FOREWORD PREFACE tl out REPRODUCTION 1-66 Chapter 1 >: Reproduction in Organisms 3 Chapter 2 ; Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 19 Chapter 3 : Human Reproduction A2 Chapter 4 : Reproductive Health OF GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 67-142 Chapter 5 : Principles of Inheritance and Variation 69 Chapter 6 : Molecular Basis of Inheritance 95 Chapter 7 : Evolution 126 BioLoay IN HUMAN WELFARE 143-190 Chapter & : Human Health and Disease 145 Chapter 9 : Strategies for Enhancement in 165 Food Production Chapter 10 : Microbes in Human Welfare 179 BIOTECHNOLOGY 191-216 Chapter 11 : Biotechnology : Principles and Processes 193 Chapter 12 : Biotechnology and its Applications 207ECOLOGY Chapter 13 : Chapter 14 : Chapter 15 : Chapter 16 : Organisms and Populations Ecosystem Biodiversity and Conservation Environmental Issues 217-286 219 24 1 208 210USTs REPRODUCTION Chapter 1 Biology in essence & The story of lite on earth. While indaidual Reproduction in Organisms argansms de without fail, species continue to Ive through millions of years unless threatened by natural oranthropogenic Chapter 2 extinction. Reproduction becomes a vital process without SexvalRe production in which species cannot sunme forlong. Each individual leaves flowering Plants Its progeny by asexual or sexual means. Sexual mode of reproduction enables creation of new variants. seo thats urnaval addyantage is enhanced, This unit examines the general Human Re produc ton principles underlying reproduc tive processes in living organisms and then explains the details of this process in flowering plants dndhumars c& easy to relate raepresentatve examples, A related perspectye on human reproductive health and how raproductwve il health can be avoided is alo presented to complete ourunderstanding of biology of reproduction, Chapters Chapter4 Reproductyve Health a Haase a eae ae a Ma ae Ma oe eae Maman Bate Baton Mate ata OPO ee wt PSP te ae at Oa Oa A ot Be Baa Se teeta ae a oa oe eae Bao Bate Maton Maton OP Pal eat at at ae scence nt ty oe eet ee ae aBarmiin November 1904 in Jaiour (Rajosthan) Panchanan Mah eshiw ori rosetoa became one of the most distinguished botanists not oanhe of lmecia but of The entire weorlcl He moved to Allahabad for higher education where he obtained his Disc. During he college days, he wes irspired by Dr VV. Dudgeon, an American missionary teacher, to develop interest In Botany and especially morphology. His teacher once expressed that If his student progresses ahead of him, twill gre him a great satisfaction. These warck encouraged Panchanan to enquire what he could do for his teacher im return. He worked on embryological aspects and popularsed the ise of embryoalogical chracters in taxonomy. He established the Department of Botany, Unwersity of Delhi as an important centre of rasecarch in embryology and tes ue culture. He alo emphasised the needfor initiation of work on artificial culture of immature embryos. These cays, tissue culture hoe become a landmark in science, His work on test tube fertigation and intra-ovaran pollination won worldwide acclaim. He wee honoured with felowship of Royal Society of Lomdoan [FR], Indian National science Academy and several ofher irstitutions of excellence, He encouraged qeneraleducation and made asignificant contribution to school education by hs leadership in bringing out The very first textbooks of Biologytfor Higher secondary Schools published by WCERT Im 144, Poh HARLAR [yl HES Hur [1904-19665]CHAPTER | REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS ii i? Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction Each and every organism can live only for a certain period of time. The period from birth to the natural death of an organism represents its life span. Life spans of a few organisms are given in Figure 1.1. Severalother organisms are draton for which. you should find out their ife spans and write in the spaces provided. Examine the life spans of organisms represented in the Figure 1.1. Isn't it both interesting and intriguing to note that it may be as short asafew days or as long as afew thousand years? Between these two extremes are the life spans of most other living organisms. You may note that life spans of organisms are not necessarily correlated with their sizes; the sizes of crows and parrots are not very different yet their life spans show a wide difference. Similarly, a mango tree has a much shorter life span as compared to a peepal tree. Whatever be the life span, death of every individual organism is a certainty, 1.e., no individual is immortal, except single-celled organisms. Why do we say there is no natural death in single-celled organisms? Given this reality, have you ever wondered how vast number of plant and animal species have existed on earth for several thousands of years? There must be some processes in living organisms that ensure this continuity. Yes, we are talking about reproduction, something that we take for granted.4 BRL Tortoise (100-150 years) Figure 1.1 Approcimate lite spans of some organismsREPRO DS A A Ce elt Reproduction is defined as a biolodical process in which an ordanisim dives rise to young ones [olfspring) similar to itself. The offspring crow, mature and in turn produce new offspring. Thus, there ig a cycle ofbirth, growth and death, Reproduction enables the continuity of the species, Generation after Generation, You will study laterin Chapter 5 [Principles of Inheritance and Variation) how genetic variation is created andinherited during reproduction. There is a large diversity in the biological world and each organism has evolved ite own mechanism to multiply and produce offspring. The ordanism’s habitat, its internal physiology and several other factors are collectively responsible for how itreproduces. Based on whether there ig participation of one organism or two in the process of reproduction, itis of two trpes. When offsprindis produced by a single parent with or without the involvernent of Garnete formation, the reproduction is asexual, When two parents [opposite sex) participate in the reproductive process and also invelve fusion of male and ferale cametes, itis calledsexualreproduction. 1.1 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION In this method, a single individual [parent] is capable of producing offspring. Ags a result, the offspring that are produced are not only identical to one another but are also exact copies of their parent. Are these offspring likely fo he genetionily identical or different, The term clone is used to describe such morphologically and Genetically similar individuals. Figure 1.2 Cell division in unicellular arganism: [a] Budding in yeast; (b] Binary fission in Amroebao Let us see how widespread asexual reproduction is, among different groups of organisms. Asexual reproduction if common among single-celled organisms, and in plants and animals with relatively sirnple organisations. In Protists and Monerans, the ordanism or the parent cell divides into two to dive rise to new individuals (Figurel 2), Thug,HOLOGY Conida i a ¥ fe et EE 0 ‘a A - "ite A ne fi ue at a a ge Le on our Prom = " e aie eeted — Se - 7 Pea! | aa a srtanesoecea eects on aye ee een aa bese 4 aie fe: ty Ce a aa ee ee ne ene eee a na oe oe Perera. ae erin a aS os ae A ¥ orm aS (c) (d) Figurel.3 Asexual reproductive structures: (a) Zoospores of chlamydomonas; (b) Conidia of Penicillium; (c) Buds in Hydra; (d) Gemmules in sponge in these organisms cell division 1s itself a mode of reproduction. Many single-celled organisms reproduce by binary fission, where a cell divides into two halves and each rapidly grows into an adult [e.g.. Amoeba, Paramecium). In yeast, the division 1s unequal and small buds are produced that remain attached initially to the parent cell which, eventually gets separated and mature into new yeast organisms (cells). Members of the Kingdom Fungi and simple plants such as algae reproduce through special asexual reproductive structures (Figure 1.3). The most common of these structures are zoospores that usually are microscopic motile structures. Other common asexual reproductive structures are conidia (Penicillizm), buds (Hydra) and gemmiutles (sponge).REPRO TRI in AR Tat \ Nodes eR AQ ; Wut: ~) f nes Maly i sy percent [=] [d) fr im | ain Mee - * an oH F Figure 1.4 Vegetative propagules in angiceperms: (a) Eyes of potato; [6] Rhizome of ginger; [Ic] Bulbil of Agave; [d) Leet buds of Bryophyitun, le) Otteet of water hyacinth FOU. Tudoe Ladin GLboul beagehdioe Tepreduiction, in Ponts in Gidss A, War dio you think -— is cegehiatioe Teprediuction dise d type of dsextial repradniciion? MT dio yeu say ser is tie tern dene applicable te the aTspring formed by vegetative reprodiictiean? While in animals and other sitnple orfari sts the term asemual is wsect wnambigucusly, in plants, the term vegetative reproduction is frequently weed. In plants, the units of vegetative propagation such a3 rummer, Thizome, sucker, tuber, offset, bulb are all capable of diving rise tonew ottspring [Pigurel 4). These structures are called vegetative propadies. ObwiowW sly, since the formation of these structures cloes not involve twa parents, the process involecdis asexual.BRO LST You tmst have heard about the scourge of the water boclies or about the “terror of Bengal’, This is nothing Gut the aquatic plant water hyacinth’ Which is one of the most invasive weecs found growing wherever there is standing water It drains oargen trom the water, which leacls to death of fishes. You will learn more aboutitin Chapters logandl4 You may tne it interesting to know that this plant was invtrocha ced in Inca because of its beautiful Towers ancdshape ofleaves. cine it can propagate vegetatively ata phenom anal rate and spreacdall over the water boclyin a short perioct of tithe, itis very difficult to get ricl off thes. Ate you aware how plants like potato, sugarcane, banana, ginger, dahlia are cultivated’ Have you seen sinall plants emerging trom the Gucls [called eyes) of the potato tuber, trot the rhizomes of banana ancl cinder! When you carefully toy to determine the site of origin of the new plantlets in the plants listed above, pou will notice that they invariably afise from the nodes present in the mocified stems of these plants. When the nodes cotne in contact with camp soil or water, they prochice roots and new plants. Similarly, actventitious Duds arise from the notches present at margins of leaves of Bryon tunn. This abilityis fully exploitect by gardeners ancl farmers for commercial propagation of such plants. tisinteresting to note that asesuial reprocuctionis the comiacr method of reproduction in offarnistis that have a felatively simple ofganisation, like aldae anc fund arc that they shift to sesual method of reprocuction just before the onset of acdverse conclitions. Find out how sexual Tepreduchion endbles thease erqanisiis te sureiee doing Unfaoounble conditions? WW & Sexuidl meereduction faceured. Under Such oordiniens? AseEiial egetativel as well as sestual modes of reprocdu chon are exhn bitect by the higher plants. On the other hancl, only seanuial 110ce of reprocuction is present in 10st of the aritials. oi A Lae. oe eer Tey oesiial reprocu chion involves formation of the tale arc fetiale gametes, either by the sate individual or by ciffterent incivicluals of the opposite See. These dametes fuse to form the zpaote which develops to form the new organisin. tis anelaborate, comples ancl slow process as comparect to aceeial peprochiction. Because of thetusion of male ancl female garnetes, seetial reproduction results in offspring that are not identical to the parents Of amongst themselves. 4 stucty of civerse offaristms—plants animals or tungi-show that though they clitter so greatly in external morphology, internal structure and physiology, when it comes to sexual mode of reproduction, Surprisingly, they share a similar pattern. Let ustirst discuss what features are comutnon to the se civerse organisms. Al offaniams have to reach a certain stage of growth ancl maturity in their life, before they can reprocuce sexually. That period of growth isREPROQLGOTAON IR ORGAN TSA callecl the Juvenile phase. [tis known 25 vegetative phase in plants. This phaseis of variable curation s in citterent orfanisims. The end of juvenile (vegetative phase which marks the beginning of the reprocluctive phase canbe seen 6s silyin the higher plants when they come to flower Nevo tong dees 0 take for narigeta Tice Loredn! aoc ti! TANGO Dns be cone ho ewer? In Sorte Planes, Donen Tenoering oocurs Tere CAIN orice, Lon Loot, Gen. Ocul ve Oiler flo Loer ing pered, — jlo er rear? Observe afew tices in your area. Do they flower curing the sare frotith year after year? Why clo pou think the availability of fruits like Tratiio, apple. jacktruit, etc..is seasonal’ are there sore plants that flower throughout the year ancl some others that show seasonal flowering? Flants—the annual and biennial trpes, show clear cut vegetative, feproductiwe ancl senescent phases, butin the perennial specnes it is very chitticult to clearly clefine these phases. 4 few plants exhibit unusual Towering phenomenon, some of them suchas bamboo species flower only orice in their lite time, generally after 50-100 pears, produce large number Of iruits anc cie. Another plant, Strobitonitwus ALi (neelakwurarijil, TOWers Ofce in 12 pears. 43 many of pou would be knowing that this plant flowered during September-October 20068. [ts mass flowering transiomned large tracks of hilly areas in Kerala, Harnataka and Tatil Machu into blue stretches ancl attracted a large number of tourists. In anitnals, the juvenile pha se is followed by morphological and physiological charges prior to active reproductive behaviour The reproductive phase is also of variable durationin clifferent offanisms. Can (ol tat (ue cunuges seen on Pui beings (oat are inidliedhiee eT Tenradichioee seu ity? Arnorg aritnals, for example birds, cdo they lay eggs all through the year? Oris it a seasonal phenomenony What about other animals like frogs and lizards? You will notice that, birds living in nature layedges only seasonally. However, birds in captivity [as in poultry faring] can be trace to lay agds thotoughowt the year In this case, laying edits is not related to reproduction but is a commercial exploitation for human welfare. The fetnales of placerital matnmnals exhibit cyclical changes in the activities of CMarie s arc accessory chicts as wellas hormones chitin dg the reprocu chive pla sé. Tin non-primate mantnmials like cows, sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger, etc., such cpelical changes curing reproduction are called ob sSirins cycle WHEE as in primates (monkeys, apes, and humans] itis called mensirual cycle. Many triatnmals, especially those living in natural, wild conditions esthibit sich cycles only cufingtavourable seasons in their reproductive piace ancdare therefore callecl seasonal breecers. Man yother mantinals ate feprodu chively active thirooughout their reproductive phase and hence ate called continwos breeclers. That we all grow old Gif we live long enough), is something that we recognise. But what is meant by qrewing old? The end of reproctuctiveBOLOGY phase can be considered as one of the parameters of senescence or old age. There are concomitant changes in the body (like slowing of metabolism, etc.) during this last phase of life span. Old age ultimately leads to death. In both plants and animals, hormones are responsible for the transitions between the three phases. Interaction between hormones and certain environmental factors regulate the reproductive processes and the associated behavioural expressions of organisms. Events in sexual reproduction : After attainment of maturity, all sexually reproducing organisms exhibit events and processes that have remarkable fundamental similarity, even though the structures associated with sexual reproduction are indeed very different. The events of sexual reproduction though elaborate and complex, follow a regular sequence. Sexual reproduction is characterised by the fusion (or fertilisation) of the male and female gametes, the formation of zygote and embryogenesis. For convenience these sequential events may be grouped into three distinct stages namely, the pre-fertilisation, fertilisation and the post-fertilisation events. 1.2.1 Pre-fertilisation Events These include all the events of sexual reproduction prior to the fusion of sametes. The two main pre-fertilisation events are gametogenesis and gamete transfer. 1.2.1.1 Gametogenests Asyou are already aware gametogenesis refers to the process of formation of the two types of gametes — male and female. Gametes are haploid cells. In some algae the two gametes are so similar in appearance that itis not possible to categorise them into male and female gametes. (b) (c) Figure 1.5 Types of gametes: (a) Isogametes of Cladophora (an alga); Heterogametes (b) Fucus (an alga): (c) Human beingsREPROQLGOTAON IR ORGAN TSA They are hence, are called homogametes (lsogametes) [Figure 1.53). AOWwever, ina majority of sesually reproducing offarisins the gametes producec are of two morphologically distinct types [eterogametes). In Such offanisms the male gatrete is called the antherozold of sperm anid the female gamete is callecdthe egtor ovum [Figurel.66, cl]. Sex tality in organisms: cesual reprocuction in ofgarnisms generally involves the tusion of fametes trom two cifterent incivicduals. Gut this is nol always true. Frome your recetlection of exareples studied im Class AT, On You identify cases Lofereé self-fermilisdiion 63 obserced Of course, citing such examples in plants iseasy. Plants miay have both male arid female reproductive structures in the satre plant (bisexual) [Figure 1.6 c¢, 6) or on clitterent plants [vni see] [Figure 16d). ln several fungi ancd plants, terms such as homothalic and monoecious are used to denote the bisexual concition anc heterothallic and dioecious are the terms used to describe wnisesial conch tion. In flowering plants, the unmisesiual male flower is staminate, i.é¢., bearing stamens, while the female is pistillate or bearing pistils. In some flowering plants, both tale ancdtfemale flowers may be present on the same inclivictial [moncecious) oron separate inclivictuals [clice cious). OOtre examples of monoecious plants are cucurbits and coconuts arc of CHOP Cicds Plants are papaya and date palm Nae tue type of gametes Wu are formed im shaimindbe and pishiiiabe flawoer s. Butwhat about animals’ ote individuals of all species either male or female [Wwnisexual)’? Or are there species which possess both the reproductive organs (bisexual)! You probably can make a tise ef seer Unisex Wal anid speces, Rarthworms, (Figure 1.6 a) sponge, tapeworm ancdleech, typical etamples of biseeual animals thal possess both male anc female reproductive organs, are hermaphrodites. Cockroach [Pigure 1. 6b) is an etample of a wnisesiuial species. Cell division during gamete formation : Garretes in all heterogametic Species are of twotypes namely, Male ancfemale. Garretes are haploid thowigh the parent plant boct tromwhich they arise tray be either haploicl of diploid. A haploid parent produces gametes byoaitotic dhividgion. Dees (US Re CPL Talo SLs Meoer occurs In erganiarnes tut are Muapleidy Carefully examine the flow charts of lite cycles of algae that pou have stucliedin Class Al [Chapter 3] to get a suitable answer. ceVeLal organising belonging to monera, turgi, algae ancd bryophytes have haploid plant body, but organisms belonging to pteridophytes. CW NnOSspeims, angospermns anc most of the animals inclucting human Keinis, the parental boctis diploid. tis obvious that meiosis, the rechuction division, has to occur it a ciploicd boct has to produce haploid gametes. Tn ciploidordanisins, spe cialsec cells colleclmelocy tes (carete mother cell) undergo meiosis. Atte ericlot meiosis, only one setot chromosomesBRIN Pe eee co co i Figure 1.6 Diversity of sexuality in orgenisms [a] Bisexual animal [Earthworm]; [6] Uniserual anitial (Cockroach); [c] Moncecious plant (Chara) [d) Dicecious plant (Marchantal (=) Bisesnial flower [sweet potato]W REPROQOICTION IN ORGANISE x Table 1.1: Chromosome Numbers in Meiocytes (diploid, 2n) and Gametes fhaplomd, n) of Some Orantims. Fillin the Blank Spares ee Name of organism Chromosome number Chromosome mumber in meiocyte [2n) in gamete (n) Hunan Beir gs 46 23 Tarse fly iZ — Rat — Zl Diag 73 _ Cage — ig Fruit fy g — Ophiagiassum (a fer) — 630 Ap pie od — Rice — ii iWiatz =) — Potrea — 2 Buthertiy 360 — Onto — 16 7 . ee gets incorporated into each famete. Carefully study Table 1.1 and illin the cliploid anid haploid chromosome numbers of orfanisins. fs there any rela Lorene On Ge niunnber ef cturonmosonmes af meiooyles and qanmetes? l.2.1.2 Gamete Trarus fer After their tormation, male ancd female gametes must be physically brought together to facilitate fusion (fertilisation). Have you ever Loan dered. ToL tue gaineies meet In a tnajority of organisms, tmriale gamete is motile ancd the female gameteis stationary. Beceptions are a few fungi and algae in which both types of gametes are motile [Pigurel Val. There is a neect for a mecium through which the mrule gametes move. In several simple plants like alfae, boyophytes anc pleridophytes, wateris the mectvam through which this gamete transier takes place. Glare number of the male daretes, however, fail to reach the female gametes. To compensate this loss of male gametes curing transport, the number of male gametes procducedis several thousand hmnes the number of femudle gametes produ cect. In seed plants, pollen grains are the carriers of male garetes anc oviile have the edge. Pollen grains procuceclin anthers therefore, hawe tosehr sae a a st = ah Figure 1.7 (a) Homogametic contact in alga; (b) Germinating pollen grains on the stigma of aflower This phenomenon is called parthenogenesis. (b) ROH G Y be transferred to the stigma before it can lead to fertiisation (Figure 1.7b). In bisexual, selt-fertilNsing plants, e.g., peas, transfer of pollen grains to the stigma is relatively easy as anthers and stigma are located close to each other; pollen grains soon after they are shed, come in contact with the stigma. But in cross pollinating plants (including dioecious plants), a specialised event called pollination facilitates transfer of pollen grains to the stigma. Pollen grains germinate on the stigma and the pollen tubes carrylng the male gametes reach the ovule and discharge male gametes near the egg. In dioecious animals, since male and female gametes are formed in different individuals, the organism must evolve a special mechanism for gamete transfer. Successful transfer and coming together of gametes 1s essential for the most critical event in sexual reproduction, the fertilisation. 1.2.2 Pertilisation The most vital event of sexual reproduction is perhaps the fusion of gametes. This process called syngamy results in the formation of a diploid zygote. The term fertilisation is also often used for this process. The terms syngamy and fertilisation are frequently used though , interchangeably. What would happen if syngamy does not occur? However, it has to be mentioned here that in some organisms like rotifers, honeybees and even some Hzards and birds (turkey), the female gamete undergoes development to form new organisms without fertilisation. Where does syngamy occur? I[n most aquatic organisms, such asa majority of algae and fishes as well as amphiblans, syngamy occurs in the external medium (water), 1.e., outside the body of the organism. This type of gametic fusion 1s called external fertilisation. Organisms exhibiting external fertilisation show sreat synchrony between the sexes and release a large number of gametes into the surrounding meditum (water) In order to enhance the chances of syngamy. This happens in the bony fishes and frogs where a large number of offspring are produced. A major disadvantage is that the offspring are extremely vulnerable to predators threatening thelr survival up to adulthood. In many terrestrial organisms, belonging to fungl, higher animals such as reptiles birds, mammals and in a majority of plants (bryophytes, pterldophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms), syngamy occurs insideREPROQOCTION IN ORGANISMS the Boch? of the oftaniam, herice the process is called dmbemia lfertilisation. Tr all these organisms, 6001s formec insicle the ferrule body where they fuse with the male gamete. In offanisims exhibiting internal fertilisation, the mriale gamete is motile ancl has to reach the egg in order to fuse with it. Tr the se even though the number of sperms produceclis very large, there is 4 Significant reduction in the number of edges procucect. In seed plants, homever, the nor -motile trale gametes are carried tofemale gamete by pollen tubes. L.2.3 Posttertilsation Events Bverits in sesiial reproctuction after the formation of zygote are callecl pest fertilisation events. 12.6.1 The 2ugate Formation of the ciploid sydote is universal in all sexually reproducnyg organisms. In offaniams with external fertilisation, zydote is formecdin the eternal meciwim (usually water), whereas in those exhibiting intemal fertilisation, 2ydote is formeclinsice the boch of the organism Further development of the zydote depencs on the type of lite cycle the ofganiat has and the environment itis exposed to. In offanisms Telonging totunidi ancdaldse, zygote develops a thick wallthatlis feaistant to dessication and damage. It undergoes a period of rest betore getirination. In orfarnisimns with haplontic life cpele (45 pou have react in Class Al), 2pdote clivides by meiosis to form haploid spores that grow into haploid inclividuals. Cems uit your Cliss AT book ana find out wort Kind, of dieoelopnent ides place On the Z2Uqere On Org anniants LO atelier tle and. Tuaplonaeheniie tifa oyches, “ayGote is the vital link that ensures continuity of species Det Ween Offanisms of one generation and the nest. Every sexually fepioducing organism, inclucting human beings begin lite as a single cell—the zyaote. L262 Brmbmyogenrests Embryogenesis refers to the process ofdevelopment of embryo trom the eyeote. During embryogenesis, rgote undergoes cell division [mitosis) and cell differentiation. While cell divisions increase the number ot cells in the developing embryo, cell citterentiation helps groups of cells to wndergio certain mocdkications to form specialised issues and organs to fot an ordanisin You have stuclied about the process of cell division and clifferentiation in the previous class. Animals are cate gorizec into oviparows and viviparous base on Whether the development of the zygote take place outsice the boch of the fetrale parent of inside, i.6.. whether they lay fertilised untertilised egies of dive birth toyoungones. ln oviparous animals like reptiles and birds,BOGLOGyY the fertilised eggs covered by hard calcareous shell are laid in a safe place in the environment; after a period of incubation young ones hatch out. On the other hand, in viviparous animals (majority of mammals including human beings), the zygote develops into a young one inside the body of the female organism. After attaining a certain stage of growth. the young ones are delivered out of the body of the female organism. Because of proper embryonic care and protection, the chances of survival of young ones is sreater in viviparous organisms. In flowering plants, the zygote is formed inside the ovule. After fertilisation the sepals, petals and stamens of the flower wither and fall off. Can you name a plant in which the sepals remain attached? The pistil however, remains attached to the plant. The zygote develops into the embryo and the ovules develop into the seed. The ovary develops into the fruit which develops a thick wall called pericarp that is protective in function (Figure 1.8). After dispersal, seeds germinate under favourable conditions to produce new plants. Figure 1.8 A few kinds of fruit showing seeds (S) and protective pericarp(P) SUMMARY Reproduction enables a species to live generation after generation. Reproduction in organisms can be broadly classified into asexual and sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction does not involve the formation or fusion of gametes. It is common in organisms that have a relatively simple organisation such as the fungi, algae and some invertebrate animals. The offspring formed by asexual reproduction are identical and are referred to as clones. Zoospores, conidia, etc., are the most common asexual structures formed in several algae and fungi. Budding and gemmule formation are the common asexual methods seen in animals. Prokaryotes and unicellular organisms reproduce asexually by cell division or binary fission of the parent cell. In several aquatic and terrestrial species of angiosperms, structures such as runners,REPROQOIOCTRIN I Oma AR TAS Thizomes, suckers, tubers, offsets, etc, are capable of giving rise to new offspring. This method of asexual reproduction is generally Teferred to 2c vegetative propagation. Senuial reproduction involves the formation and fusion of garnetes. Itis a complen and slower process as compared to asemual reproduction WMost of the higher animals reproduce almost entirely by sexual method. Byents of sexual reproducton may be categorised into pretertilis ation, fertilisation and post-fertilisation events. Pre-tertilication events include gaToetogenesis and gamete transfer while post-fertilisation events include the formation of apeote and embrpogenesis. Organisms rosy be bisenual or unisexual. Sexuality in plants is varied particularly in angiosperms, due to the production of diverse types of flowers. Flants are defined as monoecious and dioecious. Flowers may be biseual or unisesual flowers. Gatoetes are haploid in nehure and usually a direct product of meiotic division ir or Where are formed by reeiiosts. Tones of halt gusotee is on ceeentel ever in sexual vetpedacton It relatively easy in bisen ual organisms. Du unisesual animals it oomurs by copulation or sinmultanecus release. In angiosperms, 3 special process called pollination ensures transter of pollen grains which cam the pollen grains to the stigriaa. Spngarny [ter tilisation) occurs between the male and terale geanetes. Syrigery rey occur either extemally outside the body of organisms or intemal), inside the body. Syrgsrmoy leads to formation of a specialised call called zygote. The process of development of embryo from the zygote is called eta brpo genesis. In animals, the zygote starts developing soon after its fortnation Animals may be either oviparous or viviparous. Era bryonal protection and care are better in viviparous organisms. Tn flowering plants, atter fertilisation, ovary develops into fruit and ovules moahare into seeds. Inside the mature seed is the progenitor of the next generation, the embryo. a ee ee CAEN CSS Why is reproduction essential for organisms? Which is a better mode of reproduction seaual or asexual? Why? Why is the offspring formed by aseaual reproduction retemed to a6 clone’? a survival. Why? Is this statement always toe? How does the progeny formed from asexual reproduction ditter from those formed by sexual reproduction? Teproduction also considered as a type of asenueal reproduction? ote pring formed due to sexual reproduction have better chances of Distn@uish between asexual and sexual reproduction. Why is vegetativea. ll. J. 13. 14. 15. 16. ly. 15. What is vegetstive propagation? Give two suitable examples. Detine [a Juvenile phase [b] Reproductive phase [Ic] Serescent phase. Higher oranistas have resorted to sexual reproduction in spite of its coraplexity. Why? BRL Explain why moesiosis and garoetogenesis are always imberlinked? each part in a flowering plant and write whether it is haploid I fn) or diploid [2 n). [=] (6) (c] [d) l=! It] Detine external fertilisation Mention its disadvantages. Ditterentiate between a zoospore and a ay gote. Ditterentiate between gemetogenesis from embrpogenesis. Describe the post-tertilisation changes in a flower. Qyary Ant her Bee Pollen Wale gernete 2 eh What is a bisexual flower? Collect five bisexual flowers from your neighbourhood aad with the help of pour teacher find out their com©;,9on anid scientitic newnes. Examine 2 few flowers of any cucurbit plant and try to identify the staminate and pistillate flowers. Do pou know any other plant that bears unisexual flowers? Why are offspring of oviparous animals at a greater risk a5 compared to offspring of viviparous animals?CHAPTER 2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANIS #1 mae 3 4 Ao Plawer— A Pas cinating Cran, of Angiospenns Pre-fertilisation, - cotctures amaweoerts Deauble Pertiits.ation Post fertilis ation: otructuines amdaweoerts Apaniias and, Palyenmibryany ore we not lucky that plants reproduce sexually? The Trifiads of fowers that we enjoy daring at, the scents arc the perfumes that we swoon over, the rich colours that attra cl us, are all there as an aicdto semualreprocu ction. Flowers do not esist only for us to be usec for cur own seliishness. Al flowering plants show seenuial reprochuction. 4 look at the civersity of structures of the intlores cence s, flowers anc floral parts, shows an amazing range of adaptations to ensure totmation of the end products of seeial reproduction, the truits and seecs. In this chapter, let ws understand the morphology, structure and the processes of sexual reproduction in flowering plants [angiosperms]. Soa oD Rare -- A Pata Tas Cea OF FC AS Human beings have hac an intimate relationship with flowers since tine immemoial Flowers are objects of aesthetic, ornairerntal, social, religious and cultural value —they have always been usec as apmibols for conveying important human feelings such as lowe, affection, happiness, grief, mourning, etc. List at least flee flowers ef oTnaneentdl Gaile Oud are cerenonty cuilliodhed dtBRI LOST Figure 2.1 4 disgrarmimatic representation of L.S. of a flower hetes dndin gardens. Find our We maines of flve none flowers (hdl are Waed. On sacl arid. cuit ole bratiens on, Qeuer foaneiy. Fiaee you. tedral ef flericuiture — oat does i refer tor To 4 biologist, flowers are morphological ancd embrpological mares ancl the sites of sestual reproduction. In class Al, pou have reac the various parts of a flower Pigture 2.1 will help you recall the parts of a typical flower, Gan you name the two parts in a flower in which the two most important urits of seaual reproduction develope fo PREEPETNTUSATRON: EPRCTORES an Ewes Tiich betore the actual floweris seen ona plant, theclecision that the plant is doing to flower has taken place. Several hormonal ancstructiral charges ate initiated which lead to the clifferentiation and further development of the floral primoiclivim, Intlores cenices are formed which bear the floral bucls and then the flowers. In the flower the tale anc female reproductive structures, the anciroecivim anc the gyncecivin cifferentiate and develop. You wold recollect that the anctrocecum consists of a whorl of stamens representing the male reproductive orden arid the ornicecivim represents the female reprocductve organ.SEAUAL RcPRQOLCTROR IM FROWERIRAS PLANTS 2.2.1 Stamen, Microsperangium and Pollen Gratin Figure 2.22 shows the two parts of a typical stamen —the long ancl slencer stalk called the fllament, ancl the terminal @nerally bilobed structure called the anther. The pioeimial end of the tlatrent is attached to the thalatmuuis or the petal of the flower. The number anc length of stamens are Varia ble in Towers of cifterent specnes. If you were to collect. statmen each tromten flowers [each trom different species] and arrange themona slice, pou Wolild be able to appreciate the large variation in Size seen in nature. Careful obsermation of each slamnen under 2 clissecling microscope arc faking neat diagrams would eluciclate the range in shape and attachment of anthers in cifterent flowers. 4 tpical angiosperm anther is bllobed with each lobe having two theca, i.e. they are daeoows [Figure 2.2). Often a longituclinal groove mains lengthwise separating the theca. Let ws wurcerstancd The Various trpes of issues ancl their onfanisation in the transverse section ofan anther [Pigure 2. al. The bilobed nature of an anther is very cistinct in the transverse section of the anther The arither is a four-sided (tetragonal) structure consisting of four Microsporangla located at the comers, two in each lobe. The microsporangia develop further and become pollen sacs. They ester longituctina ly all thir gh the length of an anther anc are packet Figure 2.2 (a).4 typical stamen: With pollen ¢raitis. [6] three-dimensional cut section Siructure of microsporangium : In 2 transverse of ari anther Sechion, a typical microsporangivim appesrs near cittular in outline. It is Generally surrounded by four wall layers [Figure 2.3 b)—the epidermis, encdothecivm, mictcile layers and the tapeturm The cuter three walllayers pertorm the function of protection anc helpin Ce his cence of anther to release the pollen. The innermost wall layer is the Tapetiuum. Tt nourishes the developing pollen grains. Cells of the tapetum possess dense cytoplasm anc generally have more than one nucleus. Can, Won. COW of Cueto tape cells cenit becornte Bor idledes’ When the antheris pound, 2 dtoup of compactly arrange homogenous cells called the sporogenous tissue occupies the centre of each Taciosporari gir Micros poro genesis | 43 the anther develops, the cells of the sporogenous Hssve Undergo meiotic civisions toformini crospore tetracds. Wil woe be the phot of the celts of the betray’Broliis it mafia he ORL ee : eT EL Lr Gn 1 | Fa Pa Ut a mee te ry eames pats . prow ati fy a : i eases eee aig 2, SER of tater tt Stare e ea Spy Ae, ta Meg genes tot ia Yar erage ae pe if yay gt Ee re * fhe ea ee 7 are Lia Ea cs kz bly : ‘ r a Ste ote od ee TT ee ow, PE ee UE Tah, See a ye a A oe ee ae EEE a | Pai b- La ot! i te ae dt chee aT ee emer ph ESA a Pier Fd ant me : oa Le er et rf f ae “ 4 a Pit ie ea a a ;: re PLES) preteLis Ree eae eer eat va [c] Figure 2.3 [=| Transverse section of a mature anther: [6] Enlarged ves of ome microsporangium shoming wall lepers: [c) A dehisced anther 45 @ach cell of the spotogenous tissue is capable of giving rise to a fricrospore tetrad. Rach one is a potential pollen or mraictospore mother cell (PMC). The process of formation of microspores trom a pollen mother cell thigh meiosis is called microsporogenesis. The microspores, a3 they are forme, are arranged ina cluster of four cells—the microspore tetrad [Pigure 2.33). Asthe anthers mature and cehyporate, the microspore s dissociate tromesach other and develop into pollen grains [Figure 2.3). | naice each microsporangivum several thousands of microspores or pollen ps grains aré fotirecdt that are released with the dehiscence of anther nv rrr: Figure 2.3 ¢]. Pollen ¢rain: The pollen grains represent the male datretophptes. If yoru touch the openect anthers of Aibisensor any other flower you worulel trict deposition of yellowish powdery pollen drains on pour fingers. dprinkle These grains on a cop of water taken on a dass slide ancdobsermve uncerSERUAL REPRO OU CTR TM Pte RES Peel fo Figure 2.4 Scanning electron micrographs of a few pollen grains amicroscope, You will really be amazed at the variety of architecture — sizes, shapes, colours, designs — seen on the pollen grains from different species [Figure 2. 4], Pollen grains are generally spherical measuring about 20 micrometers in diameter, It has aprominent two-layered wall, The hard outer layer called the exime iz made up at sporopollenin which is one of themost resistant organic material known, It can withstand high temperatures and strong acids and alkali. No enayme that desrades sporopollenin is so far known, Pollen grain exine has prominent apertures called germ pores where sporopolleninis absent, Pollen grains are well- preserved astfossils because of the presence of sporopollenin. The exine exhibits afascinating array of pattems and designe. Wry do you think the exme shoula be hoard’ Whit ts the junction of genn pore’ The inner wall of the pollen grain is called theintine. It iz athin and continuous layer made up at cellulose and pectin. The cytoplasm of pollen grain is surrounded by a plasmamembrane, When the pollen srainis mature it containstua cells, the vegetative cell and generative cell [Figure 2. ob). The vegetative cell is bigger, has abundant food reserve and a large irregularly shaped nucleus. The fenerative cell is small and floats in the cytoplasm of the vegetative cell, Itis spindle shaped with dense cytoplasm and Figure 2.5 [a] Enlarged view of a pollen grain tetrad: [b) stages of a Inicrospore Maturing into a are shed at this 4-celled stage, Intheremaining species, the pollen grain anucleus, In over 60 per cent of angiosperms, pollen grains senerative cell divides mitotically to Averiseto the two male Pollen grains of many species cause severe allergies and bronchial sametes before pollen grains are shed [a-celled stage]. atflictions in some people often leading to chronic respiratory disorders—asthma, bronchitis, etc. It maybe mentioned that Porthention or carrot srass that came into India asa contaminant with imported wheat, has become ubiquitous in occurrence and causes pollen allergy,z Bee Pollew a Crean — BOLOGY Pollen grains are rich in nutrients. It has become a fashion in recent years to use pollen tablets as food supplements. In western countries, a large number of pollen products in the form of tablets and syrups are available in the market. Pollen consumption has been claimed to increase the performance of athletes and race horses (Figure 2.6). Pollen Products 30] y Bee Pollen from England Natural Bee- collected Pollen in Tiny Golden Pods A natural food from honey bees NET WEIGHT .45 O7. Figure 2.6 Pollen products When once they are shed, pollen grains have to land on the stigma before they lose viability if they have to bring about fertilisation. How long do you think the pollen grains retain viability? The period for which pollen srains remain viable is highly variable and to some extent depends on the prevailing temperature and humidity. In some cereals such as rice and wheat, pollen grains lose viability within SO minutes of their release, and in some members of Rosaceae, Leguminoseae and Solanaceae, they maintain viability for months. You may have heard of storing semen/ sperms of many animals including humans for artificial insemination. It is possible to store pollen grains of a large number of species for years in liquid nitrogen (-196°C). Such stored pollen can be used as pollen banks, similar to seed banks, in crop breeding programmes. 2 the Pistil, Megasporangium (ovule) and Embryo sac The gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of the flower. The synoecium may consist of a single pistil (monocarpellary) or may have more than one pistil (multicarpellary). When there are more than one, the pistils may be fused together (synearpous) (Figure 2.7b) or may be free (apocarpous) (Figure 2.7c). Each pistil has three parts (Figure 2.7a), the stigma, style and ovary. The stigma serves as a landing platform for pollen grains. The style is the elongated slender part beneath the stigma. The basal bulged part of the pistilisthe ovary. Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity (locule). The placenta is located inside the ovarian cavity. Recall the definition and types of placentation that you studied inSEAIAl ScPROOGOCTAIOR IM FoOuWERIRGS PLAHT* Figure 2.7 (3) Adissected flower of Hibiscus showing pistil lother floral parts hawe been removed); (b) Mhalticerpellary, spnoerpous pistil of Papaver; [co] A multicarpellary, apocarpous aymoecivm of MMichetia; [d) A diagrammatic view of a typical snatopous ovuile Lass Al, Arising trom the placenta are the Megasporanda, com{,nly called ovules. The number of ovules in an ovary tiay be one [wheat, paddy, marco) to many (papaya. water melon, orchicls|. The Megasporanglum (Ovumley : Let us fatriliarise ourselves with the structure of a bpical angiospermovule [Pigure 2. 7c]. The ovule is a small structure attached to the placenta bY means of a stalk called finicle. The body ofthe ovale fuses with funicle in the region callec hilum. This, hilwim repre sents the junction between ove and funicle. Fachowile has one or two piote chive envelopes called Integuments. Integutents ernicircle the ovule escept at the tip where a smallopering callecl the micropyle is organised. Opposite the micropylar enc is the chalara, representing the ba sal part of the owale. Brclosed within the integumerits is atss of cells called the mucelins. Ces of the tucellus have aburclant reserve fooclmaterials. Locateclin the niicellus is the em bro sac cr female Gametophyte. on ove cnerally has 4 sitigle embryo sc formec tom amegaspore thicigh recticton civisicn. Megasporoag¢enesis : The process of formation of medgaspores from the megaspore mother cell is callecl megasporogenesis. Oyvules generally differentiate 2 single me dgaspore mother cell (MMC in the micropylar regionBML ¥ ee See he ge ye Figure 2.8 [a] Parts of the ovule showing a large medaspore mother cell, a dyad and a tetrad of medcaspores; (b) 1,42, 4, and #-nucleate stages of embryo sac and a mature embryo sac; (c] A diagrammatic representation of the mature embryo sac. of the nucellus. It is a large cell containing dense cytoplasm and a prominent nucleus. The MMC undergoes meiotic division. What is the importance of the MMC undenjoing meiosis? Meiosis results in the production of four megaspores (Figure 2. 3a). Female gamectophyte : In a majority of flowering plants, one of the megaspores is functional while the other three degenerate. Only the functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte (embryo sac). This method of embryo sac formation from asingle megaspore Is termed monosponc development. What will be the ploidy of the celts of the nuceltus, MMC, the functional megaspore and female gametophiyte?SEAUAL RcPRQOUWCTROR IM FROWERIRAS PLANTS Let us stucly formation of the embryo sac in a littl more cetail. [Figure 2.80). The nucleus ofthe functional ine da spore cliivicles mitotically to form two nuclei which move to the opposite poles, forming the 2—nucleate embryo sac. Twotnore sequential mitotic nuclear civisions Te stuilt in the formation of the 44-nucleate anclater the nucleate stages of the embryo sac. tisoftinterest to note that the se mitotic clivisions are strictly free nuclear, thatis, nuclear clivisions are not followed! immechately Gy cell wall tort tion. Atter the &-nucleste stage, cell walls are laid clown leading to the ofganisation of the typical female gametophyte or embryo sac. Observe the clistribution of cells inaicle the embryo sac [PIPuTe 2.80, c). ois of the eight nuclei are surrounded by cell walls anc organised into cells; the remaining two nuclei, called polar nuclei are situated below the edd apparatus in the large central cell. There is a characteristic chstribution of the cells within the embryo aac. Three cells are @rcnapect together at the mricropylar end anc constitute the ag apparatus. The edge apparatus, in turn, condi sts of two symergids and one eg cell. The spnergicls have special cellular thickenings atthe ficropylar tip called tlitormapparatus, which play an important mole in euicing the pollen tubes into the synergic. Three cells are at the chalazal endand are callecl the antipodals. The large central cell, as mentioned earlier, has two polar nuclei. Thus, a typical angiosperm embryo sac, at fraturity, though &-nweleate is 7-celled. 7.2.0 Pollnaboo Tr the pre caching se clions you have learnt that the male ancl female gametes in flowering plants are procuced in the pollen grain anc embryo sac, fespectively. 43 both types of gametes are non-motile, they have to be Growighit together for fertilisation to occur Howis this achieve? Pollination is the mrechanismto achieve this objective. Transter of pollen grains [shed from the anther] to the stigma of a pistil is termed pollination. Flowering plants have evolwad an amazing array of adaptations to achieve pollination. They make use of extemal agents to achieve pollination. Can yeu tist (ie possible external agents? Kinds of Pollination : Depencing on the source of pollen, pollination can be civiced into three types. Gi) Adtegamy : In this type, pollination is achieved within the same flower. Transier ot pollen drains trom the anther to the stigma of the sate flower [Figure 2.93). In a normal flower which opens anc esposes the anthers ancdthe stigma, complete autoganry is rather Tare. Autogarey in such flowers requires synchrony in pollen release and stigma receptivity aril also, the anthers anc the stigtrna shoneet rt bt ay re a Fe Fe a a Fe Fe a Fe Fe Fe a Fe Fe re a Fe Fe re a Fe ce ee SS Sa 7 Figure 2.9 [a] Gelf-pollinated flowers: [b) Cross pollinated flowers: [c] Cleistogamous flowers [ii] [iii] oI LSS txt lie clase to each other so that self-pollination can occur, Some plants such az Viola [common pansy], Gxalts, and Commelina Produce two types of flowers - chasmogamous flowers which are similar to flowers of other species with exposed anthers and stigma, and cleistogamous flowers which do not open at all [Figure 2.9c), In such flowers, the anthers and stigma lie clase to each other, When anthers dehisce in the flower buds, pollen grains comein contact with the stigma to effect pollination, Thus, cleistogamous flowers areinvaniably autagamous az thereis no chance of crozs-pollen landing on the stigma. Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even in the absence oat pollinators, Do you think that cleistogamy is advantageous or disadvantageous to the Plant? Whi’? Getonagamy—Transter of pollen grains fom the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same plant. Although geitonogamy is functionally crozsspollination involving a pollinating agent, genetically it ig similar to autogamy since the pollen stains come trom the same plant. Achagamy — Transter of pollen srains from anther to the stigma of a different plant [Figure 2 Sb) Thisis the only type ot pollination which during pollination brings genetically different types of pollen grains to the stigma. Agents of Pollination : Plants use taro abiotic [wind anid water | and one biotic (animals) agents to achieve pollination. Majority oat plants use biotic agents for pollination. Only a small proportion of plants use abiotic agents, Pollen grains comingin contact with the stigma iz a chance factor in both wind and water pollination, To compensate for this uncertainties and associated loss af pollen srains, the tlowers produce enormous amount of pollen when compared to the number of owiles available for pollination.SESW AL RECPRSOLCTROR IM FROWERIRAS PLANTS Pollination DY wind is more common atnongst abiotic pollinations. Wirnd pollination also requires that the pollen grains are light and non-sticky 30 that they can be transported in wind currents. They often possess well-exposed stamens (so that the polleris are easily cisper sec into wind currents, Figure 2.10) anc large offten-teathery stigma toeasily trap ait -borne pollen ¢rains. Wiricl- pollinated flowers offen hawe a single ovule in eachovary and numerous flowers packed into an intlore scence: a familiar estarnple is the oom cob —the tassels you see are nothing but the stigma anc style which wave in the wiricl to trap pollen grains. Wind -polination is quite COMM itl Pras ses. Pollination bY water is quite fare in flowering plants and is limtecl to about 3 genera, mostly monocotpylecdons. As again st this, you would recall that water is a regular foode of transport for the male gametes among the lower plant groups such as algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes. Itis believect, particularly for some bryophytes anc Figure 2.10 4 winrd- pollinated plant showing ptericophytes, that their distribution is limited compact inflorescence and tell because of the neecl for water for the transport of male gametes and fertilisation. some examples of water pollinated plants are Vallisneria and Hydritia, which crow in fresh water anc several marine sea-grasses such as Aostera, Mot allaquatic plants use water tor pollination. Ina majority of aquatic plants such as water hyacinth and water lily, the flowers emerge above the level of water arc ate pollinated by insects or wind a3 in most of the lanc plants. In Vatiisneria, the female flowerreach the surtace of water by the long stalk anc the male flowers or pollen drains are released on to the suftace of water They are cairied passively by water currents [Pigure 2.llal, some of them eventually reach the female flowers anc the stigma. In another group of water pollinated plants suchas seagrasses, ferrule flowers remain submerge in water anc the pollen grains are releasect indice the water. Pollen grains in many such species are long, ribbon like anc they are cairied passively inaice the water, some of themreach the stigma anc achieve pollination. In most of the water-polinated species, pollen grains are protected trom wetting bya muciagncus covering. Both witicl and water pollinated flowers are not very colourful aricl co not procice nectar Wival woendle be Wye reasen for bois exposed starnvernsHida! “ a e z a e z a e z a e z a e z a 2 : rhe dees aha 2 ie (b) Figure 2.1 (a) Pollination by water in Vallisneria: (b) Insect pollination pollination. BOG? Majority of flowering plants use a range of animals as pollinating agents. Bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, wasps, ants, moths, birds (sunbirds and humming birds) and bats are the common pollinating agents. (Figure 2.11b). Among the animals, insects, particularly bees are the dominant biotic pollinating agents. Even larger animals such as some primates (lemurs), arboreal (tree-dwelling) rodents, or even reptiles (gecko lizard and garden lizard) have also been reported as pollinators in some species. Often flowers of animal- pollinated plants are specifically adapted for a particular species of animal. Majority of insect-pollinated flowers are large, colourful, fragrant and rich in nectar. When the flowers are small, a number of flowers are clustered into an inflorescence to make them conspicuous. Animals are attracted to flowers by colour and/or fragrance. The flowers pollinated by flies and beetles secrete foul odours to attract these animals. To sustain animal visits, the flowers have to provide rewards to the animals. Nectar and pollen orains are the usual floral rewards. For harvesting the reward(s) from the flower the animal visitor comes in contact with the anthers and the stigma. The body of the animal gets a coating of pollen grains, which are senerally sticky in animal pollinated flowers. When the animal carrying pollen on its body comes in contact with the stigma, it brings about In some species floral rewards are in providing safe places to lay eggs; an example is that of the tallest flower of Amorphophallus (the tlower itself is about 6 feet in height). A similar relationship exists between a species of moth and the plant Yucca where both species — moth and theSEAUAL RcPRQOLCTROR IM FROWERIRAS PLANTS plant - carrot complete their life cpeles without each other The troth ce posits its egies in the lociwe of the ovary anc the flower, in turn, gets pollinated by the moth. The larvae of the moth come out of the egos as the seeds start ce veloping. WT dont (ou @bserke sone flovwers of the following plants for ang Ces Code te youl Cucueber Mange, Peepal, Coriander Papaya, Cron, Lobo, Cetton, Tobaoce, Rose, Lenten, Euomiy ous, Bamana Try be Jind. @llh Lome aris ofsit tient dnd vofetiver thegy contd be pollinators Fou fdioe bo patentiy absence the Mowers aver d feto ays and. af different tires af the diay. Fou. cone alse try to See Loretiver there LS GY Oormeleiien, On, fhe COairaereristics ef a. flavoer be te auniinadl bot MOSS Uf. Carel observe (any af the obsiters cone tn canta Loin We anthers dF. the atiqrid ds only suc olsihers oon bring about petlinuiien., Man InSecs Tay consti pollen or We nectar Lou en Bringing dbour pollination. loch. flora oisiters are referred. to as pollen /mecdar rebbers. Found or nay met be able be er tify tou pedlirators, Bot ene Lod) sumety Tia Your ators Outbreeding Devices: Wojority of Towering plants procuce hermmaphitoctte flowers and pollen grains are likely to come in contact with the stigiona of the same flower. Continwecl selt-polination result in inbreecing depression. Flowering plants have developed muny devices to cliscourage selt- pollination and to encourage cross-pollination. In some species, pollen Teleasze and stigma receptivity are not synchronised. Rather the pollen is felea sed before the stigimus becomes receptive of stig be comes fe ce phi fouich before the release of pollen. In some other species, the anther ancl stitina are pla ceclat different positions 30 that the pollen cannot come in conta cl with the stigma of the same flower Both these cevices prevent auitogamy. The thitd device to prevent inbteecting is selt-incompatibility. This is a genetic rechariamnand prevents selt-pollen [fromthe same flower or other flowers of the same plant) tfromifertilising the ovules by inhibiting pollen germination or pollen tube growth in the pistil. Another device to prevent selt-pollinnation is the production of unisesual towers. If both male and female flowers are present on the aire plant suchas castor anc fraize [THoHOe CIC 3] it prevents autogarmiy Dut not geitonoiamiy. In several species Such as papaya, fale anc female flowers are present on clitferent plants, thatis each plantis either male of femudle [cicecy. This corclition prevents both avtogary and gevhonogs rriy. Pollen-pistil Interaction : Pollination cloes not fuarantee the transier of the right tepe of pollen [compatible pollen of the same species as the stigma). Otten. pollen of the wrong type, either trom other species or from the same plant [if it is selt-incompatible), also lanc on the stigma. The pistil has the ability to recognise the pollen, whether itis of the right type (compatible) orot the wrong trpe lin compatible). f itis of the right type, the pistil accepts the pollen anc promotes post-pollination events thatBOLO Y Longitudinal section of a flower showing growth of pollen tube (d) Figure 2.12 (a) Pollen grains germinating on the stigma; (b) Pollen tubes growing through the style; (c) L.S. of pistil showing path of pollen tube growth; (d) enlarged view of an egg apparatus showing entry of pollen tube into a synergid; (e) Discharge of male gametes into a synergid and the movements of the sperms, one into the egg and the other into the central cell leads to fertilisation. If the pollen is of the wrong type, the pistil rejects the pollen by preventing pollen germination on the stigma or the pollen tube srowth in the style. The ability of the pistil to recognise the pollen followed by its acceptance or rejection is the result of a continuous dialogue between pollen grain and the pistil. This dialogue is mediated by chemical components of the pollen interacting with those of the pistil. It is only in recent years that botanists have been able to identify some of the pollen and pistil components and the interactions leading to the recognition, followed by acceptance or rejection. As mentioned earlier, following compatible pollination, the pollen grain serminates on the stigma to produce a pollen tube through one of the serm pores (Figure 2.12a). The contents of the pollen grain move into theSEAUAL RcPRQOLCTROR IM FROWERIRAS PLANTS pollen tube. Pollen tube grows through the tissues of the stigma arc style and reaches the ovary [Figure 2.120, ¢c]. You would recall that in some plants, pollen grains are shed attwo-celled conctition [a vegetative cell and a generate cell]. In such plants, the generative cell divides anc forms the two tale fametes curing the ¢rowth of pollen tube in the stiri. In plants which shed pollenin the three-celled concition, pollen tubes carry the two male dametes tromithe bedinning. Pollen tube, after reaching the ovary, eniters the ovule thinrcugh the mricropyle anc then enters one of the synendicls titough the tlicrmapparatus [Figure 2.1 acl. ee]. Many re cant stuclie s hawe shown that tlitctm apparatus present at the ricropylar part of the aynerdcs guides the entry of pollen tube. Al these events—trom pollen deposition on the stigtna until pollen tubes enter the owale—are together reterred to as pollen-pistil interaction. As pointecl out earlier, pollen-pistil interaction is a dynamic process involving pollen recogrition followed by promotion of inhibition of the pollen. The kriowleclie cairnect in this area wold help the plant breecler in manipulating pollen -pistil interachion, ever in incompatible polliinations, to get ce sired hybricts. You can easily study pollen cermination by chisting some pollen trom flowers suchas pea, chickpeas, Crotalaria, balaamancd Vinedona glass slice containing 2 cloop of sugar solution [about 10 per cent). After about 1650 Tritnites, observe the slice wider the low power lens of the fricroseope. You afe likely to see pollen tubes comryg cutotthe pollen grains. 4s you shall learn in the chapter on plant breecing (Chapter oO]. a Greecer is interested in crossing cifferent species and often genera to combine ce sirable characters to produce commercially “superior varieties. Artificial hybridisation is one of the major approaches of crop improvement programme. In such crossing experiments itis important to take sure that only the desired pollen grains are usecttor pollination and the stittra is protechecl irom contannina tion [ftom unwanted poller). Thisis achieved byemasculation and Da geing techniques. If the female parent bears biseeual flowers, removal of anthers trom the flower Gud before the anther dehisces using a pair of forceps is necessary. This step is referred to a3 emascuwlation. Erruas culated flowers have tobe coveted witha bagof suitable size, generally mace up of butter Paper, to prevent contamination of its sigma with unwanted pollen. This process is callecl bag@ing. When the stigma of bagged flower attains feceptivity, mature pollen grains collected tromanthers ofthe male parent ate dusted on the stigma, ancl the flowers are rebaggecd, arc the fruits allowed to cevelop. If the female parent produces wnisesual flowers, there is no need for Afra sclation. The female tlower buds are bagged betore the towers open. When the shigtrnia becomes receptive, pollination is carried out using the ce sired pollen ancl the flower rebagigect. ee