EFFECTS OF OIL

POLLUTION ON THE
MARINE ENVIRONMENT
TECHNICAL INFORMATION PAPER

13
 Introduction
Oil spills can seriously affect the marine environment both as a result of physical smothering
and toxic effects. The severity of impact typically depends on the quantity and type of oil spilt,
the ambient conditions and the sensitivity of the affected organisms and their habitats to the oil.

This paper describes the effects of ship-source oil spills and resultant clean-up activities on
marine flora and fauna, and their habitats. Particular attention is devoted to discussing the
complex interactions between oil and biological systems, which have been the subject of
diverse studies over many years. Separate ITOPF papers consider the specific effects of oil
on fisheries and mariculture and on wider human activity.

Overview
Oil spills can cause a wide range of impacts in the marine
environment and are often portrayed by the media as
‘environmental disasters’ with dire consequences predicted
for the survival of marine flora and fauna. In a major incident
the short-term environmental impact can be severe, causing
serious distress to ecosystems and to the people living near
the contaminated coastline, affecting their livelihoods and
impairing their quality of life (Figure 1). Images of oiled birds
following a spill encourage the perception of widespread and
permanent environmental damage with the inevitable loss of
marine resources. Given the highly charged and emotional
reaction usually associated with oil spills, it can be difficult
to obtain a balanced view of the realities of spill effects and
subsequent recovery. 5 Figure 1: Oil stranded on the shoreline adjacent to a fishing
village.
The impacts of spills have been studied and documented in
the scientific and technical literature over several decades. • chemical toxicity giving rise to lethal or sub-lethal effects
Consequently, the effects of oil pollution are sufficiently well or causing impairment of cellular functions;
understood to allow for broad indications of the scale and • ecological changes, primarily the loss of key organisms
duration of damage for a given incident. A scientific appraisal from a community and the takeover of habitats by
of typical oil spill effects reveals that, while damage occurs opportunistic species;
and can be profound at the level of individual organisms, • indirect effects, such as the loss of habitat or shelter
populations are more resilient. In time, natural recovery and the consequent elimination of ecologically important
processes are capable of repairing damage and returning species.
the system to its normal functions. The recovery process
can be assisted by removal of the oil through well-conducted The nature and duration of the effects of an oil spill depend
clean-up operations, and may sometimes be accelerated on a wide range of factors. These include: the quantity and
with carefully managed restoration measures. Long term type of oil spilt; its behaviour in the marine environment;
damage has been recorded in a few instances. However, the location of the spill in terms of ambient conditions and
in most cases, even after the largest oil spills, the affected physical characteristics; and the timing, especially in relation
habitats and associated marine life can be expected to have to the season and prevalent weather conditions. Other
broadly recovered within a few seasons. key factors are the biological composition of the affected
environment, the ecological importance of the component
Mechanisms for oil spill species and their sensitivity to oil pollution. The selection of
appropriate clean-up techniques and the effectiveness with
damage which operations are conducted can also have a significant
bearing on the effects of a spill.
Oil may impact an environment by one or more of the
following mechanisms: The potential effects of a spill are also dependent upon the
speed with which the pollutant is diluted or dissipated by
• physical smothering with an impact on physiological natural processes. This determines the geographical extent of
functions; the affected area and whether or not sensitive environmental

2 EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

5 Figure 2: Typical effects on marine organisms range across a spectrum from toxicity (especially for light oils and oil products)
to smothering (intermediate and heavy fuel oils (IFO and HFO) and weathered residues).

resources are exposed to elevated concentrations of oil, or its The marine environment is highly complex and natural
toxic components, for a significant period of time. Of similar fluctuations in species composition, abundance and
importance is the extent to which organisms are vulnerable distribution over space and time are a fundamental feature
and sensitive to oil pollution. Vulnerable organisms are those of its normal functioning. Within this environment, marine
which, because of their positioning in the marine environment, animals and plants have varying degrees of natural resilience
typically at the sea surface or the water’s edge, are more to changes within their habitats. The natural adaptations
likely to come into contact with oil. Sensitive organisms are of organisms to environmental stress, combined with their
those that would be acutely affected by exposure to oil or breeding strategies, provide important mechanisms for
its component chemicals. Less sensitive organisms are coping with the daily and seasonal fluctuations in ambient
more likely to withstand short-term exposure. In a number conditions. This in-built resilience means that some plants and
of countries, shorelines have been mapped and indices animals are able to withstand a certain level of contamination
attributed to different habitats according to sensitivity. For by oil. Nevertheless, spills are not the only anthropogenic
example, the resultant maps or sensitivity atlases accord pressure on marine habitats. Widespread over-exploitation of
mangrove forests or saltmarshes a high index, while sandy natural resources and chronic urban and industrial pollution
beaches generally feature at a low index. also contribute significantly to the degree of variability within
marine ecosystems. Against a background of high natural
The characteristics of the spilt oil are important in determining variability, more subtle damage inflicted by an oil spill, such as
the extent of any damage (Figure 2). A spill of a large quantity a downturn in breeding success, productivity or biodiversity,
of highly persistent oil, such as a heavy fuel oil (HFO), has can be difficult to detect.
the potential to cause widespread damage in the intertidal
zones of shorelines through smothering. However, toxic
effects are less likely for HFO, or other highly viscous oil that
Recovery of the marine
has low water solubility, as the chemical components of the environment
oil have a low biological availability. Oil incorporated within
‘asphalt pavement’ (a conglomerate of highly weathered oil The ability of the marine environment to recover from severe
and shingle) is similarly less bio-available, irrespective of perturbations is a function of its complexity and resilience.
its duration on the shoreline, although indirect damage may Recovery from highly destructive natural phenomena, such
occur due to habitat modification. as hurricanes and tsunamis, demonstrates how ecosystems
can re-establish over time, even after severe disruptions with
In contrast, the chemical components of kerosene or other extensive mortality. While considerable debate exists over the
light oils have a higher biological availability and damage definition of recovery and the point at which an ecosystem
through toxicity is more likely. However, rapid dissipation, can be said to have recovered, there is broad acceptance
through evaporation and dispersion, means light oils may that natural variability in ecosystems makes a return to the
be less damaging overall, as long as sensitive resources exact pre-spill conditions unlikely. Most definitions of recovery
are sufficiently distant from the spill location. On the other instead focus on the re-establishment of a community of flora
hand, effects can be expected to be greatest and longer and fauna that is characteristic of the habitat and functioning
lasting in situations where dilution is slowed, such as when normally in terms of biodiversity and productivity.
the pollutant becomes trapped in muddy sediments or in
enclosed areas, for example shallow lagoons with poor water This principle can be illustrated by the experience of
exchange. At exposure levels lower than those sufficient inappropriate clean-up operations following the loss of
to cause mortality, the presence of toxic components may the tanker TORREY CANYON off the coast of England in
lead to sub-lethal effects such as impaired feeding or 1967, in which the use of toxic cleaning agents on rocky
reproduction. shorelines led to considerable damage. Although the

TECHNICAL INFORMATION PAPER 13 3

 detailed distribution of particular species present was altered
and the effects of the perturbation could be traced over
Marine environments
more than two decades, the overall functioning, biodiversity
and productivity of the ecosystem was re-established within The following sections consider the different types of damage
one to two years. Under the definition proposed above, the caused by ship-source oil spills in various environments.
rocky shore community could be said to have recovered
within the two year period. Nevertheless, the limitations of Offshore and coastal waters
this definition can be recognised by considering the age
distribution of the component organisms. Instead of the full Most oils float on the sea surface and are spread over wide
range of ages prior to the incident, from juveniles to mature areas by waves, wind and currents. Some low viscosity
organisms, the newly recruited plants and animals fell within oils may disperse naturally within the top few metres of
a narrow age range and consequently the community was, the water column, particularly in the presence of breaking
initially, less robust. waves, where they are rapidly diluted. If the release of oil is
continuous over time, concentrations of dispersed oil in the
Similarly, if a mangrove stand is damaged, either by the upper levels of the water column may be sustained close
effects of a spill or by natural phenomena, such as a to the point of release. Notwithstanding this, the impact of
tropical storm, in time, the affected area will be re-colonised spilt oil on species lower in the water column or on the sea
by juvenile plants from adjacent areas. However, these bed is low, although damage may arise from sunken wrecks,
replacement plants will all be of a similar age and will spills of very heavy (or low oAPI)* oils or the tarry residues
not provide the same full complement of environmental remaining after oil fires.
services until the trees reach maturity. These observations
lead to a distinction between effects and damage, Plankton
where, in some cases, less significant effects (in terms
of the normal functioning of an ecosystem), may still be The pelagic zones of seas and oceans support a myriad of
detected after an ecosystem has recovered from pollution simple planktonic organisms, comprising bacteria, plants
damage. (phytoplankton) and animals (zooplankton). These include
the eggs and larvae of fish and invertebrates, including
Recovery mechanisms have evolved to deal with the those which eventually settle on the sea bed or shoreline.
pressures of predation and other causes of mortality. For Plankton naturally suffer extremely high levels of mortality,
example, one of the most important reproductive strategies primarily through predation, but also through changes in
for marine organisms is broadcast spawning, whereby vast environmental conditions and transport into regions where
numbers of eggs and larvae are released into the plankton survival is unsustainable. In contrast, particularly favourable
and are widely distributed by currents. In most cases, only conditions with a plentiful supply of nutrients can lead to
a few individuals in a million survive through to adulthood. plankton blooms whereby populations dramatically increase,
This high fecundity gives rise to the over-production of notably in spring in temperate climates. Once the input of
young stages, thereby ensuring a considerable reservoir nutrients subsides or the nutrients are consumed, populations
not only for the colonisation of new areas and recruitment collapse and the dead organisms biodegrade and fall to the
into areas affected by the spill, but also for the replacement sea bed. The ecosystem has evolved to respond to these
of individuals lost from the population. In contrast, long- extremes by copious production within short generation
lived species that do not reach sexual maturity for many times. As a consequence, plankton typically display extremely
years, and which produce few offspring, are likely to take patchy distribution both in space and time, ranking them
longer to recover from the effects of a pollution incident. among the most variable of all marine communities.

In most cases recovery typically takes place within a few The sensitivity of planktonic organisms to exposure to oil
seasonal cycles and for most habitats within one to three has been well established and there would appear to be
years, mangroves being a notable exception, as shown in potential for far-reaching impacts. However, the typically
Table 1, below. massive over-production of young life stages provides a
buffer for recruitment from adjacent areas not affected by the
spill, sufficient to make up losses of eggs and larval stages,
Habitat Recovery period  such that significant declines in adult populations following
Plankton Weeks/months spills have not been observed.
Sand beaches 1 – 2 years
Exposed rocky shores 1 – 3 years
Fish
Despite the susceptibility of juvenile stages of fish to relatively
Sheltered rocky shores 1 – 5 years
low concentrations of oil in the water column, adult fish are far
Saltmarsh 3 – 5 years more resilient and effects on wild stock levels have seldom
been detected. Free-swimming fish are thought to actively
Mangroves 10 years and greater
avoid oil. In exceptional circumstances depletion of the year
5 Table 1: Indicative recovery periods after oiling, for various class for a particular species has been recorded but mass
habitats. The period is dependent on many factors including
the amount and type of oil spilt. Recovery is defined here
as the point at which the habitat is functioning normally. * American Petroleum Institute gravity.

4 EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

5 Figure 3: Corralling oiled African penguins (Spheniscus 5 Figure 4: Penguins benefit more than other bird species from
demersus). cleaning. Here, rockhopper penguins (Eudyptes moseleyi)
are rehabilitated.

mortalities are rare. Mortalities that have occurred have damage. On return to the nest, oil can be transferred from
been associated with very high, localised concentrations of a bird’s plumage to that of its live young or to hatching eggs.
dispersed oil in the water column in storm conditions, with Oil contamination of eggs can lead to eggshell thinning, the
the release of substantial quantities of light oils into breaking failure of the egg to hatch and developmental abnormalities.
surf along a shoreline, or with spills in rivers. The impact of oil
spills on exploited fish stocks and cultivated marine products There is no clear link between the quantity of oil spilt and the
is considered in greater detail in the separate ITOPF paper likely impact on seabirds. A small spill during the breeding
on the Effects of Oil Pollution on Fisheries and Mariculture. season, or where large populations of seabirds have
congregated, can prove more harmful than a larger spill at
a different time of year or in another environment. Some
Seabirds species respond to colony depletion by laying more eggs,
Seabirds are the most vulnerable open water creatures and breeding more frequently or by younger birds joining the
in major incidents large numbers may perish. Sea ducks, breeding group earlier. These processes can assist recovery,
auks and other species which raft together in flocks on the although recovery may take several years and also depends
sea surface are particularly at risk. However, significant on food supply, habitat availability and other factors. While it
mortality in seabird populations can also arise from unrelated is common for short and medium term losses to be recorded,
causes, such as storms or loss of a food source or habitat. the above recovery mechanisms may successfully prevent
Post-mortem studies may be required to identify the cause long-term impacts at a population level. However, in some
of death and whether this can be attributed to a particular circumstances there may be a risk that an oil spill could tip
incident. a marginal colony into permanent decline.

Fouling of plumage is the most obvious effect of oil on birds. Cleaning and rehabilitation of oiled birds may be attempted,
The plumage acts to trap warm air against the skin, providing but for many species typically only a small fraction of treated
both buoyancy and insulation. When oiled, the delicate birds survive the cleaning process. An even smaller proportion
structure of the protective layer of feathers and insulating of those birds that are released tend to survive in the wild
down is disrupted, allowing seawater to come into direct and breed successfully. Penguins are often an exception and
contact with the skin, resulting in loss of body heat and the are generally more resilient than many other species. When
bird may ultimately succumb to hypothermia. In cold climates, handled properly, the majority are likely to survive cleaning
a small oil spot on a bird’s plumage may be sufficient to and rejoin breeding populations (Figures 3 and 4). Even
cause mortality. In many species, a layer of fat beneath the for penguins it has been found that the breeding success
bird’s skin acts both as a further insulating layer and as an of birds that have been cleaned is less than for those that
energy reserve. This reserve may be rapidly consumed as escaped oiling altogether. Nevertheless, the development
the bird attempts to keep itself warm. A bird that is suffering and promulgation of bird cleaning best practice is helping
from cold, exhaustion and a loss of buoyancy may drown. to improve outcomes.
Furthermore, oiled plumage reduces the bird’s ability to take
off and fly in search of food or to escape predators.
Marine mammals and reptiles
Once oiled, a bird’s natural instinct is to clean itself by Whales, dolphins and other cetaceans may be at risk from
preening which may spread the oil over otherwise clean floating oil when surfacing to breathe or breach. Harm to
areas of its body. Oil is very likely to be ingested which can nasal tissue and eyes from oil has been postulated. However,
have serious effects, such as congested lungs, intestinal where mortalities have been recorded, necropsies have
or lung haemorrhages, pneumonia and liver and kidney generally concluded death resulted from causes other

TECHNICAL INFORMATION PAPER 13 5

 5 Figure 5: Oil can adversely affect the ability of mammals, 5 Figure 6: A juvenile hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate)
such as this seal pup (Arctocephalus australis), to maintain being cleaned (Image courtesy USCG).
vital physiological functions.

than oil. While large tropical marine mammals, such as the Beds of seagrass reduce water currents, thereby increasing
herbivorous sirenians (manatees and dugongs), might also sedimentation, while the root structures stabilise the seabed,
be expected to be vulnerable, reports of oil pollution damage protecting coastal zones from erosion. Floating oil is most
to these animals are very rare. However, seals, otters and likely to pass over seagrass beds with no ill effects. However,
other marine mammals that haul-out or spend time onshore if oil or its toxic components become mixed into these shallow
are more likely to encounter and suffer from the effects of oil. inshore waters at sufficiently high concentrations, seagrass
Species that rely on fur to regulate their body temperature and associated organisms may be impacted. Clean-up
are the most vulnerable to oil as the animals may die from operations in the vicinity of seagrass should be undertaken
hypothermia or overheating, depending on the season, if with care, as the plants can be torn or pulled out by vessel
the fur becomes matted with oil (Figure 5). propellers and boom anchors.

Floating oil may be a threat to marine reptiles, such as

turtles, marine iguanas and sea snakes. Turtles in particular
Corals
are vulnerable during the nesting season. Loss of eggs and Coral reefs provide an extremely rich and diverse marine
hatchlings may occur if oil strands on sand beaches or if nests ecosystem, are highly productive and offer coastal protection
are disrupted during clean-up operations. Adults can suffer to otherwise exposed shorelines. Corals are highly sensitive
mucus membrane inflammation increasing susceptibility organisms that can take a long time to recover from oiling.
to infection. However, there are many cases where oiled Dispersed oil presents the greatest risk of damage to coral
turtles have been successfully cleaned and returned to the reefs. This risk is highest where increased turbulence from
sea (Figure 6). All species of sea turtle are endangered breaking waves encourages natural dispersion of spilt oil
or threatened through human activities principally due to and where dispersants are used. In addition to the coral
inadvertent fishing bycatch, deliberate targeting for food themselves, the communities which the habitat supports
and shells and loss of habitat. are also sensitive to oil. Consequently, dispersants should
not be used in the vicinity of coral reefs. On rare occasions,
coral reefs may dry out at spring tides, presenting a risk of
Shallow inshore waters smothering from floating oil.
Damage in shallow waters is most often caused by oil
becoming mixed into the water column by strong wave Vessel groundings present a more prevalent source of
action or by the inappropriate use of dispersants too close damage to coral reefs than oil pollution. Other anthropogenic
to the shore. In many circumstances the dilution capacity, impacts can also induce stress in corals, for example,
for example due to tidal flushing, is sufficient to keep overfishing or destructive fishing practices, nutrient pollution
concentrations of oil in the water below harmful levels. On and increased sedimentation due to deforestation and coastal
the other hand, where light refined products or light crude construction projects.
oils have become dispersed into shallow water leading to
high concentrations of the toxic components of oil, mortality
of bottom-dwelling (benthic) animals and those living in the
Shorelines
sediment has occurred. Shorelines are exposed to the effects of oil more than any
other part of the marine environment. However, much of
the flora and fauna on the shore are inherently resilient,
Seagrass since they must be able to tolerate the tidal cycle as well
Different species of seagrass are found in temperate as periodic exposure to pounding waves, drying winds,
and tropical waters. They support a highly diverse and extremes of temperature, variations in salinity through rainfall
productive ecosystem, sheltering many other organisms. and other severe stresses. This tolerance also gives many

6 EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

shoreline organisms the ability to withstand and recover wave action, including estuaries, and tend to be highly
from spill effects. biologically productive (Figure 8). They often support large
populations of migrating birds and indigenous sediment
dwelling invertebrates, including bivalves, and are also
Rocky and sandy shores
nursery areas for some species.
Exposure to the scouring effects of wave action and tidal
currents means that rocky and sandy shores are the most
While fine sediments are not as readily impacted as other
resilient to the effects of a spill (Figure 7). This scouring
substrates, oil can become incorporated through flocculation
also usually enables natural and rapid self cleaning
with sediment stirred up by storm activity or penetration
to take place. A typical example of an impact on rocky
through worm burrows and open plant stems. Pollutants
shores in temperate climates is the temporary loss of the
that do penetrate fine sediments can persist for many years,
common limpet (Patella vulgata), a keystone species of
increasing the likelihood of longer-term effects.
marine snail. ’Keystone’ species are plants or animals
that exert a controlling influence on the ecosystem that is
disproportionate to their biomass, and their removal is likely Saltmarshes
to lead to a dramatic change to that ecosystem. Limpets The upper fringe of soft sediment shores is often dominated
grazing on micro-algae on rock surfaces limit algal growth by saltmarsh vegetation comprising woody perennials,
and settlement of other fauna. Their loss typically leads
succulent annuals and grasses. Saltmarshes are usually
to a rapid growth of opportunistic green algae (Figure 7
associated with temperate climates but occur throughout
inset). Over time this algal growth is displaced by other algal
the world, from sub-polar regions to the tropics. On tropical
species and as space becomes available for limpets to re-
shores, saltmarshes are often associated with mangroves,
colonise the rock surface, the ecological balance is gradually
occupying the upper and lower intertidal zones respectively.
restored. On tropical and sub-tropical sandy shores, ghost
Species composition is determined to a large extent by
crabs (Ocypode sp.) occupy a similar environmental niche
salinity. For example, in low salinity or brackish waters
as limpets and high mortality rates are a common feature
found in the upper reaches of estuaries, marsh vegetation
of shoreline oiling. Despite this, within weeks of shorelines
gives way to reed beds. Plant detritus carried away from
becoming clean, the crabs often re-colonise the beaches
in similar numbers as before. marshes also contributes to food webs in estuaries and
nearshore waters. Many saltmarshes have been attributed
special conservation status under the Ramsar Convention on
Soft sediment shores Wetlands of International Importance, due to their importance
Fine sands and mud are found in areas sheltered from as habitats for birds, especially migratory species.

5 Figure 7: Rocky shorelines are commonly exposed to wind and waves and may rapidly self-clean. Biota including limpets may
be affected by oil. Significant mortality may result in the subsequent abundance of opportunistic flora (algae and seaweed)
that would otherwise be kept under control through grazing. Over time, species re-establish and equilibrium will be restored.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION PAPER 13 7

 5 Figure 8: Soft sediments are often found along sheltered, less dynamic shorelines and are usually highly biologically productive.
Leaving an oiled marsh to clean naturally should be considered, as clean-up operations have the potential to extend and
aggravate the damage. Oil penetrating into the substrate, as shown in the cross-section sample, can remain for years.

The impact of an oil spill on saltmarshes depends on the a large extent on the substrate in which the mangroves
time of year relative to periods of plant growth. Temperate are growing. Mangroves typically grow in dense muddy
or cold region marshes are dormant during winter months, anaerobic sediments and rely on oxygen supplied through
while in the Mediterranean growth is slow during high summer small pores (lenticels) on aerial roots (Figure 9). Heavy
temperatures. A single event is unlikely to cause more than oil inundation of the root systems may block this oxygen
temporary effects but longer term damage, possibly over supply and may cause the mangroves to die. However, in
several years, can be inflicted by repeated, chronic oiling or open aerated sediments, which allow relatively free water
by aggressive clean-up activity, such as trampling, the use exchange, the root systems draw oxygen from seawater
of heavy equipment or removal of contaminated substrate. and so have a higher tolerance to smothering by oil. In the
Cleaning of a saltmarsh is difficult without risking additional second mechanism, the toxic components of oil, notably in
damage and so it is frequently recommended to leave light refined products, interfere with the plants’ systems for
marshes to clean naturally. However, if burning or cutting maintaining the salt balance, thereby affecting their ability
vegetation is to be contemplated, this is best done after the to tolerate salt water. Experience has indicated that loss of
vegetation has died back. In general, as long as the roots mangroves due to heavy oil smothering appears to be less
or bulbs of the plants are not harmed by serious oiling or likely than mortality due to inundation with lighter products,
excessive compaction during the clean-up, seasonal re- including some cleaning agents, which can result in localised
growth may be expected to follow. loss of tree cover.

Mangroves Organisms living within the mangrove ecosystem can

be impacted both by direct effects of the oil and also the
Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs growing at
longer term loss of habitat. Natural recovery of the complex
the margins of sheltered tropical and sub-tropical waters.
mangrove ecosystem can take a long time and reinstatement
Mangrove stands provide a valuable habitat for crabs, oysters
measures may have real potential to accelerate the recovery
and other invertebrates as well as important nursery areas
process in such habitats.
for fish and shrimp. In addition, the complex root structure
traps and stabilises sediment, thus reducing erosion of
coastlines and minimising deposition of terrestrial sediments Long term damage
on adjacent seagrass beds and coral reefs.
An effective clean-up operation usually includes removal of
Their location means that mangroves are highly vulnerable bulk oil contamination, reducing the geographical extent and
to oil spills. Mangroves are also considered to be duration of pollution damage, and allowing natural recovery
extremely sensitive to contamination by oil, dependent to to commence. However, aggressive clean-up methods can

8 EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

5 Figure 9: Mangroves are highly vulnerable to oil. Coating of stilt roots or pneumatophores (breathing structures growing
vertically through the substrate) can cause blockage of the lenticels (pores) preventing the exchange of gases and leading to
asphyxiation.

cause additional damage and natural cleaning processes undisturbed for indeterminate periods and may result in
may be preferable. Over time, several factors reduce the localised smothering of benthic organisms.
toxicity of oil so that the contaminated substrate can support
new growth (Figure 10). For example, oil can be flushed
away by rain and tides and as the oil weathers the volatile
Post-spill studies
Research into the effects of oil pollution has followed almost
fractions evaporate, leaving less toxic residual oil.
every major incident since the loss of TORREY CANYON. As
a result, a very substantial body of knowledge now exists on
As the marine environment has such a strong capacity for
natural recovery, the impact of an oil spill is usually localised the likely environmental effects of a spill. Given this level of
and transitory and there are few documented examples knowledge it is therefore neither necessary nor appropriate
of long term damage. However, under certain specific to consider post-spill studies after every spill. However, in
circumstances, damage may be persistent and impairment order to determine the specific extent, nature and duration
of an ecosystem longer-lasting than might typically be of the impact arising from the particular circumstances of an
expected. The circumstances that tend to lead to acute incident, post–spill studies may sometimes be necessary.
long term damage are associated with the persistence of Since the effects of oil pollution are, for the most part, well
oil, particularly where oil has become trapped within the understood and predictable, it is important that studies
sediment and is protected from normal weathering processes. focus on quantification of conspicuous damage rather than
Examples include sheltered habitats, such as marshes, attempting to investigate a wide array of hypothetical impacts.
shingle shorelines and nearshore waters, especially when The variability exhibited by the marine environment means
an oil spill coincides with storm conditions. A storm surge that the study of an extensive range of potential impacts are
inundating a marsh, with the associated turbulent conditions, very likely to lead to inconclusive results.
is likely to bring fine sediments into suspension and into
contact with naturally dispersed oil. Once the storm abates, The techniques available for chemical analysis of pollutants
the oil incorporated within the sediment settles to the marsh are continually evolving. Concentrations of the potentially
floor. Similar circumstances result in oil being incorporated toxic components of oil can now be measured down to
into fine sediments and settling in nearshore waters. In both levels of parts per trillion (ppt, ng/kg, 1 x 10–12). One of the
situations, anaerobic conditions slow any degradation of the most important objectives of damage assessment studies
oil. On shingle shorelines, the weathering of the mixture is to establish both a pathway for the observed damage and
of oil and shingle can result in the formation of an asphalt the qualitative identification of the particular oil contaminant
pavement, which may persist for some time. Oil products responsible, particularly in chronically polluted environments.
that are more dense than seawater, such as very heavy oils This is usually done by Gas Chromatography linked to Mass
or fire residues, fall to the seabed where they can remain Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION PAPER 13 9

 Biomarkers are routinely used to screen animals for exposure
to the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) found in crude
oil and oil products. For example, measurement of EROD
(Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase) activity detects enzyme levels
in liver tissue, involved both in the metabolism and elimination
of toxins and also in the development of cancerous tumours.
This technique is sufficiently sensitive to indicate exposure to
PAH without detectable body burden and so can provide an
early warning of potential damage. However, changes in the
levels of activity of this enzyme are also indicative of other
causes of stress, such as the presence of other similar toxic
materials unrelated to oil. Activity levels also reflect the age
and reproductive status of the animal, as well as changes in
Figure 10a: Intrusive clean-up of the marsh has caused
additional damage over and above that caused by the oil. temperature. It is important, therefore, that such studies take
account of these potentially confusing factors.

Studies may be prioritised according to a number of

factors. Firstly, the baseline against which effects are to be
established: whether by reference to pre-spill data, where this
exists; by comparison with equivalent species, communities
or ecosystems at reference sites outside the affected area;
or by monitoring the recovery of a feature of conspicuous
damage, such as the mortality of seabirds or shell fish.
Plankton provides a poor subject for investigation. Although
both laboratory and field studies have demonstrated mortality
and sub-lethal effects upon exposure to oil, variability of the
plankton is so high that comparisons between pre- and post-
spill situations are likely to be unreliable. Other factors to be
Figure 10b: The cleaned marsh after seven weeks with considered include the geographical extent of the affected
signs of new growth apparent. area, the degree of contamination and related levels of
exposure (concentration and duration) and the importance
of the affected resource, i.e. its rarity or ecological function.
Finally, the practical feasibility of conducting the studies
should be considered. Feasibility may relate to financial
support or simply the practicality of accessing study sites or
the risk of disruption to the site during the period of study.
Further guidance on designing and conducting post-spill
studies can be found in the separate paper on Sampling
and Monitoring of Marine Oil Spills.

Restoration, reinstatement and

remediation
Restoration, also known as reinstatement or remediation,
Figure 10c: After 22 months, the marsh has full ground
cover, albeit with opportunistic species.
is the process by which measures are taken to restore the
damaged environment to conditions where it is functioning
normally more quickly than might be expected from natural
recovery processes alone. The terms are often used
interchangeably in the context of environmental damage.
However, in comparing environmental law in the United
States and European Union with the international regime of
the 1992 Civil Liability and Fund Conventions (CLC & FC),
the interpretation of the terms can be different. Guidance
provided by the 1992 Fund Claims Manual** indicates that
within the international regime, reinstatement measures
should have a realistic chance of significantly accelerating
natural recovery without adverse consequences for other
natural or economic resources. The measures should also be
in proportion to the extent and duration of the damage and
Figure 10d: After three years, the marsh has returned to
full species diversity.

5 Figure 10: Natural recovery of a damaged marsh. ** http://www.iopcfund.org/publications.htm

10 EFFECTS OF OIL POLLUTION ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

the benefits likely to be achieved. Damage is considered as
the impairment of the marine environment, where impairment
in this context can be described as the abnormal functioning
or absence of organisms within a biological community,
caused by the spill.

The US regulations promulgated under the 1990 Oil Pollution

Act (OPA ‘90) also acknowledge natural recovery as a key
mechanism for restoration but introduce two concepts:
primary and compensatory restoration. Compensatory
restoration is intended to compensate for environmental
services ‘lost’ during the period that the environment is
undergoing recovery, whereas primary restoration refers
to actions taken to restore or accelerate recovery and is
equivalent to reinstatement under the international regime.
The 2004 EU Environmental Liability Directive (ELD) also
includes these concepts in terms of remediation. However, 5 Figure 11: An area of mangrove, created from planting
the international regime does not recognise the concept of individual seedlings in a grid pattern.
compensatory restoration or remediation.

Following a clean-up operation, further active steps may is the case with sand eels and puffins, or by closing beaches
be justified to restore damaged resources and encourage used by turtles during the nesting season. In some cases,
natural recovery, especially in circumstances where recovery protection of a natural breeding population at a nearby, un-oiled
would otherwise be relatively slow. An example of such an site may be warranted, for example by predator control, to
approach following an oil spill would be the replanting of provide a reservoir from which re-colonisation of the damaged
saltmarsh or mangrove plants (Figure 11). Once the new areas can occur. However, many complex biological, ecological
growth has become established other forms of biological life and environmental factors are likely to govern the ability of
return and the potential for erosion of the area is minimised. adjacent populations to re-colonise a polluted area.

Designing meaningful reinstatement strategies for fauna is a In reality, the complexity of the marine environment means
much greater challenge. Damaged habitats may be protected that there are limits to the extent to which ecological damage
and recovery of ecosystems may be enhanced, for example, can be repaired artificially. In most cases natural recovery is
by restricting access and human activity, by placing controls likely to be relatively rapid and will only rarely be outpaced
on fishing to reduce competition for a limited food source, as by reinstatement measures.

Key points
• A wide range of highly complex ecosystems exist within the marine environment and substantial
fluctuations in abundance and diversity occur as a feature of their normal functioning.
• The marine environment has a strong capacity for natural recovery from severe perturbations
caused by natural phenomena as well as oil spills.
• The key mechanisms for environmental damage from oil spills are smothering and toxicity
but the severity of the damage depends very much on the type of oil spilt and how quickly
it dissipates relative to the location of resources sensitive to oil pollution.
• The most vulnerable organisms are those found on the sea surface or shorelines.
• Saltmarshes and mangroves are the most sensitive shoreline habitats.
• Seabirds are particularly at risk. Some species, and penguins in particular, respond well to
cleaning, however, others may not survive for long when released back into the wild after
cleaning or may have difficulty breeding successfully.
• Although short-term impacts can be severe, lasting damage is unusual even following the
largest incidents. Where observed, long term damage has been restricted to geographically
discrete areas where conditions have permitted accumulations of oil to persist.
• Effective planning and execution of response operations both mitigate damage and provide
the first step to recovery by the removal of oil.
• Well designed reinstatement measures may sometimes enhance natural recovery processes.

TECHNICAL INFORMATION PAPER 13 11

 TECHNICAL INFORMATION PAPERS

© 2011 ITOPF Ltd. Produced by Impact PR & Design Limited, Canterbury, UK.
1 Aerial Observation of Marine Oil Spills
2 Fate of Marine Oil Spills
3 Use of Booms in Oil Pollution Response
4 Use of Dispersants to Treat Oil Spills
5 Use of Skimmers in Oil Pollution Response
6 Recognition of Oil on Shorelines
7 Clean-up of Oil from Shorelines
8 Use of Sorbent Materials in Oil Spill
Response
9 Disposal of Oil and Debris
10 Leadership, Command & Management of
Oil Spills
11 Effects of Oil Pollution on Fisheries and
Mariculture
12 Effects of Oil Pollution on Social and
Economic Activities
13 Effects of Oil Pollution on the Environment
14 Sampling and Monitoring of Marine Oil Spills
15 Preparation and Submission of Claims from
Oil Pollution
16 Contingency Planning for Marine Oil Spills
17 Response to Marine Chemical Incidents

ITOPF is a not-for-profit organisation established on behalf of the world’s shipowners and their insurers to promote effective
response to marine spills of oil, chemicals and other hazardous substances. Technical services include emergency response,
advice on clean-up techniques, pollution damage assessment, assistance with spill response planning and the provision of
training. ITOPF is a source of comprehensive information on marine oil pollution and this paper is one of a series based on
the experience of ITOPF’s technical staff. Information in this paper may be reproduced with the prior express permission of
ITOPF. For further information please contact:

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