OSI Seven-Layer Model

In the 1980s, the European-dominated International Standards Organization (ISO), began to

develop its Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) networking suite. OSI has two major
components: an abstract model of networking (the Basic Reference Model, or seven-layer
model), and a set of concrete protocols. The standard documents that describe OSI are for sale
and not currently available online.

Parts of OSI have influenced Internet protocol development, but none more than the abstract
model itself, documented in OSI 7498 and its various addenda. In this model, a networking
system is divided into layers. Within each layer, one or more entities implement its functionality.
Each entity interacts directly only with the layer immediately beneath it, and provides facilities
for use by the layer above it. Protocols enable an entity in one host to interact with a
corresponding entity at the same layer in a remote host.

And The Origin Of The OSI Model

Despite the success of the Internet in replacing all the previous attempts to build a global
computer communication system, some engineers haven't updated their thinking from old
descriptions of networks. instead they still cling to the outdated 7-layer reference model that was
invented by ISO instead of the 5-layer reference model that was invented for the Internet.
Interestingly, engineers who insist on using the older model cannot identify single protocol at
layers 5 and 6. But... because they learned the model somewhere in school, they desparately hope
that the extra layers must be useful. As a result, they incorrectly classify applications as as layer
7 instead of layer 5.

Researchers have begun looking into the origins and uses of the OSI 7-layer reference model to
determine why a cumbersome and inaccurate model has had such staying power. They have
recently uncovered some surprising facts. We have know for a long time that the model was the
work of a group. We did not know, however, that the group met late one night in a bar and began
making fun of American pop cluture. As it turns out, they started scribbling names of the seven
dwarfs from the Disney movie on a paper cocktail napkin, and somebody joked that seven was a
really good number for network layers. The next morning at the standards committee meeting,
the group passed around the cocktail napkin and generally agreed that that they had discovered
something fundamental the previous night while they were drunk. By the end of the day, they
had renamed the seven layers (with names that sounded more scientific), and produced the basic
model. Here's the lineup and a bit of explanation:

ISO 7 Layer Model

The ISO/OSI model describes computer communication services and protocols, without making
assumptions concerning:
 programming language bindings

 operating system bindings

 application and user interface issues

A model is simply a way of organizing knowledge and provides the common basis for
discussion.

The ISO OSI Reference Model is a layered model - with each layer providing certain services
and calling upon the services of other layers.

What Is ISO OSI Model

OSI stands for Open System Interconnection. The OSI standards were laid down by the
International Organization for Standardization in 1984. The OSI model gives seven different
layers through which the data must travel when it is transferred from one computer to another in
a network.

These seven layers can be distinguished into two groups:

• Transport set and

• Application set

Troubleshooting with the Seven Layers of the OSI Model

The OSI model is also used for troubleshooting network issues, using what's called either
top-down troubleshooting (starting from the top layer of the OSI model, or the
application on the computer or server), or bottom-up troubleshooting (checking the
device for physical problems such as no power, a bad cable or other physical problems).

This is where basic network tools such as ping and telnet come in handy. Ping is a simple
network utility that sends a small amount of data over a network and waits for a response from
the other device. If there is a response from the other device, then network connectivity has been
confirmed and it is usually safe to assume connectivity up to the Network layer, and focus
troubleshooting on the upper four layers of the OSI.

Since telnet operates at a even higher layer than ping (the Transport layer) it is also an excellent
troubleshooting tool when available. Telnet actually opens up a connection with a device at the
other end and depending on how it has been configured, can grant a user access to the other
device.

Standards are extremely important in the field of networking. The whole purpose of a network is
to allow different computers to communicate. If the computers do not follow a common
standard, they will not be able to communicate. In North America we have a standard for
electrical power. Wall outlets have two parallel connectors with 110 volts of 60 Hertz power
providing up to 15 amps. Any electrical appliance can be plugged in any outlet. This level of
cross vendor compatibility allows you to use any electrical device and not have to have your
building wired just for that brand of equipment. Communication networks need that level of
standards and interoperability.

One of the most important standards in networking is the International Standards Organization
Open System Interface, known as ISO OSI. OSI is both a standard and a network architecture
model. As a standard, it is not very often followed. Some networks are OSI standard networks,
but most are not. OSI has been more popular in Europe. The Internet Protocol, probably the most
commonly used network protocol, is not an OSI standard protocol. The OSI model, on the other
hand, has proved to be a popular model for network architectures. The Internet Protocol does not
exactly follow the OSI model, but it is relatively close.

The OSI model divides the many networking functions into seven different layers. This is often
called the OSI stack. Each layer provides functions or services for the layer above it. Each layer
calls upon services provided by the layer below it. Each layer is supposed to be independent of
the other layers so that a change in one layer will not affect other layers. (This is not always the
case.) The layers are implemented in each computer on the network (although some intermediate
nodes may not support all of the upper layers.) Each layer communicates with its peer layer in
another computer. Although the logical communication is between peer layers on different
computers, the actual flow of information is down the protocol stack on the sending computer
and then up the protocol stack on the receiving computer. When a layer wants to send something
to its peer layer in another computer, it calls a function in the layer below it to actually send the
data. Only the lowest layer actually sends bits to another computer.
An analogy to the OSI layers can be found in sending a package to a friend in another state. The
desired communication is between you and your friend. Because you cannot actually hand the
package to your friend, you give it to the post office. The post office gives it to an airline, which
actually transfers the package to your friend's city. The airline then gives the package to the post
office which then gives it to your friend.

You do not have to worry about how to find your friend's house in the distant city. That is the
responsibility of the post office in that city. You just have to specify your friend's address. The
post office doesn't have to be concerned with how to fly an airplane. That is the responsibility of
the airline. Each layer assumes that the layer below it will provide certain functions. Each layer
provides additional functionality.
The seven layers of the OSI model are:

layer purpose example

X.400 email, HTTP,
application Provides network services.
FTP, telnet
Converts the data to the representation
used by the local computer. May exchange
presentation
bytes of integers to resolve Big Endian -
Little Endian problems.
session Establishes sessions.
Multiplexes data streams from different
applications. Directs packets to the correct
Transport Control
transport user on a computer. This is the first end-to-
Protocol (TCP)
end layer. May also provide error
correction.
Finds a route for packets to take through
network the network. Directs packets to the correct Internet Protocol (IP)
computer
Detects and corrects any errors on the link.
data link - logical data link
Provides flow control.
For local area networks where all
computers share a communications media,
data link - media access control Ethernet, Token Ring
this layer determines which node is
allowed to transmit.
Defines the characteristics of the physical
connections, such as type of wire, plug
shape, how is a zero or one bit represented
physical SONET, RS-232C
and what voltages are used. This is the
only layer that actually sends bits to
another computer.

The OSI model was developed over 20 years ago. Much has been learned about networking in
the past 20 years. If the OSI model was developed today, it would probably be somewhat
different. The data link layer would probably be split into two distinct layers. The session layer
has very little to do and would probably be eliminated. The Internet protocol follows a model
which is similar to the OSI model. Because the Internet was designed to run on top of existing
different networks, it does not define the lower layers.

layer purpose OSI equivalent example

Application Provides network services. Application HTTP, FT
Multiplexes data streams from different
Transport Transport TCP, UD
applications. May also provide error correction.
Internet Routing. Network IP
Provides access to the Data Link and lower
Network Interface protocols. The IP stack does not define the Data Link Ethernet
lower levels.

Each layer communicates with its peer layer by prefixing the data from the above layer with a
header.

The data link layer often adds a trailer to the packet that contains a cyclic redundancy check
(CRC) to detect errors. The physical layer might, or might not, append a header or trailer to the
packet. It is the bottom frame, with all of the headers, that is actually sent across the network.
When it is received at the other end, the headers are stripped off as the packet is passed up the
stack to the user application.

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