ABOUT BSNL

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd. Formed in oct. 2000, is world’s 7th largest
telecommunications company providing comprehensive range of telecom services
in India: wire line, CDMA mobile, GSM mobile, internet, broadband, carrier
services. Within a span it has become the one of the largest public sector unit in
India.

BSNL is the only service provider, making focused efforts and planned initiatives
to bridge the ruralurban digital divide ICT sector. In fact there is no telecom
operator in the country to beat it reach with its wide network giving services I
every nook & corner of country and operates across India except Delhi & Mumbai.

BSNL cellular service cellone, has more than 20.7 million cellular customers,
garnering 24 % of all mobile users as its subscribers. That means that almost every
fourth mobile user in the country has a BSNL connection. In basic services, BSNL
is miles ahead of its rivals, with 35.1 million Basic Phone Subscribers i.e. 85 %
share of the subscribers and 92 % share in revenue terms.

BSNL has set up a world class multi-gigabit, multi-protocol convergent IP

infrastructure that provides convergent services like voice, data and video through
the same Backbone and broadband access network. At present there are 0.6 million
Data one broadband customers. The turnover, nationwide coverage, reach,
comprehensive range of the telecom services and the desire to excel has made
BSNL the no. 1 telecom company of India.

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 INTRODUCTION

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications: originally from Group

Spécial Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. Its
promoter, the GSM Association, estimates that 80% of the global mobile market
uses the standard. GSM is used by over 3 billion people across more than 212
countries and territories. Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common
between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many
parts of the world. GSM differs from its predecessors in that both signaling and
speech channels are digital, and thus is considered a second generation (2G)
mobile phone system. This has also meant that data communication was easy to
build into the system. GSM EDGE is a 3G version of the protocol.

The ubiquity of the GSM standard has been an advantage to both consumers (who
benefit from the ability to roam and switch carriers without switching phones) and
also to network operators (who can choose equipment from any of the many
vendors implementing GSM). GSM also pioneered a low-cost (to the network
carrier) alternative to voice calls, the short message service (SMS, also called "text
messaging"), which is now supported on other mobile standards as well. Another
advantage is that the standard includes one worldwide emergency telephone
number,112. This makes it easier for international travellers to connect to
emergency services without knowing the local emergency number.

Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original GSM
phones. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data capabilities, by
means of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99 introduced higher
speed data transmission using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).

During the period of Evolution of mobile communication technologies various

systems were introduced and deployed to achieve standardization in mobile
industry but all the efforts were failed. Multiple issues were sustained like
incompatibility of systems, development of digital radio frequency. That is when
GSM (Global System For Mobile Communication) Technology was introduced
and problems like standardization, incompatibility etc were overcame. TDMA
solution was chosen in 1987, It is narrowband system and TDMA standards for
Time Division Multiple access. GSM based mobile phones are operated on TDMA
Systems, in TDMA single radio frequency is offered to users with any interference.

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 HISTORY OF GSM

During the early 1980s, analog cellular telephone systems were experiencing rapid
growth in Europe, particularly in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom, but also in
France and Germany. Each country developed its own system, which was
incompatible with everyone else's in equipment and operation. This was an
undesirable situation, because not only was the mobile equipment limited to
operation within national boundaries, which in a unified Europe were increasingly
unimportant, but there was also a very limited market for each type of equipment,
so economies of scale and the subsequent savings could not be realized.

The Europeans realized this early on, and in 1982 the Conference of European
Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) formed a study group called the Groupe Spécial
Mobile (GSM) to study and develop a pan-European public land mobile system.
The proposed system had to meet certain criteria:

• Good subjective speech quality

• Low terminal and service cost
• Support for international roaming
• Ability to support handheld terminals
• Support for range of new services and facilities
• Spectral efficiency
• ISDN compatibility

In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunication

Standards Institute (ETSI), and phase I of the GSM specifications were published
in 1990. Commercial service was started in mid-1991, and by 1993 there were 36
GSM networks in 22 countries. Although standardized in Europe, GSM is not only
a European standard. Over 200 GSM networks (including DCS1800 and PCS1900)
are operational in 110 countries around the world. In the beginning of 1994, there
were 1.3 million subscribers worldwide which had grown to more than 55 million
by October 1997. With North America making a delayed entry into the GSM field
with a derivative of GSM called PCS1900, GSM systems exist on every continent,
and the acronym GSM now aptly stands for Global System for Mobile
communications. The developers of GSM chose an unproven (at the time) digital
system, as opposed to the then-standard analog cellular systems like AMPS in the
United States and TACS in the United Kingdom. They had faith that advancements

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in compression algorithms and digital signal processors would allow the
fulfillment of the original criteria and the continual improvement of the system in
terms of quality and cost. The over 8000 pages of GSM recommendations try to
allow flexibility and competitive innovation among suppliers, but provide
enoughstandardization to guarantee proper interworking between the components
of the system. This is done by providing functional and interface descriptions for
each of the functional entities defined in the system.

• 1982: Groupe Speciale Mobile (GSM) is formed by the Confederation of

European Posts and Telecommunications (CEPT) to design a pan-European
mobile technology.
• 1984: France & Germany sign a joint development agreement for GSM.
• 1985:‘GAP’ (Groupe d’Analyse et de Prevision’) meetings took place that
led to the European Commission endorsement of the GSM project.
• 1986: EU Heads of State endorse the GSM project. The European
Commission initiatitive proposes to reserve 900MHz spectrum band for
GSM, agreed in the EC Telecommunications Council. Quadripartite
agreement between France, Germany, Italy and the UK cooperation
agreement signed (to support the standards work and exchange research
data). Trials of different digital radio transmission schemes and different
speech codecs in several countries, with comparative evaluation by CEPT
GSM in Paris.
• 1987: Basic parameters of the GSM standard agreed in February. Proposal
agreed by four ministers from the quadripartite countries to create an
Operator Agreement in the form of a ‘Memorandum of Understanding’. The
‘MoU’ was drawn up and signed in Copenhagen in September by 15
members from 13 countries that committed to deploying GSM.
• 1988: Completion of first set of detailed GSM specifications for
infrastructure tendering purposes. Simultaneous issue of invitation to tender
for networks by ten GSM network operators – all subsequently signed in the
same year.
• 1989: Groupe Speciale Mobile (transferred to an ETSI technical committee)
defines the GSM standard as the internationally accepted digital cellular
telephony standard. The UK’s Department of Trade & Industry (DTI)
produced a document ‘Phones on the Move’ that first proposed PCN
(Personal Communications Networks (later known as DCS 1800 and
subsequently GSM 1800) networks to operate in the 1800 MGhz frequency
band.
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• 1990: GSM adaptation work started for the DCS1800 band.
• 1991: First GSM call made by Radiolinja in Finland.
• 1992: First international roaming agreement signed between Telecom
Finland and Vodafone(UK). First SMS sent.
• 1993: Telstra Australia becomes the first non-European operator to sign the
GSM MoU 32 networks on air in 18 countries or territories
First truly hand portable terminals are launched commercially. World’s first
DCS1800 (later GSM1800) network opened in the UK.

• 1994: GSM Phase 2 data/fax bearer services launched

GSM MoU membership surpasses 100 operators
GSM subscribers hit one million.
• 1995: GSM MoU group is formally registered as the GSM MoU Association
in Switzerland 117 networks on air. Global GSM subscribers exceed 10
million.
GSM World Congress held in Madrid, Spain.Formation of GSMA Regional
Interest Groups (RIGs). Fax, data and SMS services started, video over
GSM demonstrated. The first North American PCS 1900 (now GSM 1900)
network opened – via a phone call by US Vice President Al Gore.
• 1996: First GSM networks in Russia and China go live. Pre-paid GSM SIM
cards launched.GSM MoU membership approaches 200 operators from
nearly 100 countries.167 networks live in 94 countries.GSM World
Congress moves to Cannes, France.GSM subscribers hit 50 million.GSMA
Awards launched.
• 1997: 15GSM networks on air in the USA using the 1900MHz band.
• 1998: Global GSM subscribers surpass 100 million.
• 1999: WAP trials begin in France and Italy.Contracts placed for GPRS
systems.
• 2000: First commercial GPRS services launched. 3G licence auctions
commence. First GPRS handsets enter the market.Five billion SMS
messages sent in one month.
• 2001: First 3GSM (W-CDMA) network goes live. 3GSM World Congress
held in Cannes, France. Fifty billion SMS messages sent in first three
months.

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• 2002: GSM introduced for 800MHz band.First Multimedia Messaging
Services go live. 95% of nations worldwide have GSM networks. 400 billion
SMS messages sent in the year. First mobile camera phones launched.
• 2003: First EDGE networks go live.
GSMA creates new CEO-level Board.
Membership of GSM Association breaks through 200-country barrier.
Over half a billion handsets produced in a year.
• 2004 : GSM SURPASSES ONE BILLION CUSTOMERS.
More than 50 3GSM networks live.
GSM Association and Ovum announce market data venture: Wireless
Intelligence.
• 2005 : GSM surpasses 1.5 billion customers.
GSM dominates over 3/4 of wireless market.
First HSDPA network goes live.
Over 100 3GSM networks launched.
120+ 3GSM handset models launched or announced.
First ever sub-$30 mobile phone announced.
Over one trillion SMS sent in the year
• 2006: GSM SURPASSES TWO BILLION CUSTOMERS.
Over 120 commercial 3GSM networks in more than 50 countries and almost
100 million subscriptions.
Approximately 85 HSDPA networks in commercial launch by year end.
66 HSDPA devices available from 19 suppliers, including 32 handset
models.
GSMA membership exceeds 900 companies (including over 700 operators).
Over 980 million handsets sold by year end.
• 2007: Heading towards 2.5 billion GSM connections.
Further HSDPA network launches and introduction of HSUPA.
First GSMA Mobile Asia Congress held in Macau SAR, China.
GSMA celebrates 20th anniversary.
• 2008: More than 55,000 visitors to the GSMA’s Mobile World Congress in
Barcelona.
GSM surpasses 3 Billion connections

SERVICES PROVIDED

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Subscriber services

• Speech

This is normal telephony (two-way voice communication) with the ability to

make and receive calls to/from fixed and mobile subscribers worldwide. This is the
most fundamental service offered.

• Emergency calls/Flexible Positioning Support

The emergency call function enables a subscriber to make an emergency call by

pressing a predefined button or by using the emergency number.With an
emergency area origin identifier, the call is automatically routed to the emergency
center nearest to the subscriber. Emergency calls can be made with the phone
itself, without a valid SIM-card,overriding locked phone and pin codes. The
emergency number inGSM 900 & 1800 is 112 and in GSM 1900 it is 911.

The provision of ‘Flexible Positioning Support’ fulfills the regulatoryrequirement

that the network must be able to locate subscribers who make emergency calls. The
accuracy varies depending on the positioning method used but ranges between 550
to below 10 meters. (It is envisaged many new subscriber services, based on
positioning, will emerge. An example would be the provision oftourist information
(e.g. hotels, restaurants) based on subscriberlocation. See chapter 7 on BSS)

• Facsimile group 3

GSM supports InternationalTelecommunications Union (ITU) group 3 facsimile.

Standard faxmachines are designed to be connected to a telephone using
analogsignals, a special fax converter is connected to the exchange. This enables a
connected fax to communicate with any analog fax in thefixed network.

• Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF)

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This is a tone signaling facility which is often used for various control purposes,
such as remote control of answering machines and interacting with automated
telephone services

• Alternative Speech/Fax

This service allows the subscriber to alternate between speech and fax within one
call setup. The subscriber can start the call either with speech or fax and then
alternate between the two call types. The subscriber can switch several times
within the same call.

• Short Message Services (SMS)

This service allows simple text messages consisting of a maximum of 160

alphanumeric characters to be sent to or from an MS.If the MS is switched off, or
has left the coverage area, the message is stored in a Short Message Service Center
(SMS-C). When the mobile is switched on again or has re-entered the network
coverage area, the subscriber is informed that there is a message. This function
guarantees that messages are delivered.

• SMS Cell Broadcast (SMSCB)

The cell broadcast facility is a variation of the short message service. A text
message with a maximum length of 93 characters can be broadcast to all mobiles
within a certain geographic area. Typical applications are traffic congestion
warnings and accident reports, and in the future, possibly advertisements.

• Voice mail

This service is an answering machine within the networkthat is controlled by the

subscriber. Calls can be forwarded (see supplementary services, call forwarding) to
the subscriber’s voice mailbox. The subscriber accesses the mailbox using a
personal security code.

• Fax mail

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 This service allows the subscriber to receive fax messagesat any fax machine via
the MS. Fax messages are stored in a network service center. The subscriber
accesses the fax mail via a personal security code and the fax is then sent to the
desired fax number.

Supplementary services

• Call forwarding

This service provides the subscriber with the ability to forward incoming calls to
another telephone number in the following situations:

 Call forwarding on MS not reachable

Call forwarding on MS busy
Call forwarding on no reply
Call forwarding, unconditional

• Barring of outgoing calls

The subscriber can activate or deactivate this service from the MS with a variety
of options for barring outgoing calls. For example, the subscriber can:

Bar all outgoing calls

Bar all outgoing international calls
Bar all outgoing international calls except those directed to the home PLMN

• Barring of incoming calls

With this function, the subscriber can prevent incoming calls. This is desirable
because in some cases the called mobile subscriber is charged for parts of an
incoming call (e.g.during international roaming).
There are two incoming call barring options:

Barring of all incoming calls

Barring of incoming calls when outside home PLMN

• Advice of Charge

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The Advice of Charge (AoC) service provides the MS with information needed to
calculate the charge of a call. This information is provided at call set-up.Charges
are indicated for the call in progress when mobile originated.For a mobile
terminated call, AoC only offers information on the roaming leg.

• Account Codes

This service enables a subscriber, e.g. a business, to identify an account number,

which is to be charged for particular call components. Account codes can be
identified on a per call basis.

• Call waiting

This service notifies the mobile subscriber, usually by an audible tone, for
incoming call. The call can then be answered, rejected or ignored. The incoming
call can be any type of basic service including speech, data or fax. There is no
notification in the case of an emergency call or SMS.

• Call hold

This supplementary service enables the subscriber to put the basic normal
telephony service on hold in order to set up a new call or accept a waiting call.
Communication with the original call can then be re-established.

• Multiparty service

The multiparty service enables a mobile subscriber to establish a multiparty

conversation, that is, a simultaneous conversation between up to six subscribers.
This service can only be used with basic speech telephony.

• Calling line identification services

These supplementary services cover both the presentation and restriction of the
calling line identity.The presentation part of the service supplies the called party
with the ISDN or MSISDN number of the calling party. The restriction service
enables calling parties to restrict the presentation of their numbers on the MSs of
called parties. Restriction overrides presentation.

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 • Connected line identification presentation/restriction

These supplementary services supply the calling party with the ISDN number of
the connected (called) party. The restriction enables the connected party to restrict
the presentation. Restriction overrides presentation. This service is useful when the
call is forwarded or when it is connected via a switchboard.

• Closed User Group (CUG)

The CUG service enables subscribers connected to the PLMN/ISDN and possibly
other networks, to form groups in which access is restricted. For example,
members of a specific CUG can communicate with each other, but generally not
with users outside the group.

ARCHITECTURE OF GSM
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The GSM divides the infrastructure into the following three parts.

• Network Switching Subsystems (NSS)

• Base Station Subsystem (BSS)
• Network Management Subsystem (NMS)

If we count the Mobile Station (MS) or cell-phone is the 4th element.

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Any telecommunications network requires some kind of NMS. A part of NMS is
generic for any telecom system. The billingand messaging are two examples. The
core of the NSS is the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) which is basically a PSTN
switch with mobility management related enhancement/add-on. The BSS is
entirely new (compared to PSTN) that are required for wireless access and
mobility. The following sections of this document provide an overview of the
network elements and their functions. The role of these elements will be clearer as
we learn more.

Network Switching Subsystem

• The mobile switching center (MSC)

Acts like a standard exchange in a fixed network and additionally provides all the
functionality needed to handle a mobile subscriber. The main functions are
registration, authentication, location updating, handovers and call routing to a
roaming subscriber. The signaling between functional entities (registers) in the
network subsystem uses Signaling System 7 (SS7). If the MSC also has a gateway
function for communicating with other networks, it is called Gateway MSC
(GMSC).

• Home Location Register (HLR)

Adatabase used formanagement ofmobile subscribers. It stores the international

mobile subscriber identity (IMSI), mobile station ISDN number (MSISDN) and
current visitor locationregister (VLR) address. The main information stored there
concerns thelocation of each mobile station in order to be able to route calls to the
mobile subscribers managed by each HLR. TheHLRalso maintains the services
associated with each MS. OneHLRcan serve several MSCs.

• The visitor location register (VLR)

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Contains the current location of the MS and selected administrative information
from the HLR, necessary for call control and provision of the subscribed services,
for each mobile currently located in the geographical area controlled by the VLR.
A VLR is connected to one MSC and is normally integrated into the MSC's
hardware.

• The authentication center (AUC)

A protected database that holds a copy of the secret key stored in each subscriber's
SIM card, which is used for authentication and encryption over the radio channel.
The AuC provides additional security against fraud. It is normally located close to
each HLR within a GSM network.

• The equipment identity register (EIR)

The EIR is a database that contains a list of all valid mobile station equipment
within the network, where each mobile station is identified by its international
mobile equipment identity (IMEI). The EIR has three databases:
± White list: for all known, good IMEIs
± Black list: for bad or stolen handsets
± Grey list: for handsets/IMEIs that are uncertain

• Operation and Maintenance Center(OMC)

The OMC is a management system that oversees the GSM functional blocks. The
OMC assists the network operator in maintaining satisfactory operation of the
GSM network. Hardware redundancy and intelligent error detection mechanisms
help prevent network down-time. The OMC is responsible for controlling and
maintaining the MSC, BSC and BTS. It can be in charge of an entire public land
mobile network (PLMN) or just some parts of the PLMN.

Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

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The base station subsystem (BSS) is made up of the base station controller (BSC)
and the base transceiver station (BTS).

• The base transceiver station (BTS)

GSM uses a series of radio transmitters called BTSs to connect the mobiles to a
cellular network. Theirtasks include channel coding/decoding and
encryption/decryption. ABTS is comprised of radio transmitters and receivers,
antennas, the interface to the PCM facility, etc. The BTS may contain one or more
transceivers to provide the required call handling capacity. A cell site may be
omnidirectional or split into typically three directional cells.

• The base station controller (BSC)

A group of BTSs are connectedto a particular BSC which manages the radio
resources for them.Today's new and intelligent BTSs have taken over many tasks
that were previously handled by the BSCs. The primary function of the BSC is call
maintenance. The mobile stations normally send a report of their received signal
strength to the BSC every 480 ms. With this information the BSC decides to
initiate handovers to other cells, change the BTS transmitter power, etc.

Network Management Subsystem(NMS)

Network Management Subsystem (NMS) includes network management center

(NMC), operations and maintenance center(OMC) and a variety of other functions
(see the network infrastructure diagram at the beginning of this document). A
telecommunications network requires some kind of NMS. A part of NMS is
generic for any telecom system.

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• Operation and Support System

The operation support system (OSS) is to do a variety of operation and

maintenance works such as commissioning andintegrating new network elements
to the existing system, software upgrade, collecting network performance statistics,
reconfiguring network dimension and frequency planning.

• Message Center( MXE)

The MXE, also called Short Message Service Center (SMSC), is a node that
provides integrated voice, fax, and datamessaging. Specifically, the MXE handles
short message service, cell broadcast, voice mail, fax mail, e-mail, and notification.

• Mobile Intelligent Service Node

Like PSTN/ISDN the GSM system supports AIN (Advanced Intelligent Network)
services through its mobile intelligent services node (MISN). This enables an
operator to develop an innovative service and deploy that in its network.

The mobile station(MS)

A mobile station may be referred to as a handset, a mobile, a portable terminal or

mobile equipment( ME). It also includes a subscriber identity module (SIM) that is
normally removable and comes in two sizes. Each SIM card has a unique
identification number called IMSI (international mobile subscriber identity). In
addition, each MS is assigned a unique hardware identification called IMEI
(international mobile equipment identity). In some of the newer applications (data
communications in particular), an MS can also be a terminal that acts as a GSM
interface, e.g. for a laptop computer. In this new application the MS does not look
like a normal GSM telephone. The seemingly low price of a mobile phone can give
the (false) impression that the product is not of high quality. Besides providing a
transceiver (TRX) for transmission and reception of voice and data, the mobile also
performs a number of very demanding tasks such as authentication, handover,
encoding and channel encoding.
RADIO LINK ASPECTS
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Multiple access and channel structure
Since radio spectrum is a limited resource shared by all users, a method must be
devised to divide up the bandwidth among as many users as possible. The method
chosen by GSM is a combination of Time- and Frequency-Division Multiple
Access (TDMA/FDMA). The FDMA part involves the division by frequency of
the (maximum) 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies spaced 200 kHz
apart. One or more carrier frequencies are assigned to each base station. Each of
these carrier frequencies is then divided in time, using a TDMA scheme. The
fundamental unit of time in this TDMA scheme is called a burst period and it lasts
15/26 ms (or approx. 0.577 ms). Eight burst periods are grouped into a TDMA
frame (120/26 ms, or approx. 4.615 ms), which forms the basic unit for the
definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period per TDMA
frame.
Channels are defined by the number and position of their corresponding burst
periods. All these definitions are cyclic, and the entire pattern repeats
approximately every 3 hours. Channels can be divided into dedicated channels,
which are allocated to a mobile station, and common channels, which are used by
mobile stations in idle mode.

Traffic channels
A traffic channel (TCH) is used to carry speech and data traffic. Traffic channels
are defined using a 26-frame multiframe, or group of 26 TDMA frames.
The length of a 26-frame multiframe is 120 ms, which is how the length of
a burst period is defined (120 ms divided by 26 frames divided by 8 burst
periods per frame). Out of the 26 frames, 24 are used for traffic, 1 is used
for the Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) and 1 is currently
unused (see Figure 2). TCHs for the uplink and downlink are separated in
time by 3 burst periods, so that the mobile station does not have to transmit
and receive simultaneously, thus simplifying the electronics.

In addition to these full-rate TCHs, there are also half-rate TCHs defined, although
they are not yet implemented. Half-rate TCHs will effectively double the capacity

17
of a system once half-rate speech coders are specified (i.e., speech coding at
around 7 kbps, instead of 13 kbps). Eighth-rate TCHs are also specified, and are
used for signalling. In the recommendations, they are called Stand-alone Dedicated
Control Channels (SDCCH).

Figure 2. Organization of bursts, TDMA frames, and multiframes for speech and
data

Control channels
Common channels can be accessed both by idle mode and dedicated mode
mobiles. The common channels are used by idle mode mobiles to exchange
the signalling information required to change to dedicated mode. Mobiles
already in dedicated mode monitor the surrounding base stations for
handover and other information. The common channels are defined within
a 51-frame multiframe, so that dedicated mobiles using the 26-frame
multiframe TCH structure can still monitor control channels. The common
channels include:

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• Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

Continually broadcasts, on the downlink, information including base station

identity, frequency allocations, and frequency-hopping sequences.

• Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) and Synchronisation

Channel (SCH)

Used to synchronise the mobile to the time slot structure of a cell by defining the
boundaries of burst periods, and the time slot numbering. Every cell in a GSM
network broadcasts exactly one FCCH and one SCH, which are by definition on
time slot number 0 (within a TDMA frame).

• Random Access Channel (RACH)

Slotted Aloha channel used by the mobile to request access to the network.

• Paging Channel (PCH)

Used to alert the mobile station of an incoming call.

• Access Grant Channel (AGCH)

Used to allocate an SDCCH to a mobile for signalling (in order to obtain a

dedicated channel), following a request on the RACH.

Burst structure
There are four different types of bursts used for transmission in GSM . The normal
burst is used to carry data and most signalling. It has a total length of
156.25 bits, made up of two 57 bit information bits, a 26 bit training
sequence used for equalization, 1 stealing bit for each information block
(used for FACCH), 3 tail bits at each end, and an 8.25 bit guard sequence,

19
 as shown in Figure 2. The 156.25 bits are transmitted in 0.577 ms, giving a
gross bit rate of 270.833 kbps.

The F burst, used on the FCCH, and the S burst, used on the SCH, have the same
length as a normal burst, but a different internal structure, which differentiates
them from normal bursts (thus allowing synchronization). The access burst is
shorter than the normal burst, and is used only on the RACH.

Speech coding
GSM is a digital system, so speech which is inherently analog, has to be digitized.
The method employed by ISDN, and by current telephone systems for
multiplexing voice lines over high speed trunks and optical fiber lines, is Pulse
Coded Modulation (PCM). The output stream from PCM is 64 kbps, too high a
rate to be feasible over a radio link. The 64 kbps signal, although simple to
implement, contains much redundancy. The GSM group studied several speech
coding algorithms on the basis of subjective speech quality and complexity (which
is related to cost, processing delay, and power consumption once implemented)
before arriving at the choice of a Regular Pulse Excited -- Linear Predictive Coder
(RPE--LPC) with a Long Term Predictor loop. Basically, information from
previous samples, which does not change very quickly, is used to predict the
current sample. The coefficients of the linear combination of the previous samples,
plus an encoded form of the residual, the difference between the predicted and
actual sample, represent the signal. Speech is divided into 20 millisecond samples,
each of which is encoded as 260 bits, giving a total bit rate of 13 kbps. This is the
so-called Full-Rate speech coding. Recently, an Enhanced Full-Rate (EFR) speech
coding algorithm has been implemented by some North American GSM1900
operators. This is said to provide improved speech quality using the existing 13
kbps bit rate.

Channel coding and modulation

Because of natural and man-made electromagnetic interference, the encoded
speech or data signal transmitted over the radio interface must be protected from
errors. GSM uses convolutional encoding and block interleaving to achieve this

20
protection. The exact algorithms used differ for speech and for different data rates.
The method used for speech blocks will be described below.
Recall that the speech codec produces a 260 bit block for every 20 ms speech
sample. From subjective testing, it was found that some bits of this block were
more important for perceived speech quality than others. The bits are thus divided
into three classes:

• Class Ia 50 bits - most sensitive to bit errors

• Class Ib 132 bits - moderately sensitive to bit errors
• Class II 78 bits - least sensitive to bit errors

Class Ia bits have a 3 bit Cyclic Redundancy Code added for error detection. If an
error is detected, the frame is judged too damaged to be comprehensible and it is
discarded. It is replaced by a slightly attenuated version of the previous correctly
received frame. These 53 bits, together with the 132 Class Ib bits and a 4 bit tail
sequence (a total of 189 bits), are input into a 1/2 rate convolutional encoder of
constraint length 4. Each input bit is encoded as two output bits, based on a
combination of the previous 4 input bits. The convolutional encoder thus outputs
378 bits, to which are added the 78 remaining Class II bits, which are unprotected.
Thus every 20 ms speech sample is encoded as 456 bits, giving a bit rate of 22.8
kbps.
To further protect against the burst errors common to the radio interface, each
sample is interleaved. The 456 bits output by the convolutional encoder are divided
into 8 blocks of 57 bits, and these blocks are transmitted in eight consecutive time-
slot bursts. Since each time-slot burst can carry two 57 bit blocks, each burst
carries traffic from two different speech samples.
Recall that each time-slot burst is transmitted at a gross bit rate of 270.833 kbps.
This digital signal is modulated onto the analog carrier frequency using Gaussian-
filtered Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). GMSK was selected over other
modulation schemes as a compromise between spectral efficiency, complexity of
the transmitter, and limited spurious emissions. The complexity of the transmitter
is related to power consumption, which should be minimized for the mobile
station. The spurious radio emissions, outside of the allotted bandwidth, must be
strictly controlled so as to limit adjacent channel interference, and allow for the co-
existence of GSM and the older analog systems (at least for the time being).

21
Multipath equalization
At the 900 MHz range, radio waves bounce off everything - buildings, hills, cars,
airplanes, etc. Thus many reflected signals, each with a different phase, can reach
an antenna. Equalization is used to extract the desired signal from the unwanted
reflections. It works by finding out how a known transmitted signal is modified by
multipath fading, and constructing an inverse filter to extract the rest of the desired
signal. This known signal is the 26-bit training sequence transmitted in the middle
of every time-slot burst. The actual implementation of the equalizer is not specified
in the GSM specifications.

Frequency hopping
The mobile station already has to be frequency agile, meaning it can move between
a transmit, receive, and monitor time slot within one TDMA frame, which
normally are on different frequencies. GSM makes use of this inherent frequency
agility to implement slow frequency hopping, where the mobile and BTS transmit
each TDMA frame on a different carrier frequency. The frequency hopping
algorithm is broadcast on the Broadcast Control Channel. Since multipath fading is
dependent on carrier frequency, slow frequency hopping helps alleviate the
problem. In addition, co-channel interference is in effect randomized.

Discontinuous transmission
Minimizing co-channel interference is a goal in any cellular system, since it allows
better service for a given cell size, or the use of smaller cells, thus increasing the
overall capacity of the system. Discontinuous transmission (DTX) is a method that
takes advantage of the fact that a person speaks less that 40 percent of the time in
normal conversation , by turning the transmitter off during silence periods. An
added benefit of DTX is that power is conserved at the mobile unit.
The most important component of DTX is, of course, Voice Activity Detection. It
must distinguish between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not as trivial as it
appears, considering background noise. If a voice signal is misinterpreted as noise,
the transmitter is turned off and a very annoying effect called clipping is heard at
the receiving end. If, on the other hand, noise is misinterpreted as a voice signal

22
too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased. Another factor to
consider is that when the transmitter is turned off, there is total silence heard at the
receiving end, due to the digital nature of GSM. To assure the receiver that the
connection is not dead, comfort noise is created at the receiving end by trying to
match the characteristics of the transmitting end's background noise.

Discontinuous reception

Another method used to conserve power at the mobile station is discontinuous

reception. The paging channel, used by the base station to signal an incoming call,
is structured into sub-channels. Each mobile station needs to listen only to its own
sub-channel. In the time between successive paging sub-channels, the mobile can
go into sleep mode, when almost no power is used.

Power control
There are five classes of mobile stations defined, according to their peak
transmitter power, rated at 20, 8, 5, 2, and 0.8 watts. To minimize co-channel
interference and to conserve power, both the mobiles and the Base Transceiver
Stations operate at the lowest power level that will maintain an acceptable signal
quality. Power levels can be stepped up or down in steps of 2 dB from the peak
power for the class down to a minimum of 13 dBm (20 milliwatts).
The mobile station measures the signal strength or signal quality (based on the Bit
Error Ratio), and passes the information to the Base Station Controller, which
ultimately decides if and when the power level should be changed. Power control
should be handled carefully, since there is the possibility of instability. This arises
from having mobiles in co-channel cells alternatingly increase their power in
response to increased co-channel interference caused by the other mobile
increasing its power.

23
 CALL SETUP

The incoming call is passed from the fixed network to the gateway
MSC (GMSC) . Then, based on the IMSI numbers of the called party,
its HLR is determined . The HLR checks for the existence of the
called number. Then the relevant VLR is requested to provide a mobile
station roaming number (MSRN) . This is transmitted back to the
GMSC . Then the connection is switched through to the responsible
MSC . Now the VLR is queried for the location range and reachability
status of the mobile subscriber . If the MS is marked reachable, a
radio call is enabled and executed in all radio zones assigned to the
VLR . When the mobile subscriber telephone responds to the page
request from the current radio cell , all necessary security procedures
are executed . If this is successful, the VLR indicates to the MSC
that the call can be completed.

24
 NETWORK ASPECTS

Ensuring the transmission of voice or data of a given quality over the radio link is
only part of the function of a cellular mobile network. A GSM mobile can
seamlessly roam nationally and internationally, which requires that registration,
authentication, call routing and location updating functions exist and are
standardized in GSM networks. In addition, the fact that the geographical area
covered by the network is divided into cells necessitates the implementation of a
handover mechanism. These functions are performed by the Network Subsystem,
mainly using the Mobile Application Part (MAP) built on top of the Signalling .

Fig.Signalling protocol structure in GSM

25
The signalling protocol in GSM is structured into three general layers , depending
on the interface, as shown in Figure 3. Layer 1 is the physical layer, which uses the
channel structures discussed above over the air interface. Layer 2 is the data link
layer. Across the Um interface, the data link layer is a modified version of the
LAPD protocol used in ISDN, called LAPDm. Across the A interface, the Message
Transfer Part layer 2 of Signalling System Number 7 is used. Layer 3 of the GSM
signalling protocol is itself divided into 3 sublayers.

• Radio Resources Management : Controls the setup, maintenance, and

termination of radio and fixed channels, including handovers.

• Mobility Management : Manages the location updating and registration

procedures, as well as security and authentication.

• Connection Management : Handles general call control and manages

Supplementary Services and the Short Message Service.

Signalling between the different entities in the fixed part of the network, such as
between the HLR and VLR, is accomplished throught the Mobile Application Part
(MAP). MAP is built on top of the Transaction Capabilities Application Part
(TCAP, the top layer of Signalling System Number 7. The specification of the
MAP is quite complex, and at over 500 pages, it is one of the longest documents in
the GSM recommendations .

Radio resources management

The radio resources management (RR) layer oversees the establishment of a link,
both radio and fixed, between the mobile station and the MSC. The main
functional components involved are the mobile station, and the Base Station
Subsystem, as well as the MSC. The RR layer is concerned with the management
of an RR-session , which is the time that a mobile is in dedicated mode, as well as
the configuration of radio channels including the allocation of dedicated channels.
An RR-session is always initiated by a mobile station through the access
procedure, either for an outgoing call, or in response to a paging message. The
details of the access and paging procedures, such as when a dedicated channel is
actually assigned to the mobile, and the paging sub-channel structure, are handled

26
in the RR layer. In addition, it handles the management of radio features such as
power control, discontinuous transmission and reception, and timing advance.

Handover
In a cellular network, the radio and fixed links required are not permanently
allocated for the duration of a call. Handover, or handoff as it is called in
North America, is the switching of an on-going call to a different channel
or cell. The execution and measurements required for handover form one of
basic functions of the RR layer.

There are four different types of handover in the GSM system, which involve
transferring a call between:

• Channels (time slots) in the same cell

• Cells (Base Transceiver Stations) under the control of the same Base Station
Controller (BSC),
• Cells under the control of different BSCs, but belonging to the same Mobile
services Switching Center (MSC), and
• Cells under the control of different MSCs.

The first two types of handover, called internal handovers, involve only one Base
Station Controller (BSC). To save signalling bandwidth, they are managed by the
BSC without involving the Mobile services Switching Center (MSC), except to
notify it at the completion of the handover. The last two types of handover, called
external handovers, are handled by the MSCs involved. An important aspect of
GSM is that the original MSC, the anchor MSC, remains responsible for most call-
related functions, with the exception of subsequent inter-BSC handovers under the
control of the new MSC, called the relay MSC.
Handovers can be initiated by either the mobile or the MSC (as a means of traffic
load balancing). During its idle time slots, the mobile scans the Broadcast Control
Channel of up to 16 neighboring cells, and forms a list of the six best candidates
for possible handover, based on the received signal strength. This information is
passed to the BSC and MSC, at least once per second, and is used by the handover
algorithm.

The algorithm for when a handover decision should be taken is not specified in the
GSM recommendations. There are two basic algorithms used, both closely tied in
with power control. This is because the BSC usually does not know whether the

27
poor signal quality is due to multipath fading or to the mobile having moved to
another cell. This is especially true in small urban cells.
The 'minimum acceptable performance' algorithm gives precedence to power
control over handover, so that when the signal degrades beyond a certain point, the
power level of the mobile is increased. If further power increases do not improve
the signal, then a handover is considered. This is the simpler and more common
method, but it creates 'smeared' cell boundaries when a mobile transmitting at peak
power goes some distance beyond its original cell boundaries into another cell.
The 'power budget' method uses handover to try to maintain or improve a certain
level of signal quality at the same or lower power level. It thus gives precedence to
handover over power control. It avoids the 'smeared' cell boundary problem and
reduces co-channel interference, but it is quite complicated.

Mobility management
The Mobility Management layer (MM) is built on top of the RR layer, and handles
the functions that arise from the mobility of the subscriber, as well as the
authentication and security aspects. Location management is concerned with the
procedures that enable the system to know the current location of a powered-on
mobile station so that incoming call routing can be completed.

Location updating
A powered-on mobile is informed of an incoming call by a paging message sent
over the PAGCH channel of a cell. One extreme would be to page every cell in the
network for each call, which is obviously a waste of radio bandwidth. The other
extreme would be for the mobile to notify the system, via location updating
messages, of its current location at the individual cell level. This would require
paging messages to be sent to exactly one cell, but would be very wasteful due to
the large number of location updating messages. A compromise solution used in
GSM is to group cells into location areas. Updating messages are required when
moving between location areas, and mobile stations are paged in the cells of their
current location area.
The location updating procedures, and subsequent call routing, use the MSC and
two location registers: the Home Location Register (HLR) and the Visitor Location
Register (VLR). When a mobile station is switched on in a new location area, or it
moves to a new location area or different operator's PLMN, it must register with

28
the network to indicate its current location. In the normal case, a location update
message is sent to the new MSC/VLR, which records the location area
information, and then sends the location information to the subscriber's HLR. The
information sent to the HLR is normally the SS7 address of the new VLR, although
it may be a routing number. The reason a routing number is not normally assigned,
even though it would reduce signalling, is that there is only a limited number of
routing numbers available in the new MSC/VLR and they are allocated on demand
for incoming calls. If the subscriber is entitled to service, the HLR sends a subset
of the subscriber information, needed for call control, to the new MSC/VLR, and
sends a message to the old MSC/VLR to cancel the old registration.
For reliability reasons, GSM also has a periodic location updating procedure. If an
HLR or MSC/VLR fails, to have each mobile register simultaneously to bring the
database up to date would cause overloading. Therefore, the database is updated as
location updating events occur. The enabling of periodic updating, and the time
period between periodic updates, is controlled by the operator, and is a trade-off
between signalling traffic and speed of recovery. If a mobile does not register after
the updating time period, it is deregistered.
A procedure related to location updating is the IMSI attach and detach. A detach
lets the network know that the mobile station is unreachable, and avoids having to
needlessly allocate channels and send paging messages. An attach is similar to a
location update, and informs the system that the mobile is reachable again. The
activation of IMSI attach/detach is up to the operator on an individual cell basis.

Authentication and security

Since the radio medium can be accessed by anyone, authentication of users to
prove that they are who they claim to be, is a very important element of a mobile
network. Authentication involves two functional entities, the SIM card in the
mobile, and the Authentication Center (AuC). Each subscriber is given a secret
key, one copy of which is stored in the SIM card and the other in the AuC. During
authentication, the AuC generates a random number that it sends to the mobile.
Both the mobile and the AuC then use the random number, in conjuction with the
subscriber's secret key and a ciphering algorithm called A3, to generate a signed
response (SRES) that is sent back to the AuC. If the number sent by the mobile is
the same as the one calculated by the AuC, the subscriber is authenticated .
The same initial random number and subscriber key are also used to compute the
ciphering key using an algorithm called A8. This ciphering key, together with the
TDMA frame number, use the A5 algorithm to create a 114 bit sequence that is
XORed with the 114 bits of a burst (the two 57 bit blocks). Enciphering is an

29
option for the fairly paranoid, since the signal is already coded, interleaved, and
transmitted in a TDMA manner, thus providing protection from all but the most
persistent and dedicated eavesdroppers.
Another level of security is performed on the mobile equipment itself, as opposed
to the mobile subscriber. As mentioned earlier, each GSM terminal is identified by
a unique International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number. A list of IMEIs
in the network is stored in the Equipment Identity Register (EIR). The status
returned in response to an IMEI query to the EIR is one of the following:
White-listed: The terminal is allowed to connect to the network.
Grey-listed: The terminal is under observation from the network for possible
problems.

Black-listed: The terminal has either been reported stolen, or is not type approved
(the correct type of terminal for a GSM network). The terminal is not allowed to
connect to the network.

Communication management
The Communication Management layer (CM) is responsible for Call Control (CC),
supplementary service management, and short message service management. Each
of these may be considered as a separate sublayer within the CM layer. Call control
attempts to follow the ISDN procedures specified in Q.931, although routing to a
roaming mobile subscriber is obviously unique to GSM. Other functions of the CC
sublayer include call establishment, selection of the type of service (including
alternating between services during a call), and call release.

Call routing
Unlike routing in the fixed network, where a terminal is semi-permanently wired to
a central office, a GSM user can roam nationally and even internationally. The
directory number dialed to reach a mobile subscriber is called the Mobile
Subscriber ISDN (MSISDN), which is defined by the E.164 numbering plan. This
number includes a country code and a National Destination Code which identifies
the subscriber's operator. The first few digits of the remaining subscriber number
may identify the subscriber's HLR within the home PLMN.

30
An incoming mobile terminating call is directed to the Gateway MSC (GMSC)
function. The GMSC is basically a switch which is able to interrogate the
subscriber's HLR to obtain routing information, and thus contains a table linking
MSISDNs to their corresponding HLR. A simplification is to have a GSMC handle
one specific PLMN. It should be noted that the GMSC function is distinct from the
MSC function, but is usually implemented in an MSC.

The routing information that is returned to the GMSC is the Mobile Station
Roaming Number (MSRN), which is also defined by the E.164 numbering plan.
MSRNs are related to the geographical numbering plan, and not assigned to
subscribers, nor are they visible to subscribers.

The most general routing procedure begins with the GMSC querying the called
subscriber's HLR for an MSRN. The HLR typically stores only the SS7 address of
the subscriber's current VLR, and does not have the MSRN (see the location
updating section). The HLR must therefore query the subscriber's current VLR,
which will temporarily allocate an MSRN from its pool for the call. This MSRN is
returned to the HLR and back to the GMSC, which can then route the call to the
new MSC. At the new MSC, the IMSI corresponding to the MSRN is looked up,
and the mobile is paged in its current location area .

Fig. Call routing for a mobile terminating call

31
 EVOLUTION

2G

2G networks were built mainly for voice services and slow data transmission.
2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second
generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on
the GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja(now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991. Three
primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors were that phone
conversations were digitally encrypted, 2G systems were significantly more
efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration levels;
and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages.
After 2G was launched, the previous mobile telephone systems were
retrospectively dubbed 1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, and on
2G networks are digital, both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio
towers (which listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system.

From 2G to 2.5G
The first major step in the evolution to 3G occurred with the introduction of
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). So the cellular services combined with
GPRS became '2.5G.'

32
GPRS could provide data rates from 56 kbit/s up to 114 kbit/s. It can be used for
services such as Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) access, Multimedia
Messaging Service (MMS), and for Internet communication services such as email
and World Wide Web access. GPRS data transfer is typically charged per
megabyte of traffic transferred, while data communication via traditional circuit
switching is billed per minute of connection time, independent of whether the user
actually is utilizing the capacity or is in an idle state.

From 2.5G to 2.75G (EDGE)

GPRS networks evolved to EDGE networks with the introduction of 8PSK
encoding. Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Enhanced GPRS
(EGPRS), or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC) is a backward-compatible digital
mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates, as an
extension on top of standard GSM. EDGE can be considered a 3G radio
technology and is part of ITU's 3G definition, but is most frequently referred to as
2.75G. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003—initially by
Cingular (now AT&T) in the United States.
EDGE is standardized by 3GPP as part of the GSM family, and it is an upgrade
that provides a potential three-fold increase in capacity of GSM/GPRS networks.
The specification achieves higher data-rates by switching to more sophisticated
methods of coding (8PSK), within existing GSM timeslots.

Towards 4G
Both 3GPP and 3GPP2 are currently working on further extensions to 3G
standards, named Long Term Evolution and Ultra Mobile Broadband, respectively.
Being based on an all-IP network infrastructure and using advanced wireless
technologies such as MIMO, these specifications already display features
characteristic for IMT-Advanced (4G), the successor of 3G. However, falling short
of the bandwidth requirements for 4G (which is 1 Gbit/s for stationary and 100
Mbit/s for mobile operation), these standards are classified as 3.9G or Pre-4G.
3GPP plans to meet the 4G goals with LTE Advanced, whereas Qualcomm has
halted development of UMB in favour of the LTE family.

33
 CONCLUSION

Telecommunications are evolving towards personal communication networks,

whose objective can be stated as the availability of all communication services
anytime, anywhere, to anyone, by a single identity number and a pocketable
communication terminal . Having a multitude of incompatible systems throughout
the world moves us farther away from this ideal. The economies of scale created
by a unified system are enough to justify its implementation, not to mention the
convenience to people of carrying just one communication terminal anywhere they
go, regardless of national boundaries.

The GSM system, and its sibling systems operating at 1.8 GHz (called DCS1800)
and 1.9 GHz (called GSM1900 or PCS1900, and operating in North America), are
a first approach at a true personal communication system. The SIM card is a novel
approach that implements personal mobility in addition to terminal mobility.
Together with international roaming, and support for a variety of services such as
telephony, data transfer, fax, Short Message Service, and supplementary services,
GSM comes close to fulfilling the requirements for a personal communication
system: close enough that it is being used as a basis for the next generation of
mobile communication technology in Europe, the Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System (UMTS).

Another point where GSM has shown its commitment to openness, standards and
interoperability is the compatibility with the Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) that is evolving in most industrialized countries, and Europe in particular
(the so-called Euro-ISDN). GSM is also the first system to make extensive use of
the Intelligent Networking concept, in in which services like 800 numbers are
concentrated and handled from a few centralized service centers, instead of being
distributed over every switch in the country. This is the concept behind the use of
the various registers such as the HLR. In addition, the signalling between these

34
functional entities uses Signalling System Number 7, an international standard
already deployed in many countries and specified as the backbone signalling
network for ISDN.

GSM is a very complex standard, but that is probably the price that must be paid to
achieve the level of integrated service and quality offered while subject to the
rather severe restrictions imposed by the radio environment.

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[3] David M. Balston. The pan-European cellular technology. In R.C.V.

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[4] M. Bezler et al. GSM base station system. Electrical Communication, 2nd
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[5] David Cheeseman. The pan-European cellular mobile radio system. In

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[6] C. Déchaux and R. Scheller. What are GSM and DCS. Electrical
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[7] M. Feldmann and J. P. Rissen. GSM network systems and overall system
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[8] John M. Griffiths. ISDN Explained: Worldwide Network and Applications

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[9] I. Harris. Data in the GSM cellular network. In D. M. Balston and R.C.V.
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[11] Thomas Haug. Overview of the GSM project. In EUROCON 88, June 1988.

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