Electric Power Systems Fourth Edition B. M. Weedy University of Southampton, UK B. J. Cory Imperial College, London, UK John Wiley & Sons Chichester « New York « Weinheim + Brisbane + Singapore + TorontoCCopytight © 1967, 1972, 1979, 1987, 1998, by John Wiley & Sons, Li, The Atrium, Southern Gite, Chichester, ‘West Surtex POI9 8SQ, England ‘Telephone (+44) 1243 779777 Enuil (for onders and customer service enguities:[email protected] Visit our Home Page wav. wileyeuropecom or wirw.wileycom Reprinted October 1998 and April 1999, December 2001, November 2004 {All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduce, stored in a cetrieval system or tranemitted in any form or by any means, eletronie, mechanical, photocopying, recording, seaming for otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Desigs and Patents Act 1988 or under the tems ofa licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Lid, 90 Toenhem Court Road, London WIT ALP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically For the purpose of bein entered and executed ona computer system for exclusive use by the purchaser of the publication, Requast tothe Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, Join Wiley & Sons Ld, The Atium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West ‘Sussex POI9 8SQ, Englend or emailed to [email protected], or foxed to (+44) 1243 770620. “This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard othe subject ‘mater covered, Its sold on the understanding that de Publisher isnot engaged in rendering profesional services. 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Tile TRIOOL.W4_ 1998 o7-4aait 521319142} cP British Library Celaloguing in Publication Data {A catalogue record for this book is valable fom the British Library ISBN 0471 976776Contents Preface to First Edition Preface to Third Edition Proface to Third, Revised Edition Preface to Fourth Edition Symbols 1 Introduction BRSaRGRE Historical Characteristics Influencing Generation and Transmission, Energy Conversion Renewable Energy Sources Energy Storage Environmental Aspects of Electrical Energy Transmission and Distribution Systems Utilization Problems 2 Basic Concepts 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 ‘Three-Phase Systems Three-Phase Transformers Harmonics in Three-Phase Systems Multiphase Systems Reactive Power ‘The Per-Unit System Power Transfer and Reactive Power Useful Network Theory Problems 3 Components of a Power System 3a Introduction ‘Synchronous Machines 32 CharacteristicsContents 33 34 35 36 37 Equivalent Circuit Under Balanced Short-Circuit Conditions Synchronous Generators in Parallel The Operation of a Generator on Infinite Busbars Salient-Pole Generators Automatic Voltage Regulators (AVR) Lines, Cables, and Transformers 38 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 Overhead Lines—Types and Parameters Representation of Lines Parameters of Underground Cables Transformers Connection of Three-Phase Transformers, Voltage Characteristics of Loads Problems 4 Control of Power and Frequency 56 87 58 59 5.10 BAt Introduction The Turbine Governor Control Loops Division of Load Between Generators ‘The Power-Frequency Characteristic of an Interconnected ‘System ‘System Connected by Lines of Relatively Small Capacity Economic Power-System Operation ‘Computer Control of Load and Frequency Problems Control of Voltage and Reactive Power Introduction ‘The Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power Relation Between Voltage, Power, and Reactive Power at a Node Methods of Voltage Control: (0) Injection of Reactive Power ‘Methods of Vottage Control: (i) Tap-Changing Transformers ‘Combined Use of Tap-Changing Transformers and Reeactive-Power Injection Booster Transformers, Voltage Collapse Voltage Control in Distribution Networks Long Lines General System Considerations Problems 6 Load Flows 61 62 63 Introduction Radial and Simple Loop Networks Computation of Power Flows in a Network 104 106 108 114 117 122 122 190 139 141 150 151 157 163 163 164 167 169 172 173, 181 187 190 193 193 195 197 201 205 208 212 217 220 221 225 225 229 229 231 236Contents 6.4 Complex Flows in Large Systems 6.5 Example of a Complex Load Flow 6.6 Optimal Power Flows Problems 7 Fault Analysis 7.4 Introduction 72. Calculation of Three-Phase Balanced Fault Currents 7.3 Method of Symmetrical Components 7:4 Representation of Plant in the Phase-Sequence Networks 7.5 Types of Fault 7.6 Fault Levels in a Typical System 7.7 Power in Symmetrical Components 7.8 Systematic Methods for Fault Analysis in Large Networks 79. Bus Impedance (Short-Circuit Matrix) Method 7.40 Neutral Grounding 7-11. Interference with Communication Circuits—Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) Problems, 8 System Stability 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Equation of Motion of a Rotating Machine 83 Steady-State Stability—Theoretical Considerations 84 Steady-State Stabilty—Practical Considerations 8&5 Transient Stability—Consideration of Rotor Angle 86 Transient Stability—Consideration of Time 8.7 Transient Stability Calculations by Computer 88 Stability of Loads Leading to Voltage Collapse 89 Further Aspects 8.10 Multimachine Systems and Energy-Type Functions Problems 9 Direct-Current Transmission 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Semiconductor Valves for High-Voltage Direct-Current Converters: 9.3 Basic Converter and Direct-Current System Operation 9.4 Rectification 9.5 Inversion 9.6 Complete Direct-Current Link 9.7. Further Aspects of Converters and Systems Problems 10 Overvoltages and Insulation Requirements 10.1. Introduction 10.2 Generation of Overvoltages 10.3. Protection Against Overvoltages vil 240 255 266 267 273 273 275 281 284 286 291 297 313 314 319 319 320 321 326 328 334 339 340 345 349 353 353 354 357 357 366 369 372 379 381 381 383, 391vill Contents 10.4 105 106 107 108 109 Insulation Coordination Propagation of Surges Determination of System Voltages Produced by Travelling Surges Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP) Ultra-High-Voltage Transmission Design of Insulation by Digital Computer Problems 11 Substations and Protection WA 112 113 114 115 16 147 118 119 11.10 10 1112 Introduction Switchgear Qualities Required of Protection ‘Components of Protective Schemes Protection Systems Distance Protection Unit Protection Schemes Generator Protection ‘Transformer Protection Feeder Protection ‘System Monitoring and Control ‘System Security and Emergency Control Problems 12 Basic Power-System Economics and Management 124 122 123 124 125 126 127 Introduction Basic Pricing Principles ‘Supply-Side and Demand-Side Options Load Management and Spot Pricing Electricity Pricing and Markets Demand-Side Management and Least-Cost Planning Charging for Transmission and Distribution (T&D) Services Appendix | Synchronous Machine Reactances Appendix Il Typical Transformer Impedances ‘Appendix Il! Typical Overhead Line Parameters Bibliography and Further Reading Index 396 401 410 419 427 431 436 439 439 440 450 453, 461 465 469 470 473 473 473 438 491 493 493 494 498 500 501 508 514 521 525 529 533 539Preface to First Edition In writing this book the author has been primarily concerned with the presenta- tion of the basic essentials of power-system operation and analysis to students in the final year of first degree courses at Universities and Colleges of Technology. ‘The emphasis is on the consideration of the system as a whole rather than on the engineering details of its constituents, and the treatment presented is aimed at practical conditions and situations rather than theoretical nicety In recent years the contents of many undergraduate courses in electrical engineering have become more fundamental in nature with greater emphasis on electromagnetism, network analysis, and control theory. Students with this background will be familiar with much of the work on network theory and the inductance, capacitance, and resistance of lines and cables, which has in the past occupied large parts of textbooks on power supply. In this book these matters have been largely omitted resulting in what is hoped is a concise account of the operation and analysis of electric power systems. It is the author's intention to present the power system as a system of interconnected elements which may be represented by models, either mathematically or by equivalent electrical circuits. The simplest models will be used consistent with acceptable accuracy and it is hoped that this will result in the wood being seen as well as the trees. In an introductory text such as this no apology is made for the absence of sophisticated models of plant (synchronous machines in parti- cular) and involved mathematical treatments as these are well catered for in more advanced texts to which reference is made. ‘The book is divided into four main parts, as follows: (a) Introduction, including the establishment of equivalent circuits of the components of the system, the performance of which, when intercon- nected, forms the main theme. (b) Operation, the manner in which the system is operated and controlled to give secure and economic power supplies. (©) Analysis, the calculation of voltage, power, and reactive power in the system under normal and abnormal conditions. The use of computers is emphasized when dealing with large networks.x Preface to First Edition (d) Limitations of transmittable power owing to the stability of the synchro- nous machine, voltage stability of loads, and the temperature rises of plant. It is hoped that the final chapter will form a useful introduction to direct current transmission which promises to play a more and more important role in electricity supply. The author would like to express his thanks to colleagues and friends for their helpful criticism and advice. To Mr. J. P. Perkins for reading the complete draft, to Mr. B. A, Carre on digital methods for load flow analysis, and to Mr. A. M. Parker on direct current transmission. Finally, thanks are due to past students who over several years have freely expressed their difficulties in this subject. B. M. Weedy Southampton, 1967Preface to Third Edition Since the appearance of the second edition the overall energy situation has changed considerably and this has created great interest in alternative sources of energy and energy conservation. Although this does not affect the basic theory and operation of power systems it does influence policies which have considerable impact on electric power supply. Chapter 1 has been enlarged and now includes a critical summary of new energy sources and conservation mea- sures, and in particular their possible impact on the electricity supply industry. In addition, the influences of environmental constraints are included in the discussion of generation and transmission. ‘One object of the second edition was to provide a text, mainly at under- graduate level, which would cover a wide range of power-system engineering, not merely network analysis. In furthering this aim @ new section on overhead line design is now combined with the previous material on underground cables. A further major change is the bringing together of introductory network material into a new chapter called Basic Concepts. This includes a summary of three-phase theory which it is hoped will ease the transition of students into the practical world of power systems. All chapters have been revised to bring the material up to date and to improve clarity. B. M. Weedy Southampton, 1978Preface to Third, Revised Edition Overall the third edition has remained up to date since its publication. However, in certain areas significant changes have occurred and to include these a new edition has been prepared. These changes are small in number and comprise decoupled load-flows, a digital method for calculating system transients, and an introduction to state estimation security analysis. With the new material it is hoped that the book now includes a comprehen- sive account of power-system engineering at the senior undergraduate level. B. M, Weedy Southampton, 1987Preface to Fourth Edition As a university teacher for 40 years, I have always admired the way that Dr. Birron Weedy's book has stood out from the numerous texts on the anal- ysis and modelling of power systems, with its emphasis on practical systems rather than extensive theory or mathematics. Over the three previous editions and one revision, the text has been continually updated and honed to provide the essentials of electrical power systems sufficient not only for the final year of a first degree course, but also as a firm foundation for further study. As with all technology, progress produces new devices and understanding requiring revi- jon and updating if a book is to be of continuing value to budding engineers. ‘With power’ systems, there is another dimension in that changes in social ate and political thinking alter the way they are designed and operated, requiring consideration and understanding of new forms of infrastructure, pricing principles and service provision. Hence the need for an introduction to basic economics and market structures for electricity supply, which is given in a completely new Chapter 12. In this edition, 10 years on from the last, a rewrite of Chapter 1 has brought in full consideration of CCGT plant, some new possibilities for energy storage, the latest thinking on electromagnetic fields and human health, and loss factor calculations. The major addition to system components and operation has been Flexible a.c. Transmission (FACT) devices using the latest semiconductor power switches and leading to better control of power and var flows. The use of optimization techniques has been brought into Chapter 6 with power- flow calculations but the increasing availability and use of commercial packages has meant that detailed code writing is no longer quite so important, For stability (Chapter 8), it has been necessary to consider voltage collapse as a separate phenomenon requiring further rescarch into modelling of loads at voltages below 95 per cent or so of nominal. Increasingly, large systems require fast stability assessment through energy-like functions as explained in additions made to this chapter. Static-shunt variable compensators have been included in Chapter 9 with a revised look at h.v.d.c. transmission. Many d.c. schemes now exist around the world and are continually being added to so the description of an example scheme has been omitted. Chapter 11 now includes many newavi__ Preface to Fourth Edition sections with updates on switchgear, and comprehensive introductions to digi tal (numerical) protection principles, monitoring and control with SCADA, state estimation, and the concept of Energy Management Systems (EMS) for system operation, Readers who have been brought up on previous editions of this work will realize that detailed design of overhead and underground systems and compo- nents has been omitted from this edition. Fortunately, adequate textbooks on these topics are available, including an excellent book by Dr. Weedy, and reference to these texts is recommended for detailed study if the principles given in Chapter 3 herein are insufficient. Many other texts (including some ‘advanced’ ones) are listed in a new organization of the bibliography, together with a chapter-referencing key which I hope will enable the reader to quickly determine the appropriate texts to look up. In addition, mainly for historical purposes, a list of significant or ‘milestone’ papers and articles is provided for the interested student, Finally, it has been an honour to be asked to update such a well-known book and I hope that it still retains much of the practical flavour pioneered by Dr. Weedy. I am particularly indebted to my colleagues, Dr. Donald Macdonald (for much help with a rewrite of the material about electrical generators) and Dr. Alun Coonick for his prompting regarding the inclusion of new concepts. My thanks also go to the various reviewers of the previous editions for their helpful suggestions and comments which I have tried to include in this new edition. Any errors and omissions are entirely my respon- sibility and I look forward to receiving feedback from students and lecturers alike. Brian Cory Imperial College, London, 1998 Publisher’s Note Doctor B. M. Weedy sadly died in December 1997 during the production of this fourth edition.Symbols Bold symbols denote phasor or complex quantities Generalized circuit constants Phase rotation (alternatively R-Y-B) Operator 1/120° Capacitance (farad) Specific heat at constant pressure (/gm per °C) Diameter emf. generated Cost function (units of money per hour) = Frequency (Hz) = Rating of machine ‘Thermal resistivity (*C m/w) Inertia constant (seconds) Heat transfer coefficient (W/m? per °C) Current (A) Conjugate of 1 Tn-phase current Quadrature current 190° operator Stiffness coefficient of a system (MW/Hz) Thermal conductivity (W/(m°C)) Inductance (H) Natural logacithm Angular momentum (J-s per rad or MJ-s per clectrical degree) Rotational speed (rev/min, rev/s, rad/s) Propagation constant (+ j6) Power (W) ‘Synchronizing power coefficient Power factor Iteration number Reactive power (VAr) = Loss dissipated as heat (W) Resistance (2; also thermal resistance (*C/W) Phase rotation (British practice)vil Symbols = Complex power = Pj = Siemen = Laplace operator Slip Short-cireuit ratio Absolute temperature (K) Time (Off-nominal transformer tap ratio Interval of time Siemen Velocity Voltage; AV scalar voltage difference Voltage magnitude Volumetric flow of coolant (m*/s) Transient reactance of a synchronous machine Subtransient reactance of a synchronous machine Direct axis synchronous reactance of a synchronous machine ‘Quadrature axis reactance of a synchronous machine Synchronous reactance of a synchronous machine ‘Admittance (p.u. or 2) Impedance (p.u. or 2) Characteristic or surge impedance (2) = Delay angle in rectifiers and inverters—d.c. transmission Attenuation constant of line Reflection coefficient = Phase-shift constant of line 180—c)—in inverters Refraction coefficient (I +-«) ‘Commutation angle in converters Load angle of synchronous machine or transmis system—(lectrical degrees) = Recovery angle of semiconductor valve ermittivity Viscosity (g/(cm-s)) ‘Temperature rise (°C) above reference or ambient Lagrange multiplier Electrical resistivity (S-m) Density (kg/m) Time constant Angle between voltage and current phasors (power factor angle) Angular frequency (rad/s) ox BewRRR ion angle across a Penveresnk Subscripts 1, 2, and 0 refer to positive, negative, and zero symmetrical compo- nents, respe ly.| | | | | | | | | | | | 7 Introduction 1.1 Historical In 1882 Edison inaugurated the first central generating station in the U.S.A. ‘This had a load of 400 lamps, each consuming 83 W. At about the same time the Holborn Viaduct Generating Station in London was the first in Britain to cater for consumers generally, as opposed to specialized loads. This scheme comprised a 60 KW generator driven by a horizontal steam engine; the voltage of generation was 100 V direct current. The first major alternating-current station in Great Britain was at Deptford, where power was generated by machines of 10 000h.p. and transmitted at 10kV to consumers in London. During this period the battle between the advocates of alternating current and direct current was at its most intense and acrimo- nious level. During this same period, similar developments were taking place in the U.S.A. and elsewhere. Owing mainly to the invention of the transformer the advocates of alternating current prevailed and a steady development of local electricity generating stations commenced, each large town or load centre operating its own station. The variation in rate of growth of electricity usage throughout the world and in the U.S.A. is shown in Figure 1.1, World growth continues at about 7 per cent per year, implying a doubling every 10 years. In the U.S.A. and in other indus- trialized countries there has been a tendency, since 1973, for the rate of increase to slow down, as shown by the trend in Figure 1.1. In the U.K., growth in consumption has been under 2 per cent per year for a number of years. In 1926, in Britain, an Act of Parliament set up the Central Electricity Board ‘with the object of interconnecting the best of the 500 stations then in operation with a high-voltage network known as the grid, In 1948 the British supply industry was nationalized and two organizations were set up: (1) the area boards, which are mainly concerned with distribution and consumer service; and (2) the generating boards, which are responsible for generation and the operation of the high-voltage transmission network or gridns (10) of ilowat-hours Elecre power generation in T920 T50 1940 19519601970 196019907000 Yeor Figure 1.1 World growth rate for electricity (Permission of Edfson Electric Institute, Historic Studies of the Electric Industry, 1975. Subsequent updating from Power Engineering, Oct. 1996, p. 54) All of this changed radically in 1989/90 when the British Electricity Supply Industry (ESI) was privatized and separate companies were formed in England and Wales to provide competition in power generation (with the prospect of further independent generators entering the market) and to transmit electrical energy at high voltage (H.V.) (the National Grid Company, NGC, in England and Wales), and 12 Regional Electricity Companies (RECs) were formed to distribute and supply energy to consumers. In Scotland, Scottish Power and Hydroelectric companies were allowed to continue generating, transmitting, and distributing energy as ‘vertically integrated’ companies who could sell power to England and Wales competitively. Because transmission and distri- bution are recognized as monopolies, a Director General of Electricity Supply (the Regulator) was established to fix the profit that the NGC and RECs could earn on their monopoly businesses.Energy Conversion 3 1.2 Characteristics Influencing Generation and Transmission There are three main characteristics of electricity supply that, however obvious, have a profound effect on the manner in which it is engineered. They are as follows: 1, Electricity, unlike gas and water, cannot be stored and the supplier has small control over the load at any time. The control engineers endeavour to keep the output from the generators equal to the connected load at the speci- fied voltage and frequency; the difficulty of this task will be apparent from a study of the daily load curves in Figure 1.2. It will be seen that the load consists basically of a steady component known as the ‘base load’, plus peaks that depend on the time of day, popular television programmes, and other factors. ‘The effect of an unusual television programme is shown in Figure 1.3. 2. There is a continuous increase in the demand for power, as indicated in Figure 1.1. Although in many industrialized countries the rate of increase has declined in recent years, even the modest rate entails massive additions to the existing systems. A large and continuous process of adding to the system thus exists. Networks are evolved over the years rather than planned in a clear-cut manner and then left untouched. However, with increasing emphasis on the environment, overhead-line rights of way (wayleaves) in industrialized coun- tries are ever more difficult to obtain, thereby forcing existing systems to be used more heavily and efficiently. 3. The distribution and nature of the fuel available. This aspect is of great interest as coal is mined in areas that are not necessarily the main load centres; hydroelectric power is usually remote from the large load centres. The problem of station siting and transmission distances is an involved exercise in econom- ies. The development of gas grids enables modern power stations to be sited closer to load centres. 1.3 Energy Conversion 1.3.1 Steam The combustion of coal, gas or oil in boilers produces steam, at high tempera- tures and pressures, which is passed to steam turbines. Oil has economic advantages when it can be pumped from the refinery through pipelines direct to the boilers of the generating station. Gas obtained directly from extraction platforms is becoming very useful. The energy from nuclear fission can also provide energy to produce steam for turbines. The axial-flow type of turbine is in common use with several cylinders on the same shaft.4 Introduction 10,000 3000 000 = = 7009] 7 = 6000 g é 5000 a E4000] Tate power 3000 | dust estes Peek 7 i ers py. 2000 ed wes, ect oe 1000 Peete | ied 0. 1 rae eoReeeaon Seae ewes ee ewe am pm am om ry Tore of doy o Time of coy Demand (6) 0 20 4 unssare 10 ° Half hour ending § © Time of day Figure 1.2 Dally load curves showing industrial component of a U.S. utlity. (a) winter, (b) summer (Copyright © 1976 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Reprinted by permission from 1.E.E.E. Spectrum, Vol. 13, No. 9 (Sept. 1976), pp. 50-59), (c) Actual NGC summer and winter demands for 1995/96 (not weather corrected). Typical curves for England and Wales (Courtesy of NGO)Energy Conversion 5 megawatts é foam Wom, ‘ap00- cent? 20000: 7000" Monk Ho A Endl End of begs meme exo lne Bodo? Figure 1.3 Effect of television programmes on demand—European Cup soccer match televised in Britain on 29 May 1968. Peaks caused by connection of kettles, etc., in intervals and at end (Permission of Central Electricity Generating Board) The steam power-station operates on the Rankine cycle, modified to include superheating, feed-water heating, and steam reheating. Thermal efficiency results from the use of steam at the highest possible pressure and temperature. Also, for turbines to be economically constructed, the larger the size the less the capital cost, As a result, turbogenerator sets of 500 MW and more have been used, With steam turbines of 100MW capacity and more, the efficiency is increased by reheating the steam, using an external heater, after it has been partially expanded. The reheated steam is then returned to the turbine where it is expanded through the final stages of blading. A schematic diagram of a coal- fired station is shown in Figure 1.4. In Figure 1.5 the flow of energy in a modern steam station is shown. Despite continual advances in the design of boilers and in the development of improved materials, the nature of the steam cycle is such that efficiencies are comparatively low and vast quantities of heat are lost in the condensate and atmosphere. However, the great advances in design and materials in the last few years have increased the thermal efficiencies of coal stations to about 40 per cent. In coal-fired stations, coal is conveyed to a mill and crushed into fine pow- der, i. pulverized. The pulverized fuel is blown into the boiler where it mixes with a supply of air for combustion. The exhaust from the L.P. turbine is cooled to form condensate by the passage through the condenser of large quantities of sea- or river-water. Where this is not possible, cooling towers are used (see section on thermal pollution).6 Introduction Coes tone HALL Ge) frnsmssen cee 7 a ‘ee pa oe Figure 1.4 Schematic view of coal-fired generating station From 536% 194Po 356440°V Jaa 248.3°C 360470 SEC IE HP ras sl To reneater 365°C 425140 Baxio8iieg Be Bnd hoe HP LP Enrocion putel Gee fend heoters teat Ses Saree gL Sesser IO Soe Figure 1.5 Energy flow diagram for a S0OMW turbogenerator (Permission of Electrical Review) Fluidized-bed boilers For typical coals, combustion gases contain 0.2-0.3 per cent sulphur dioxide by volume. If the gas flow rate through the granular bed of a grate-type boiler is increased, the gravity pull is balanced by the upward gas force and the fuel bed takes on the character of a fluid. In a travelling grate this increases the heatEnergy Conversion 7 output and temperature. The ash formed conglomerates and sinks into the grate and is carried to the ash pit. The bed is limited to the ash-sintering temperature of 1050-1200°C. Secondary combustion occurs above the bed where CO burns to CO, and H,S to SO). This type of boiler is still undergoing extensive development and is attractive because of the lower pollutant level and better efficiency. 1.3.2. Energy conversion using water Perhaps the oldest form of energy conversion is by the use of water power. In the hydroelectric station the energy is obtained [ree of cost. This attractive feature has always been somewhat offset by the very high capital cost of con- struction, especially of the civil engineering works. Today, however, the capital cost per kilowatt of small hydroelectric stations is becoming comparable with that of steam stations. Unfortunately, the geographical conditions necessary for hydro-generation are not commonly found, especially in Britain. In most highly developed countries, hydroelectric resources are used to the utmost. There still exists great hydroelectric potential in many underdeveloped coun- tries and this will doubtless be utilized as their load grows, environmental considerations permitting. An alternative to the conventional use of water energy, i.e. pumped storage, enables water to be used in situations which would not be amenable to con- ventional schemes. The utilization of the energy in tidal flows in channels has long been the subject of speculation. The technical and economic difficulties are very great and few locations exist where such a scheme would be feasible. ‘An installation using tidal flow has been constructed on the La Rance Estuary in northern France, where the tidal height range is 9.2m (30 ft) and the tidal flow is estimated at 18000nr/s. Proposals for a 8000 MW tidal barrage in the Severn Estuary (U.K.) are still awaiting funding. Before discussing the types of turbine used, a brief comment on the general modes of operation of hydroelectric stations will be given. The vertical differ- ence between the upper reservoir and the level of the turbines is known as the head. The water falling through this head gains kinetic energy which it then imparts to the turbine blades. There are three main types of installation, as follows: 1. High head or stored—the storage area or reservoir normally fills in longer than 400 h; 2, Medium head or pondage—the storage fills in 200-400 h; 3. Run of river—the storage (if any) fills in less than 2h and has 3-15m head A schematic diagram for type 3 is shown in Figure 1.6.8 Introduction 120 1 intone or ‘gonty crane reeervole water level Enasim ‘Trengmiation Hes Powar sation Intoxe gate 40,190 ‘veling Cranes ‘20nw ener intone ee ee ae erock wrtine fo Tasrece Figure 1.6 Hydroelectric scheme—Kainji, Nigeria. Section through the intake dam and power house. The scheme comprises an intial four €0MW Kaplan turbine sets with the later installation of eight more sets. Running speed 118.4r.p.m. This is a large-low scheme with penstocks of 9m diameter (Permission of Engineering) Associated with these various heights or heads of water level above the turbines are particular types of turbine. These are: 1. Pelton—This is used for heads of 184~1840m (600-6000 ft) and consists of a bucket wheel rotor with adjustable flow nozzles. 2. Francis—This is used for heads of 37-490 m (120-1600 ft) and is of the mixed flow type. 3. Kaplan—This is used for run-of-river and pondage stations with heads of up to 61 m (200ft). This type has an axial-flow rotor with variable-piteh blades. Typical efficiency curves for each type of turbine are shown in Figure 1.7. As the efficiency depends upon the head of water, which is continually fluctuating, often water consumption in cubic meters per kilowatt-hour is used and is related to the head of water. Hydroelectric plant has the ability to start up quickly and the advantage that no losses are incurred when at a standstill. It has great advantages, therefore, for power generation to meet peak loads at minimum cost, working in conjunction with thermal stations. By using remote control of the hydro sets, the time from the instruction to start up to the actual connection to the power network can be as short as 3 min. At certain periods when water availability is low or when generation is not required from hydro sets, it may be advantageous to run the electric machines as motors supplied from the power system. These then act as synchronousEnergy Conversion 9 10 3 ap & os ert ou » : L 0 02 04 06 08 10 Le pu of full toag Figure 1.7. Typical efficiency curves of hydraulic turbines compensators, to be discussed in Chapter 5. To reduce the amount of power required, the water is pushed below the turbine runner by compressed air. This is achieved by closing the water inlet valve and injecting compressed air which pushes the water towards the lower reservoir. The runner now rotates in air and thus requires much less motive power than in water. The power available from a hydro scheme is given by P= pgWH(W) where W = flow rate (m’/s) through the turbine; p= density (1000 kg/m”); g=981m/s*, H =head, ic. height of upper water level above the lower (m). Substituting, P=981WH (kW) Tides An effective method of utilizing the tides is to allow the incoming tide to flow into a basin, thus operating the turbine, and then at low tide to release the stored water, again operating a set of turbines. This gives continuous, if vary- ing, head operation. If the tidal range from high to low water is (m) and the area of water enclosed in the basin is A (m7), then the energy in the full basinto _Introducion The total energy for both flows is therefore twice this value, and the average power is pgah’/T, where T is the period of tidal cycle, normally 12h 44 min. The number of sites with good potential is small. Typical examples of those which have been studied are listed below, along with values of h, A, and mean power, respectively. Passamaquoddy Bay (N. America) 5.5 (m), 262 (km), 1800 (MW) Minas-Cohequid (N. America) 10.7, 777, 19900 San Jose (S. America) 5.9, 750, 5870 Severn (U.K.) 9.8, 70, 8000 1.3.3 Gas turbines With the increasing availability of natural gas (methane) and its competitive price, prime movers based on the gas turbine as developed for aircraft are being increasingly used. Because of the high temperatures obtained by gas combus- tion, the efficiency of a gas turbine is comparable to that of a steam turbine, with the additional advantage that there is still sufficient heat in the gas-turbine exhaust to raise steam in a conventional boiler to drive a steam turbine coupled to another electricity generator, Thi known as a combined-cycle gas-turbine (CCGT) plant, a schematic layout of which is shown in Figure 1.8. Combined efficiencies now being achieved are between 56 and 58 per cent. ‘The advantages of CCGT plant are the fast start up and shut down (2-3 min for the gas turbine, 20 min for the steam turbine), the flexibility possible for load following, the comparative speed of installation because of its modular nature and factory-supplied units, and its ability to run on oil (from local storage tanks) if the gas supply is interrupted. Modern installations are fully automated and require only a few operatives to maintain 24h running or to supply peak load, if needed. It is possible that with continuing further improvements demanded by air- craft in the high-temperature materials required for the gas turbine, even better efficiencies will be possible in the future. It is noteworthy that up to 10 per cent overload is available for short periods under emergency conditions to aid system recovery following stressed system operation. On the environmental side, CCGT plant with gas firing produces about 55 per cent of the carbon dioxide emission from a similarly rated coal/oil-fired plant. Many new, private operators are installing CCGT units either to produce electricity for saleEnergy Conversion 11 Ge Jy To ve seasformer FS grid Cieey ‘Gerentor Naat ea fet ee ‘Sen Figure 1.8 Schematic diagram of a combined-cycle gas-turbine power station (Reproduced by permission of Butterworth/Elsevier) through the grid or as a combined heat and power (CHP) system for industrial ‘or commercial use, 1.3.4 Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) generation Whether the fuel used is coal, oil, orsnucear, the result is the production of steam which then drives the turbine. Attempts are being made to generate electricity without the prime mover or rotating generator. In the magnetohy- drodynamic method, gases at 2500°C are passed through a chamber in which a strong magnetic field has been created (Figure 1.9). If the gas is hot enough it is electrically slightly conducting (it is seeded with potassium to improve the conductivity) and constitutes a conductor moving in the magnetic field. An electromotive force (e.m.f.) is thus induced which can be collected at suitable electrodes. Nowadays, MHD is not seen as an economically viable option compared with CCGT alternatives. 1.3.5 Nuclear power Fission So far, power has been successfully obtained only from the fission reaction which involves the splitting of a nucleus. Compared with chemical reactions,Figure 1.9 The principle of MHD power generation (Permission of English Electric Co. Ltd) very large amounts of energy are released per atomic event with both fusion and fission, typically in the range 10-200 MeV (15-300 x 107'"J). Metal extracted from the base ore consists mainly of two isotopes, uranium-238 (99.3 per cent by weight) and 77U (0.7 per cent). Only *U is fissile, i.e. when struck by slow-moving neutrons its nucleus splits into two substantial fragments plus several neutrons and 3 x 10°''J of kinetic energy. The fast- moving fragments hit surrounding atoms producing heat before coming to rest. The neutrons travel further, hitting atoms and producing further fissions. Hence the number of neutrons increases, causing, under the correct conditions, a chain reaction, In conventional reactors the core or moderator slows down the moving neutrons to achieve more effective splitting of the nuclei Fuels used in reactors have some component of **U. Natural uranium is sometimes used, and although the energy density is considerably less than for the pure isotopes it is still much better than fossil fuels. The uranium used at present comes from metal-rich ores, but these are a limited world resource (about 2 x 10° tons) and the requirement for a reactor which breeds fuel, the breeder reactor, is essential in the long term. The energy breakdown in the fission process is as follows (in MeV): kinetic energy of fission fragments 168, kinetic energy of neutrons 5, gamma radiation 5, beta and gammas emitted by fission products 7 and 6, respectively, and neutrinos 11 ‘When struck by the neutrons, certain non-fissile materials, if placed around the core of a reactor, are transformed into fissionable material. For example, uranium-238 and thorium-232 are converted into plutonium-239 and uranium- 233. When more fissionable material is produced than is consumed the reactor is said to breed. The basic reactor consists of the fuel in the form of rods or pellets situated in aan environment (moderator) which will slow down the neutrons and fission products and in which the heat is evolved. The moderator can be light or heavy water or graphite, Also situated in the moderator are movable rods which absorb neutrons and hence exert control over the fission process. In someEnergy Conversion 13 reactors the cooling fluid is pumped through channels to absorb the heat, which is then transferred to a secondary loop in which steam is produced for the turbine, In water reactors the moderator itself forms the heat-exchange fluid, There are a number of versions of the reactor in use with different coolants and types of fissile fuel. In Britain the Magnox reactor has been used, in which natural uranium in the form of rods is enclosed in magnesium-alloy cans. The fuel cans are placed in a structure or core of pure graphite made up of bricks (called the moderator). This graphite core slows down the neutrons to the correct range of velocities in order to provide the maximum number of colli- sions. The fission process is controlled by the insertion of control rods made of neutron-absorbing material; the number and position of these rods controls the heat output of the reactor. Heat is removed from the graphite via carbon dioxide gas pumped through vertical ducts in the core. This heat is then trans- ferred to water to form steam via a heat exchanger. Once the steam has passed through the high-pressure turbine it is returned to the heat exchanger for reheating, as in a coal- or oil-fired boiler. A schematic diagram showing the basic elements of such a reactor is shown in Figure 1.10. A reactor similar to the Magnox is the advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR). A teinforced-concrete steel-lined pressure vessel contains the reactor and heat exchanger. Enriched uranium dioxide fuel in pellet form, encased in stainless steel cans, is used; a number of cans form a cylindrical fuel element which is placed in a vertical channel in the core. Carbon dioxide gas, at a higher pres- sure than in the Magnox type, removes the heat. The control rods are made of boron steel. Spent fuel elements when removed from the core are stored in a special chamber for about a week and then dismantled and lowered into a pond of water where they remain until the level of radioactivity has decreased suffi- ciently for them to be removed from the station, petal! Y Se |~ exchenge at \ SS ae eal Gas ade Figure 1.10 Schematic view, nuclear reactor—British Magnox type12 Introduction Figure 1.9 The principle of MHD power generation (Permission of English Electric Co. Lic) very large amounts of energy are released per atomic event with both fusion and fission, typically in the range 10-200MeV (15-300 x 10-"°J). Metal extracted from the base ore consists mainly of two isotopes, uranium-238 (99.3 per cent by weight) and ”7U (0.7 per cent). Only ™°U is fissile, ie. when struck by slow-moving neutrons its nucleus splits into two substantial fragments plus several neutrons and 3 x 107'' J of kinetic energy. The fast- moving fragments hit surrounding atoms producing heat before coming to rest. The neutrons travel further, hitting atoms and producing further fissions. Hence the number of neutrons increases, causing, under the correct conditions, a chain reaction. In conventional reactors the core or moderator slows down the moving neutrons to achieve more effective splitting of the nuclei. Fuels used in reactors have some component of *¥U, Natural uranium is sometimes used, and although the energy density is considerably less than for the pure isotopes it is still much better than fossil fuels. The uranium used at present comes from metal-rich ores, but these are a limited world resource (about 2 x 10° tons) and the requirement for a reactor which breeds fuel, the breeder reactor, is essential in the long term. The energy breakdown in the fission process is as follows (in MeV): kinetic energy of fission fragments 168, kinetic energy of neutrons 5, gamma radiation 5, beta and gammas emitted by fission products 7 and 6, respectively, and neutrinos 11 When struck by the neutrons, certain non-fisile materials, if placed around the core of a reactor, are transformed into fissionable material. For example, uranjum-238 and thorium-232 are converted into plutonium-239 and uranium- 233, When more fissionable material is produced than is consumed the reactor is said to breed. “The basic reactor consists of the fuel in the form of rods or pellets situated in an environment (moderator) which will slow down the neutrons and fission products and in which the heat is evolved. The moderator can be light or heavy water or graphite. Also situated in the moderator are movable rods which absorb neutrons and hence exert control over the fission process. In someEnergy Conversion 13 reactors the cooling fluid is pumped through channels to absorb the heat, which is then transferred to a secondary loop in which steam is produced for the turbine. In water reactors the moderator itself forms the heat-exchange fluid. There are a number of versions of the reactor in use with different coolants and types of fissile fuel, In Britain the Magnox reactor has been used, in which natural uranium in the form of rods is enclosed in magnesium-alloy cans. The fuel cans are placed in a structure or core of pure graphite made up of bricks (called the moderator). This graphite core slows down the neutrons to the correct range of velocities in order to provide the maximum number of colli- sions. The fission process is controlled by the insertion of control rods made of neutron-absorbing material; the number and position of these rods controls the heat output of the reactor. Heat is removed from the graphite via carbon dioxide gas pumped through vertical ducts in the core. This heat is then trans- ferred to water to form steam via a heat exchanger. Once the steam has passed through the high-pressure turbine it is returned to the heat exchanger for reheating, as in a coal- or oil-fired boiler. A schematic diagram showing the basic elements of such a reactor is shown in A reactor similar to the Magnox is the advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR). A reinforced-concrete stecl-lined pressure vessel contains the reactor and heat exchanger. Enriched uranium dioxide fuel in pellet form, encased in stainless steel cans, is used; a number of cans form a cylindrical fuel element which is placed in a vertical channel in the core. Carbon dioxide gas, at a higher pres- sure than in the Magnox type, removes the heat. The control rods are made of boron steel. Spent fuel clements when removed from the core are stored in a special chamber for about a week and then dismantled and lowered into a pond of water where they remain until the level of radioactivity has decreased sufli- ciently for them to be removed from the station. Figure 1.10 Schematic view, nuclear reactor—British Magnox type14 Introduction In the U.S.A. and many other countries pressurized-water and boiling-water reactors are used. In the pressurized-water type the water is pumped through the reactor and acts as a coolant and moderator, the water being heated to 315°C. The steam pressure is greater than the vapour pressure at this tempera~ ture and the water leaves the reactor at below boiling point. The fuel is in the form of pellets of uranium dioxide in bundles of stainless steel tubing. The boiling-water reactor was developed later than the pressurized-water type and is now used extensively. Inside the reactor, heat is transferred to boiling water at a pressure of 690Njem?. Schematic diagrams of these reactors are shown in Figures 1.11 and 1.12. All reactors that use uranium produce plutonium in the reaction, Most of this is not utilized in the reactor. Fast breeder reactors breed new fuel in con- siderable quantities during the reaction, as well as producing heat. In the liquid-metal fast breeder reactor, shown in Figure 1.13, liquid sodium is the coolant, which leaves the reactor at 650°C at atmospheric pressure, The heat is then transferred to a secondary sodium circuit which transfers it via a heat exchanger to produce steam at 540°C. The cost and unreliability of these reactors has meant that, to date, they have only been trialled. Both pressurized- and boiling-water reactors use light water. The practical pressure limit for the pressurized-water reactor is about 167 bar (2500p.si.), which limits its efficiency to about 30 per cent. However, the design is relatively straightforward and experience has shown this type of reactor to be stable and Figure 1.11 Schematic diagram of a pressurized-water reactor (PWR) (Permission of Edison Electric Institute) Feeder eter a Figure 1.12 Schematic diagram of a boiling-water reactor (BWA) (Permission of Edison Electric Institute)Energy Conversion 15 nermedore Pot exchange Hot sadam ct Peaster Pemary eke sou apo y Sadar Siem = Water ‘coneree pa oat soduim Figure 1.13 Schematic diagram of a liquid-metal fast breeder reactor (Permission of Edison Electric Institute) dependable. In the boiling-water reactor the efficiency of heat removal is improved by use of the latent heat of evaporation. The steam produced flows directly to the turbine, causing possible problems of radioactivity in the turbine. The fuel for both water reactors is enriched to 1.44 per cent SU. These reactors are probably the cheapest to construct; however, the steam produced is saturated and requires wet-steam turbines. A further type of water reactor is the heavy-water CANDU type developed by Canada. Its operation and construction are similar to the light-water variety. ‘Safety and environmental considerations The translation of energy states in a nucleus creates the emission of y- and f-rays, and a and fission fragments. The half-lives of the substances created are: }Hz (tritium) 12.26 years, Sr (stron- tium) 28.8 years, '"7Cs (caesium) 30.2 years, "I (iodine) 8 days, “Kr (krypton) 10.76 years, and '*>Xe (xenon) 5.27 days. Generally, materials with a long half- life have a lower intensity of radioactivity than those with a short half-life. Tritium is produced in small amounts and mostly retained in the fuel. Xenon and krypton escape from fuel elements which have cladding defects and remain in free form in the coolant. Because of its long life krypton-85 constitutes the greater problem. In the water-cooled cores the fission and activation products are present in the coolant. The more active of such wastes are concentrated by evaporation, mixed with concrete, and shipped for storage. The lower level wastes are eventually released to the condenser cooling-water discharge at low concentration levels.16 Introduction High-level wastes, e.g. strontium-90, are produced in processing the used fuel elements. At the moment, the wastes are concentrated in liquid form and stored in stainless steel containers. The storage of such wastes creates great controversy, the material still being active after centuries. Any mistakes made now will create serious problems for future generations. With future develop- ment such long-lived wastes will be converted to solid form (e.g. glass) and stored underground in stable geological situations such as salt domes. ‘Any accident involving substantial heating and rupture of the structure will involve the release of fission fragments held in the fuel rods into the atmo- sphere. With a breeder reactor the release of plutonium, an extremely radio- toxic material, would add to the problem. In the design and construction of reactors, great care is taken to cover every contingency. Many facilities, e.g. control systems, are at least duplicated and have alternative electrical supplies. ‘Over the past few years there has been considerable controversy regarding the safety of reactors. Experience is still relatively small and human error is always a possibility, such as happened at Three Mile Island in 1979 and Chernobyl in 1986, However, the health controls in the atomic power industry have, from the outset, been much more rigorous than in any other industry. Fusion Energy is produced by the combination of two light nuclei to form a single heavier one. Neutron emission is not required, the reaction being sustained by the very high temperature of the reactants which maintain continual collisions. The most promising fuels are isotopes of hydrogen known as deuterium (D) (mass 2) and tritium (T) (mass 3). The product of fusion is the helium isotope (mass 3), hydrogen, neutrons, and heat. As tritium is not a naturally occurring isotope it is produced in the reactor shield by the interaction of the fusion neutrons and the lithium isotope of mass 6. The deuterium-deuterium fusion requires higher temperatures than deuterium-tritium and the latter is more likely to be used initially. Reserves of lithium have been estimated to be roughly equal to those of fossil fuels. Deuterium, on the other hand, is contained in sea-water of a con- centration of about 34 parts per million. The potential energy-resource is there- fore vast. Based on radioactive considerations, the impact of fusion reactors would be much less than with fission reactors. In fission reactors the loss of coolant accident and the ‘after-heat’ generated after shut-down (fission which continues after full ‘shut-down’ contro! action) may lead to vaporization and dispersal of radioactive material. With fusion there is much less power density under these conditions, possibly 1/S0th of the equivalent value for a fast breeder reactor, The main source of radioactive waste from fusion reactors would be the struc- tural material which undergoes damage due to radiation and hence requiresRenewable Energy Sources 17 occasional renewal. This could be recycled after a 50-year period, compared with centuries for strontium-90 and casesium-137 from fission. Intensive international research is still proceeding to develop materials and a suitable containment method, using either magnetic fields or powerful lasers, to produce the high temperatures (~ 8 x 10’ K) and pressures (above 1000 bar) to initiate a fusion reaction. It is unlikely that a successful fusion reactor will be available before 2020. 1.3.6 Generation and fuel With new and more efficient generating sets being brought into operation, there exists a wide range of plant available for use. As previously mentioned, the load consists of a base plus a variable element, depending on the time of day and other factors. Obviously the base load should be supplied by the more efficient plant which then runs 24h per day, with the remaining load met by the less efficient stations. In addition to the machines supplying the load, a certain proportion of available plant is held in reserve to meet sudden contingencies. A proportion of this reserve must be capable of being brought into operation immediately and hence some machines must be run at, say, 75 per cent of full load to allow for'this spare generating capacity, called ‘spinning reserve’ Reserve margins are allowed in the total generation plant available, to cope with unavailability of plant due to faults and maintenance. It is common practice to allow a planned margin of about 20 per cent over the annual peak demand. Ina power system there is a mix of plants, ie. hydro, coal, oil, and nuclear, and gas turbine. The optimum mix gives the most economic operation, but this is highly dependent on fuel prices which can fluctuate with time and from region to region. Hence in the U.S. in regions with plentiful coal resources, in the west-north-central and also in certain eastern areas, coal plants would be expected to be predominant. In the south and other areas not endowed with coal, nuclear or gas would tend to be dominant. Of course, hydro would be exploited wherever possible for cost and environmental reasons. Typical plant and fuel costs for the U.K. and U.S.A. are given in Table 1.1 It should be noted that fuels bought on world markets at spot prices can vary in price, dependent upon political situations, especially in the Middle East and Russia, 1.4 Renewable Energy Sources ‘There is considerable international effort into the development of alternative energy sources to supplement fossil fuels. Many of the ‘novel’ sources (some of18 Introduction Table 1.1 Typical plant and fuel costs il Gas urbine Wind Nuclear Coal oi Plant cost £/kW 1600 800" 800" 300 1000 1995 USS/KW 2560 1300 1300 480 1600 Fuel cost p/kWh 02 16 3.0 20 0 1995 c/kWh 03 26 48 5.2 0 Add 20 per cent if ue gas desulphurization is needed (Compiled from Power UK, FT Publications, London) them, in fact, have been in use for centuries!) are manifestations of solar energy, e.g. wind, sea waves, ocean thermal gradients, and photosynthesis. ‘The average incident solar energy received on the earth's surface is about 600 W/m’, but the actual value, of course, varies considerably. In the following section the potentialities of various methods of utilizing this energy will be discussed. 1.4.1 Solar energy—thermal conversion There are two distinct applications: (1) space and water heating on a domestic scale; and (2) central station, large-scale heat collection, used for steam raising to generate electricity; both of these influence power systems. The former affects the load demands and in particular the problem utilities will face in having to provide a sufficient back-up supply to customers who normally would use solar power, but in certain weather conditions would require large amounts of electricity. This involves the provision of the normal amount of utility plant but with much reduced sales of energy. ‘AS the temperature of a solar collecting surface rises it radiates heat (infra- red). The energy distributions with wavelength of solar energy and infrared radiation are shown in Figure 1.14. It is possible to design a selective cover plate over the collecting surface such that it would pass nearly all the solar radiation and reflect all the radiated infrared. Selective absorbers consist of a smooth metallic sheet covered with either a thin semiconducting surface or a finely divided metallic powder. The former refiects the infrared and provides a good thermal contact between the hot absorbing layer and cooling fluid. A diagram of a simple collecting system is shown in Figure 1.15 The energy received by the collector per square meter (net) q = lat — (ep + €p)o(T* — Te) whereRenewable Energy Sources 19 Relative black-body intensity 02 os 10 20 50 Wavelength (am) Figure 1.14 Relative biack-body intensity of radiation with wavelength Cover plate / ‘ ‘Sunlight 4 se Heated fluid — Insulation. Figure 1.15 Simple solar energy panel for water heating front and back emissivities of absorber; Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-*W/m°K*; transmittance of cover plate (e.g. 0.93); temperature of cover plate (K); 1 = incident radiation normal to surface; temperature and absorptivity of absorbing panel. erande; o T(K)and, In large-scale (central station) installations the sun’s rays may be concen- trated by lenses or mirrors. Both require accurately curved surfaces and steer- ing mechanisms to follow the motion of the sun. Concentrators may be designed to follow the sun’s seasonal movement, or additionally to track the sun throughout the day (double-axis system). The former is less expensive and20 Introduction concentration factors of 30 have been obtained. However, in the French solar furnace in the Pyrenees, two-axis mirrors are used and a concentration factor of 16000 is achieved. A diagram of the central receiver system for major generation of electricity is shown in Figure 1.16. The reflectors concentrate the rays on to a single receiver (boiler), hence raising steam. A collector area of km? for each 100 MW (e) of output has been suggested with capital costs of $30/m? (mirrors, etc.) and thermal storage costs of $15 per kWh of electricity A less attractive alternative to this scheme (because of the lower temperatures) is the use of many individual absorbers tracking the sun in one direction only, the thermal energy being transferred by a fluid (water or liquid sodium) to a central boiler. In all solar thermal schemes, storage is essential because of the fluctuating nature of the sun’s energy, although it has been proposed that the schemes be used as pure fuel savers. This feature is common to all of the sources discussed, with the exception of geothermal, and constitutes a very serious drawback. Recelver Incident The orn sun ray — Reflected [errey OY mwny Support tower Cooling tower 260 m ah / Power plant Electric ower output Trocking heliostars reflect sun rays to receiver Figure 1.16 Central receiver scheme for electric power generated by solar energy (Copyright © 1975 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Reprinted by permission from 1.E.6.E. Spectrum, Vol. 12, No. 12 (Dec. 1975), pp. 47-52)Renewable Energy Sources 21 Fluctuating sources, as well as fluctuating loads, would complicate still further the process of electricity supply. 1.4.2 Solar energy—direct conversion to electricity Photovoltaic conversion occurs in a thin layer of suitable material, e.g. silicon, when hole-electron pairs are created by incident solar photons and the separa- tion of these holes and clectrons at a discontinuity in electrochemical potential creates a potential difference. Whereas theoretical efficiencies are about 25 per cent, practical values are lower. Single-crystal silicon and gallium-arsenide cells have been constructed with efficiencies of 10 and 16 per cent, respectively. The cost of fabricating and interconnecting cells is high (used mainly, to date, in spacecraft). Polycrystalline silicon films having large-area grains (i.e. long con- tinuous crystals) with efficiencies of over 16 per cent have been made by tech- niques amenable to mass production. Although these devices do not pollute, they wil inthe large-power context, occupy large areas. It has been estimated that to produce 10'?kWh per year (about 65 per cent of the 1970 U.S. gen- eration value) the necessary cells would occupy about 0.1 per cent of the U.S. land area (highways occupied 1.5 per eent in 1975), assuming an efficiency of 10 per cent and a daily insolation of 4kWh/m?. Automated cell production can now produce cells at around US $5 per watt. Other forms of conversion of lesser large-scale importance come under the heading of thermoelectricity. The Seebeck effect gives a potential difference between the hot and cold ends of joins of different metals, a typical value being 150 4V/K. Solar energy can heat a cathode of a diode-type tube from which electrons will be liberated by thermionic emission, These electrons drift to the anode and return through the external circuit, It is doubtful whether these devices will make any impact on the energy situation. 1.4.3 Wind generators Wind power from horizontally mounted generators on 30-50 m high towers is now becoming economically viable. Sizes between 300 and 500kW driven by two or, more effectively, three-bladed wind turbines are an optimum but larger turbines of 2-3 MW have been built for development purposes. However, the larger towers and blades for higher outputs must be traded against the extra capital costs, The theoretical power in the wind is given by P=}pAU>(W) where22 Introduction p= density of air (1.201 kg/m? at NTP); U = mean air velocity (m/s); A = swept area of blades (m?). ‘The range of operation of a wind turbine depends upon the wind speed and is depicted in Figure 1.17. ‘At low wind speeds, there is insufficient energy to operate the turbine coupled to the generator and no power is produced. At the ‘cut-in’ U. speed, between 3 and 5 m/s on the diagram, power starts to be generated until rated power P, is produced at rated wind speed U,. After this point, the turbine is controlled, usually by altering the blade angle or ‘pitch’, to give rated output up toa maximum wind speed Uy, after which the blades are ‘Furled’ and the unit is shut down to avoid excessive wind loading. Typically, wind turbines have rotors of 20m diameter, rotate at 100-150rpm, and are geared up to about 750r.p.m. to drive an eight-pole induction generator excited by a 415V three-phase (3 ph.), 50 Hz rural distribution system. If they are sited in ‘windy’ areas, normally found on exposed ridges, and can convert nearly half the theoretical power to electrical energy, a good site in the U.K. can produce 1800 kWh per kW of installed capacity per year. Example 1.1 Calculate the number of wind generators required to produce the equivalent of a 600MW CCGT operating at 80 per cent load factor. Assume average wind speed is 10km/h (2.78 m/s), blade diameter is 20m, and conversion efficiency is 45 per cent, u U, uu (Cutin) (Rated speed) (Mox speed} Figure 1.17 Range of operation of wind turbine (Courtesy of LE.E. Power Engineering Joumal, Aug. 1995)Renewable Energy Sources 23 Calculation Pring =4-1.201 ( 278° «107 = 4059KW = 4053 0.45 = 1823kW No, of wind generators for 600 MW = £22 — 330 generators 3 From this calculation, it is apparent that many wind generators spread over a wide area would be required. Although the ground beneath them could be used for grazing, the proliferations and the acoustic noise can be detrimental to the environment, However, the saving in CO, emissions would be of the order of 12000t/day provided that the wind was always blowing! 1.4.4 Biofuels Biofuels are derived from decaying vegetable matter produced by agriculture or forestry operations or from waste materials collected from industry, commerce, and residential households. As an energy resource, biomass used as a source of heat by burning wood, dung, etc., in developing countries is very important and contributes about 14 per cent of the world’s energy requirements. Biofuel can be used to produce electricity in two ways: 1. by burning in a furnace to produce steam to drive turbines; or 2. by allowing fermentation in landAill sites or in special anaerobic tanks, both of which produce a methane-rich gas which can fuel a spark ignition. engine or gas turbine. Itis interesting to note that if crops are cultivated for combustion, either as a primary source of heat or as a by-product of some other operation, they can be considered as CO, neutral, in that their growing cycle absorbs as much CO; as is produced by their combustion. In industrialized countries, biofuels have the potential to produce up to $ per cent of electricity requirements if all possible forms are exploited, including household and industrial waste, sew- erage sludge (for digestion), agricultural waste (chicken litter, straw, sugar cane, etc.)24 Introduction oe em CE EE Ce ete ee 1.4.5 Geothermal energy In most parts of the world the vast amount of heat in the earth's interior is too deep to be tapped. In some areas, however, hot springs or geysers and molten lava streams are close enough to the surface to be used. Thermal energy from hot springs has been used for many years for producing elec- tricity, starting in 1904 in Italy. In the U.S.A. the major geothermal power plants are located in northan California on a natural steam field called the Geysers. Steam from a number of wells is passed through turbines. The present utilization is about 500MW and the total estimated capacity is about 2000MW. Because of the lower pressure and temperatures the effi- ciency is less than with fossil-fuelled plants, but the capital costs are less and, of course, the fuel is free. New Zealand and Iceland also exploit their geothermal energy resources. ‘The Geysers in the U.S.A. represent a dry steam field which is preferable for power generation via steam turbines, Other basic types of geothermal energy reservoirs are: hot water, hot dry rock, geopressured water, and the normal thermal gradient in the earth’s crust. It is more common for wells to produce a mixture of steam and hot water, this combination being much less useful than dry steam. Electricity may be generated from hot-water wells by passing the water, under pressure, through a heat exchanger, where it causes the vaporization of a volatile liquid such as freon. The latter expands through a turbine. The largest potential is associated with the heat in deposits of dry rock. High-pressure water is forced down a deep shaft and creates cracks in the rock at the bottom, Pressurized water is then forced through the cracks to extract heat. Hot rocks contracts as it cools, thereby creating fresh cracks and extending the catchment volume. At Los Alamos in New Mexico a 780m shaft was drilled and then hydraulic creation of cracks was achieved at pressures of about 100 atm. All parts of the earth's surface have heat in the rock beneath, but the temperature gradients are very modest. Although the potential amount of heat is vast, the technology involved to extract this heat successfully has still to be developed and shown to be economically viable. 1.4.6 Other renewable resources Ocean temperature gradients In 1881 D’Arsonval proposed the utilization of the temperature difference between the surface and lower layers of tropical seas. For practical purposes the layers need to be in reasonably close proximity to cach other. The absorp- tion of solar energy by the surface layers causes a thermal-syphon action, the warm surface water flowing towards the earth's poles from whence it moves