Lecture 2

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Modulation and Multiplexing

How to send data fast and far?
• 2-Values & Multi-Values Encoding, and Baud Rate & Bit Rate
• Nyquist Theorem – Relationship between Speed & Bandwidth
• Shannon Theorem – Relationship between Speed & Noise
• Digital Encoding
• Carrier, Modulation, Demodulation and Modem
- Digital Modulations: FSK, ASK, PSK, QAM
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
- FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
- TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
- WDM (Wave Division Multiplexing)
- CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
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Increase Signal Transmission Speed

Pulse (2-values)
M=2, interval=T bit rate = 1/T baud rate:
0 1 0 0 1 0
unit: bps pulses per sec.
bits per second  Baud
t
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
= bps if M=2
…010010
Encoder Transmission Decoder
Sender System/Channel Receiver

Pulse (2-values)
M=2, half T 0 1 00 1 0
Increase bit rate Minimum T?
by reducing T
0 T 3T 6T t

Pulse (4-values) 0 1 0 010 1110

M=4, interval=T Increase bit rate by
Maximum M?
increasing M=2n
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T M-values encoding
1 pulse = log2M bits
www.specworld.in 2 = n bits 1 Baud = n*bps
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Harry Nyquist
Born: February 7, 1889, Sweden
Died: April 4, 1976,Texas, USA
Institutions: Bell Laboratories, AT&T
Known for
-- Nyquist sampling theorem
-- Nyquist rate
-- Johnson–Nyquist noise
-- Nyquist stability criterion
-- Nyquist ISI criterion
-- Nyquist filter
Transmission
System/Channel
Basic Question:
-- How many pulses could be transmitted
per second, and recovered, through a
channel/system of limited bandwidth B?
Nyquist’s Paper:
-- Certain topics in telegraph transmission
theory, Trans. AIEE, vol. 47, Apr. 1928
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Nyquist Theorem
Relationship between Transmission Speed and System Bandwidth

0 1 0 0 1 0
Data Transmission Speed
Maximum Signal Rate: D
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T t

Transmission
Encoder System/Channel
Decoder
Sender Bandwidth=B Receiver

Nyquist Theorem:
1) Given a system/channel bandwidth B, the minimum T=1/2B, i.e., the maximum signal rate
D=2B pulses/sec (baud rate, Baud) = 2Blog2M bits/sec (bit rate, bps)
2) To transmit data in bit rate D, the minimum bandwidth of a system/channel must be
B>=D/2log2M (Hz)
Explanations: Questions:
A hardware cannot 1) Assume a telephone channel bandwidth
change voltages B=3000Hz and M=1024, what’s its maximum
so fast because of rate?
its physical limitation
2) Can we use the above channel to send a TV
T F
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Claude Shannon
Born: April 30, 1916, Michigan
Died: February 24, 2001, Massachusetts
Fields: Mathematics & electronic engineering
Institution: Bell Laboratories
Known for
-- Information theory
-- Shannon–Fano coding
-- Noisy channel coding theorem
-- Computer chess, Cryptography
......
Transmission
System/Channel
Basic Question:
-- How do bandwidth and noise affect the
transmission rate at which information
can be transmitted over an channel?
Shannon’s Paper:
-- Communication in the presence of
noise. Proc. Institute of RE. vol. 37, 1949
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Shannon Theorem
Relationship between Transmission Speed and Noise
0 1 0 0 1 0

t t

Transmission s(t)
Encoder System/Channel Decoder
Sender + Receiver
Bandwidth=B
Maximum Signal Rate Noise n(t)
Data Transmission Speed
S/N=s²(t)/n²(t)
Channel Capacity
=10log10S/N (dB, decibel)
called signal-to-noise ratio
Shannon Theorem:
1) Given a system/channel bandwidth B and signal-to-noise ratio S/N, the maximum value of
M = (1+S/N) when baud rate equals B, and its channel capacity is,
C = Blog2(1+S/N) bits/sec (bps, bite rate)
2) To transmit data in bit rate D, the channel capacity of a system/channel must be
C>=D

Two theorems give upper bounds of bit rates implement-able without giving implemental method.
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Channel Capacity
Shannon theorem C = Blog2(1+S/N) shows that the maximum rate or channel capacity
of a system/channel depends on bandwidth, signal energy and noise intensity. Thus,
to increase the capacity, three possible ways are
1) increase bandwidth; 2) raise signal energy; 3) reduce noise

Examples
1. For an extremely noise channel S/N  0, C  0, cannot send any data regardless of bandwidth

2. If S/N=1 (signal and noise in a same level), C=B

3. The theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line where B=3000Hz and S/N=35dB.
10log10(S/N)=35  log2(S/N)= 3.5x log210
C= Blog2(1+S/N) =~ Blog2(S/N) =3000x3.5x log210=34.86 Kbps
If B is fixed, we have to increase signal-to-noise ration for increasing transmission rate.

Shannon theorem tell us that we cannot send data faster than the channel capacity,
but we can send data through a channel at the rate near its capacity.
However, it has not told us any method to attain such transmission rate of the capacity.
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Digital Encoding

…010010110

Digital Digital
Encoder Decoder
Sender Only short distance < 100m ! Receiver

Encoding Schemes:
- RZ (Return to Zero)
- NRZ (Non-Return to Zero)
# NRZ-I, NRZ-L (RS-232, RS-422)
# AMI (ISDN)
- Biphase
# Manchester & D-Manchester (LAN)
Manchester encoding
# B8ZS, HDB3
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Carrier and Modulation

Important facts:
- The RS-232 connects two devices in a short distance (<15m).
- It cannot be propagated far because its signal energy rapidly becomes weak
with the increase of transmission distance.
- A sine wave can propagate farther. The sine wave is an analogy signal.
- A signal can be carried by the sine wave, called carrier, for long distance.

Carrier: Acos(2πfct+φ) where fc is called carrier frequency

Modulation: change or modify values of A, fc, φ according to input signal s(t)
- modify A  A[s(t)]: Amplitude Modulation (AM)
- modify fc  fc[s(t)]: Frequency Modulation (FM)
- modify φ  φ[s(t)]: Phase Modulation (PM)

s(t) modulated signal: m(t)

Modulator
carrier

Acos(2πfct+φ)

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Modulated Wave/Signal and Spectrum

Carrier
Frequency

PM

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Digital Modulation
Digital Modulation
input: digital signal Digital signal
output: analogy signal

FSK –
Frequency
Shift Keying ASK modulated signal
2ASK
ASK –
Amplitude Shift Keying
2-ASK
0: A1cos2πfct
PSK modulated signal
1: A2cos2πfct
4PSK
PSK – Phase Shift Keying
4-PSK
00: Acos(2πfct+ 0 )
01: Acos(2πfct+ π/２ )
10: Acos(2πfct+ π ) 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
11: Acos(2πfct+ 3π/2)
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QAM – Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

QAM: a combinational modulation of amplitude and phase

m(t) = A[s(t)] cos{2πfct+φ[s(t)]} = p(t) cos(2πfct) + q(t) sin(2πfct)
π/4 (90°) phase difference between cos(x) and sin(x), called quadrature
QAM is currently more common in digital communications
4-QAM, 8-QAM, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM, 256-QAM, 512-QAM, …

sin sin
8-QAM
..
16-QAM
. .
0100 0001
. .
1110

.....
011

010
0101

1101
. .
1011
.
0000
. 1001

. . . .
101 100 000 001
cos cos

. 110

111
1100

.
0111
.
0011

0010 1111
.
1010

.
1000

0110

bit_rate = 3 x baud _rate bit_rate = 4 x baud _rate

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QAM Transmitter and Demo

m(t)

m(t) =
A[s(t)] cos{2πfct+φ[s(t)]}

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Modulator, Demodulator and Modem

Modulator: accept bit sequence and modulate a carrier
Demodulator: accepted a modulated signal, and recreated bit sequence
Modem: a single device = modulator + demodulator

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How to send data efficiently?

Rate Da
3 Lines  Good?
CompA1 CompA2
Rate Db
CompB1 CompB2

CompC1 Rate Dc CompC2

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Multiplexing, Multiplexer and Demultiplexer

Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows simultaneous transmissions

of multiple signals across a single data link.

3 lines  cost & inflexible

Rate Da
CompA1 CompA2
Rate Db
CompB1 CompB2
CompC1 Rate Dc CompC2

Da D
CompA1 CompA2
Db 1 shared link: rate D E
CompB1 M CompB2
D>=Da+Db+Dc U
CompC1 Dc X CompC2

Multiplexer Demultiplexer
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FDM – Frequency Division Multiplexing

FDM: - A set of signals are put in different frequency positions of a link/medium

- Bandwidth of the link must be larger than a sum of signal bandwidths
- Each signal is modulated using its own carrier frequency
- Examples: radio, TV, telephone backbone, satellite, …

A1 1 Mod 1 1 Dem 1 A2
f1

B1 2 Mod 2
+ 2 Dem 2 B2
f2

C1 3 Mod 3 3 Dem 3 C2
f3

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TDM – Time Division Multiplexing

TDM:
- Multiple data streams are sent in different time in single data link/medium
- Data rate of the link must be larger than a sum of the multiple streams
- Data streams take turn to transmit in a short interval
- widely used in digital communication networks

CompA1
D CompA2
E
CompB1 … C1 B1 A1 C1 B1 A1 … M CompB2
U
CompC1 X CompC2

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Examples of FDM and TDM

FDM

TDM
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Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM) and Spread Spectrum

WDM: - conceptually the same as FDM

- using visible light signals (color division multiplexing)
- sending multiple light waves across a single optical fiber

Spread Spectrum:
- spread the signal over a wider bandwidth for reliability and security
- its carrier frequency is not fixed and dynamically changed
- such changes is controlled by a pseudorandom 0/1 sequence (code)
- the signal is represented in code-domain
s(t)
Code Mod Digital Mod

..0011001001010… Acos2πfct
Pseudorandom code
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access): different codes for different signals
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WIDEBAND CDMA (3G)

• The W-CDMA concept:
– 4.096 Mcps Direct Sequence CDMA
– Variable spreading and multicode operation
– Coherent in both up-and downlink

= Codes with different spreading,

giving 8-500 kbps
....
P
f

4.4-5 MHz
t
High rate
multicode user
Variable rate users 10 ms frame

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Exercise 2

1. Use Nyquist's Theorem to determine the maximum rate in bits per second at which data
can be send across a transmission system that has a bandwidth of 4000 Hz and use four
values of voltage to encode information. What's the maximum rate when encoding the
information with 16 values of voltage?

2. Is it possible to increase a number of the encoded values without limit in order to increase
transmission speed of system? Why? Assume a bandwidth of a system is 4000 Hz and
a signal-to-noise ratio S/N=1023, What's the maximum rate of the system?

3. (True/false) A digital modulator using ASK, PSK or QAM is a digital-to-digital system.

4. (1) If the bit rate of 4-PSK signal is 2400bps, what’s its baud rate?
(2) If the baud rate of 256-QAM is 2400 baud, what’s its bit rate?

5. The bite rate of one digital telephone channel is 64Kbps. If a single mode optical fiber
can transmit at 2 Gbps, how many telephone channel can be multiplexed to the fiber.
Assume TDM is used.

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