Sanskara (rite of passage)
This article is about the Hindu rituals. For other uses, see Samskara (disambiguation).
Sanskaras are, in one context, the diverse rites of passage of a human being from conception to cremation,
signifying milestones in an individual's journey of life in Hinduism. Above is annaprashan
samskaracelebrating a baby's first taste of solid food.
Sanskara (IAST: saṃskāra, sometimes spelled samskara) are rites of passage in a
human being's life described in ancient Sanskrit texts, as well as a concept in
the karma theory of Indian philosophies.[1][2][3]The word literally means "putting
together, making perfect, getting ready, to prepare", or "a sacred or sanctifying
ceremony" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts of India.[4]
In the context of karma theory, Sanskara are dispositions, character or behavioral
traits, that exist as default from birth or prepared and perfected by a person over one's
lifetime, that exist as imprints on the subconscious according to various schools
of Hindu philosophy such as the Yoga school.[3][5]These perfected or default imprints
of karma within a person, influences that person's nature, response and states of
mind.[3]
In another context, Sanskara refers to the diverse rites of
passage in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.[2][6][7] In Hinduism,
the sanskaras vary in number and details according to regional traditions. They range
from the list of 40 sanskaras in the Gautama Dharmasutra from about the middle of
1st millennium BCE,[8] to 16 sanskaras in the Grhyasutra texts from centuries
later.[1][9] The list of sanskaras in Hinduism include both external rituals such as those
marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of
resolutions and ethics such as compassion towards all living beings and positive
attitude.[8]
Etymology and meaningEdit
Saṃskāra (Sanskrit: ससससससस) has various context driven meanings, that broadly
refer to "the putting together, accomplishing well, making perfect, a form of solemn
recognition and getting ready, engaging in works and acknowledging the purification
of body by cleansing or mind by education or an object by a process (such as polishing
a gem or refining a metal)".[4] The term appears in the Śrutis, and in the Smritis of
diverse schools of Hinduism as well as the texts of Jainism, Buddhism and
Sikhism.[4][6] The etymological roots of the word samskara when it refers to rites of
passage, is also "preparation, purifying, perfecting" from one's past state to one's
future state.[1]
The word samskara is rare in oldest layer of Vedic literature, but its
roots sam and kr occur often enough.[10] The word appears in Rig Veda hymns 6.28.4
and 8.33.9, as well as other Vedic texts, where the context suggests it simply means
"purify, prepare". It appears in Jaimini Purvamimamsa-sutra (500-200 BCE) many
times, where it again means "prepare, perfect, polish" something, either through
action, speech or mind.[10][11] In sections 3.8.3, 9.3.25 and 10.2.49 of the Jaimini
Purvamimamsa-sutra, the word sanskara is used in describe actions of "washing the
teeth, shaving the head, cutting nails, sprinkling water" as part of a
ceremony.[10]Samskara is defined by ancient Indian scholar Shabara as, "that which
prepares a certain thing or person fit for a certain purpose".[11]Another ancient text
Viramitrodaya defines samskara, notes Kane, as "a peculiar excellence due to
performance of certain actions which resides in the soul or the body of the actor".[10]
Sanskara in Hindu traditions, states Kane, have been ceremonies, with the expression
of outward symbols or signs of inner change, marking life events of significance. They
served a spiritual, cultural and psychological purpose, welcoming an individual into a
stage of life, conferring privileges to the individual(s), expecting duties from the
individual, and impressing on the individual as well individual's social circle of his or
her new role.[12]
Sanskāra, in modern usage, is sometimes used to mean "cultural, social or religious
heritage".[13]
Samskara as a psychological conceptEdit
Main article: Samskara (Indian philosophy)
In the context of karma theory, Samskara are dispositions, character or behavioral
traits either as default from birth (previous lives in some schools of Hinduism), or
Samskara are behavioral traits perfected over time through Yoga, through conscious
shaping of inner self, one's desire, sense of moral responsibility and through
practice.[3][5] In some schools of Hinduism, the psychological concept of Sanskara is
also known as vāsanā.[14][15]
These are viewed as traces or temperament that evolves through the refinement of an
individual inner consciousness and expressed personality, and is a form of "being-
preparedness" in Vedantic psychology.[3] In Samkhya and Yoga schools, Sanskara –
also spelled as Samksara – are impressions or residues that affect an
individual's Gunas(behavior attributes). In Nyaya school of Hinduism, not all Samskara
are psychological.[3] Rites of passage, other actions, studies, diligent preparation and
inner resolutions trigger impressions or dispositions in the psyche of an individual, in
these schools of Hinduism, and these influence how the individual acts, perceives self
and the manner in which the individual responds to or accepts the karmic
circumstances and the future.[16]
Samskara as ritualsEdit
Sanskaras in Hinduism are rites of passage that begin with one's birth, celebrates
certain early steps in a baby's growth and his or her welcome into the world in the
presence of friends and family, then various stages of life (Ashrama (stage)) such as
first learning day, graduation from school, wedding and honeymoon, pregnancy,
raising a family, as well as those related to final rites associated with
cremation.[17] These rites of passage are not uniform, and vary within the diverse
traditions of Hinduism. Some may involve formal ceremonies, yajna (fire)
ceremonies with the chanting of Vedic hymns. Others are simple, private affairs
involving a couple, with or without friends, other family families or a religious person
such as priest or pandit.[17]
Sanskaras are not considered as end in themselves, but are means of social
recognition as well as the passage of a person from one significant stage of life to
another.[18] Various elements of Sanskarasand rituals of life's passage are
mentioned in Vedas of Hinduism, one of the oldest known scriptures in the world.
The most extensive, but divergent discussions of these rites of passage are found
in the numerous Dharmasutras and Grhyasutras from the 1st millennium
BCE.[18][19] Many of these rites of passage include formal ceremonies, with ritual
readings of hymns, chants and ethical promises, aiming to orient the individual(s) to
that which is considered part of dharma (right, good, just, moral, true, spiritual,
responsible, duties to family members or society in general), and essential actions
such as those associated with last rites and cremation, charitable works, or out
of sraddha or items of faith.[18][20]
The purposeEdit
Gautama Dharmasutra enumerates a large list of "forty outer karma samskaras"
and "eight inner karma samskara (good qualities)", all of whom have the purpose of
empowering a human being to discover, recognize and reach union with
the Brahma-Atman (his or her Soul, Self, Highest Being).[21] The ultimate purpose is
to inculcate virtues, and samskaras are viewed in the Hindu tradition as means –
not as ends – towards ripening and perfecting the human journey of life. [21] The
eight good qualities listed by Gautama Dharmasutra are emphasized as more
important than the forty samskara rituals, in verses 8.21-8.25, as follows,
[...] (8.14-8.20)
These are the forty sanskara(sacramentary rites). (8.21)
Next, the eight virtues of the self: (8.22)
Compassion towards all creatures, patience, lack of envy, purity, tranquillity,
having a positive disposition, generosity, and lack of possessiveness. (8.23)
A man who has performed the forty sanskaras but lacks these eight virtues does
not obtain union with Brahman. (8.24)
A man who may have performed only some of the forty sanskaras but possesses
these eight virtues, on the other hand, is sure to obtain union with Brahman.
(8.25)
— Gautama Dharma-sutras, Verses 8.14-8.25, Translated by Patrick Olivelle[8]
The 40 SamskarasEdit
The Gautama Dharmasutra list the following forty rituals as outer samskaras:[8][22]
Garbhadhana (pregnancy), Pumsavana (rite celebrating the fetus, many translate it as
quickening a male fetus), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair in 8th month),
Jatakarman (rite celebrating the birth), Namakarana (naming the child), Annaprashana
(baby's first feeding of solid food), Choulam (baby's first haircut, tonsure), and Upanayana
(entry into school rite);[23]
the four vows associated with Vedic study;
graduation ritual at the conclusion of school;
marriage sva-dharma rite;
five sacrifices to gods, ancestors, humans, spirits, and all knowledge;
seven remembrances and donations (sacrifices) using cooked food, in the form of ancestral
offerings
seven remembrances and donations (sacrifices) in the presence of fire (yajna), to mark
harvests, seasons and deities
seven kinds of Soma sacrifices: agnistoma, atyagnistoma, ukthya, sodasin, vajapeya, atiratra
and aptoryama.
To obtain union with Brahman, one must also possess the eight virtues
(compassion, patience, non-envy, purity of thought speech and body, inner calm
and peace, positive attitude, generosity, and lack of possessiveness).
The 16 SamskarasEdit
There are diverse number of Sanskaras in Hinduism, varying by texts between 12
and 18 in the Grhyasutras (Kalpa sastras). Of these, 16 are referred to as
"Shodasha Samskaras" (Ṣoḍaśa Saṃskāra).[9]
The wedding rituals, VivahaEdit
