council of Islamic Ideology recommends to abolish Riba and establish Zakat.
5th October 1975: Pakistan and Bangladesh agree to establish diplomatic ties.
21st November 1975: Decreed additional seats for minorities, it also deprived courts of the power to gra
nt bail to any person detained under any preventive detention.
22nd December 1976:Provided that Chief Justice of Supreme Court will be retired at the age of 65 and Hi
gh Court judges at the age of 62.
6th August 1976: Bhutto lays the foundation stone of Port Qasim.
The 1977 Elections:
In 1977 Bhutto called a general election. He was confident that his government’s record and lack of
effective opposition would result in an easy PPP victory. However, once the election was called, nine of
the various opposition parties combined to form the Pakistan National Alliance (PNA). They all wanted
to end the rule of Bhutto and the PPP and were united in their desire to rule Pakistan according to
Islamic law. The PNA began to attract big audiences at its election rallies and were clearly gaining
support. The government introduced a law limiting public gatherings to just five people. This was to stop
public demonstrations of support for the PNA and to ensure law and order during the election.
The results of the election showed a landslide victory for the PPP winning 154 of the 200 seats it
contested, against the PNA’s 38. There was an immediate outcry of protest from the PNA which accused
the government of rigging the results and demanded new elections.
There is little doubt that the government did interfere with the vote and on one occasion the results for
one constituency were announced on television before the count had even started. Some historians
believe such vote rigging was a serious error because the PPP was likely to have won the election
without it.
Steps to Bhutto’s Downfall:
Bhutto refused to agree to fresh elections and the PNA organized mass protests against the
government. Soon there was rioting in many towns and cities and the Federal Security Force could not
stop the unrest. Bhutto was forced to negotiate with the PNA. He offered fresh elections in some of
thedisputed constituencies and to appease the religious factions banned gambling, restricted the sale of
alcohol and declared Friday to be the weekly holiday.
At the same time he turned to the army for help and on 19th April he declared a state of emergency
placing Pakistan under martial law once again. The PNA leadership were arrested and some 10,000 of
their supporters were in prison.
The army leaders saw the concessions Bhutto was making as a sign of weakness which would lead to
greater unrest and so on 5th July the army staged a coup, named “Operation Fairplay”. Bhutto and all
other major political leaders were arrested that night. Two days later chief of army staff General Zia-ul-
Haq announced the suspending of the constitution and dissolution of all national and provincial
assemblies. Once more the army was in control in Pakistan.
Death of Zufiqar Ali Bhutto:
When General Zia came to power, the most immediate dilemma he faced was how to handle Bhutto’s
case. Zia was specially chosen by Bhutto for the chief of army staff post. His appointment had been
controversial as he was junior to several other generals and had no distinguished service record. Zia did
not want to act in a disloyal way by giving Bhutto too severe a punishment. Some army officers thought
that Zia was not capable enough to handle the post of chief of army staff so in his dealings with Bhutto
he wanted to show that he could be a determined leader. Bhutto was released from arrest at the end of
July but was rearrested when he made it clear that he intended to reaffirm his political authority. Bhutto
along with three others was accused of murdering a political opponent by sending the FSF to kill him.
The trial which took nearly two years resulted in Bhutto being found guilty and sentenced to death. Zia
had the power to convert the sentence to life imprisonment however Bhutto was too dignified to plead
to Zia for his life. Many others at home and world leaders abroad did so but Zia was unmoved. Bhutto
was hanged on 4th April 1979 and Zia used this affair to show people that he was not the weak leader
that many suspected.
