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A LEVEL PHYSICS DEFINITIONS

Measurement:
Random errors are errors of measurements in which the measured quantities differ from the
mean value with different magnitudes and directions.

Systematic errors are errors of measurements in which the measured quantities are displaced
from the true value by fixed magnitude and in the same direction.

Accuracy is a measure of how close the results of an experiment agree with the true value.

Precision is a measure of how close the results of an experiment agree with each other.

Kinematics:
Speed is the rate of change of distance traveled with respect to time.

Velocity is the rate of change of its displacement with respect to time.

Acceleration of an object is the rate of change of its velocity with respect to time.

Forces And Dynamics:

Normal contact force is a force perpendicular to the surface experienced by a body when it
is in physical contact with something else.

Hooke’s Law states that within the limit of proportionality, the extension produced in a
material is directly proportional to the load applied.

The principle of moments states that, when an object is in equilibrium, the sum of
anticlockwise moments about any point equals the sum of clockwise moments about the same
point.

The moment of a force is the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the
axis of rotation and the line of action of the force.

A couple is a pair of forces, equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, whose lines of
motion do not coincide.

Centre of gravity is the point on an object through which the entire weight of the object may
be considered to act.

Stability of an object refers to its ability to return to its original position after it has been
displaced from that position.

Pressure is force acting per unit area.

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Upthrust/buoyancy force is an upward force on a body produced by the surrounding fluid
(i.e., a liquid or a gas) in which it is fully or partially immersed, due to the pressure difference
of the fluid between the top and bottom of the object.

Archimedes’ Principle states that the upthrust experienced by an object partially or entirely
immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

Newton’s first law of motion states that a body will continue in its state of rest or uniform
motion in a straight line unless an external resultant force acts on it.

Newton’s second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to
the resultant force acting on it and the change takes place in the direction of the force.

Newton’s third law states that: If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a
force of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction on body A.

The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum of a system of
objects remains constant provided no resultant external force acts on the system.

Work, Energy And Power:

Work is the mechanical transfer of energy to a system or from a system by an external force
on it.

Heat is the non-mechanical transfer of energy from the environment to the system or from
the system to the environment because of a temperature difference between the two.

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed
in any process.

Gravitational Potential Energy is defined as the amount of work done in order to raise the
body to the height h from a reference level.

Power is defined as the rate of work done or energy converted with respect to time.

Waves:
Displacement is the distance moved by the particle from its equilibrium position.

The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the particle from its equilibrium
position.

The wavelength is the distance between 2 successive points on a wave which are in phase
with one another.

The period is the time taken for a particle on the wave to complete one oscillation.

The frequency of a wave is the number of complete oscillations that pass through a given
point in 1 second. (Units: Hertz(Hz) or s-1)

A compression is a region where particles are close to one another. (High pressure)
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A rarefaction is a region where the particles are further apart. (Low pressure)

Phase Difference (φ) between two particles or two waves tells us how much a particle (or
wave) is in front or behind another particle (or wave).

Intensity of a wave is the rate of transfer of energy per unit area perpendicular to the
direction of travel of the wave.

Superposition:
Diffraction refers to the bending or spreading out of waves when they travel through a small
opening or when they pass round a small obstacle.

The Principle of Superposition states that when two waves of the same kind meet at a point
in space, the resultant displacement at that point is the vector sum of the displacements that
the two waves would separately produce at that point.

Interference refers to the superposing of two or more coherent waves to produce regions of
maxima and minima in space, according to the principle of superposition.

Electric Field:
The Electric field strength at a point in an electric field is the electrostatic force per unit
charge experienced by a small positive test charge placed at that point.

The electron volt is defined as energy that an electron (or proton) gains (or loses) when it is
accelerated (or decelerated) through a potential difference of 1 volt.

Current Of Electricity:
Electric Current is the rate of flow of charge through a particular cross sectional area with
respect to time.

The potential difference between two points in an electrical circuit is the electrical energy
converted into other forms of energy per unit charge passing from one point to the other.

One volt is the potential difference between two points in an electrical circuit when one joule
of electrical energy is converted to other form of energy as one coulomb of charge passes
from one point to the other.

Ohm’s Law states that the ratio of the potential difference across a conductor to the current
flowing through it, is a constant, provided that its physical conditions, such as temperature,
remain constant.

The electromotive force (ϵ) of a source is the energy converted from other forms to electrical
per unit charge delivered round a complete circuit.

Internal resistance (r) of any real source is the resistance that charge moving through the
material of the source encounters.
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DC Circuits:
Kirchhoff’s First Law states that the total current entering a junction is equal to the total
current leaving the junction. OR The algebraic sum of currents at a junction is zero.

Kirchhoff’s second law states that the net electromotive force around a closed circuit loop is
equal to the sum of potential drops around the loop. OR The algebraic sum of the changes in
potential encountered in a complete traversal of a closed circuit loop must be zero.

Nuclear Physics:
Nuclear fission is the disintegration of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of
approximately equal masses.

Nuclear fusion is the combining of the two light nuclei to produce a heavier nucleus.

Radioactive decay is the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of an atom which results
in the emission of particles.

Background radiation refers to ionizing radiation emitted from a variety of natural and
artificial radiation sources.

Half-life is defined as the time taken for half the original number of radioactive nuclei to
decay.