Virological Tests
An Overview
Diagnostic Methods in Virology
• 1. Direct Examination
• 2. Indirect Examination (Virus Isolation)
• 3. Serology
Direct Examination
1. Antigen Detection immunofluorescence, ELISA etc.
2. Electron Microscopy morphology of virus particles
immune electron microscopy
3. Light Microscopy histological appearance
inclusion bodies
4. Viral Genome Detection hybridization with specific
nucleic acid probes
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Indirect Examination
1.Cell Culture Cytopathic effect (CPE)
Hemabsorption
Immunofluorescence
2. Eggs Pocks on CAM
Hemagglutination
Inclusion bodies
3. Animals Disease or death
Serology
• Detection of rising titres of antibody between acute
and convalescent stages of infection, or the
detection of IgM in primary infection.
Classical Techniques Newer Techniques
1. Complement fixation tests (CFT) 1. Radioimmunoassay (RIA)
2. Haemagglutination inhibition tests 2. Enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (EIA)
3. Immunofluorescence techniques (IF) 3. Particle agglutination
4. Neutralization tests 4. Western Blot (WB)
5. Counter-immunoelectrophoresis 5. RIBA, Line immunoassay
Virus Isolation
• Cell Cultures are most widely used for virus isolation,
there are 3 types of cell cultures:
• 1. Primary cells ‐ Monkey Kidney
• 2. Semi‐continuous cells ‐ Human embryonic kidney and skin
fibroblasts
• 3. Continuous cells ‐ HeLa, Vero, Hep2, LLC‐MK2, MDCK
• Primary cell culture are widely acknowledged as the
best cell culture systems available since they support
the widest range of viruses. However, they are very
expensive and it is often difficult to obtain a reliable
supply. Continuous cells are the most easy to handle
but the range of viruses supported is often limited.
Cell Cultures
• Growing virus may produce
• 1. Cytopathic Effect (CPE) ‐ such as the ballooning of cells or
syncytia formation, may be specific or non‐specific.
• 2. Haemadsorption ‐ cells acquire the ability to stick to
mammalian red blood cells.
• Confirmation of the identity of the virus may be
carried out using neutralization, haemadsorption‐
inhibition or immunofluorescence tests.
Cytopathic Effect (1)
Cytopathic effect of enterovirus 71 and HSV in cell culture: note the ballooning of cells.
(Virology Laboratory, Yale-New Haven Hospital, Linda Stannard, University of Cape Town)
Cytopathic Effect (2)
Syncytium formation in cell
culture caused by RSV (top), and
measles virus (bottom).
(courtesy of Linda Stannard, University of Cape
Town, S.A.)
Hemadsorption
Syncytial formation caused by mumps virus and haemadsorption
of erythrocytes onto the surface of the cell sheet.
(courtesy of Linda Stannard, University of Cape Town, S.A.)
Problems with cell culture
• Long period (up to 4 weeks) required for result.
• Often very poor sensitivity, sensitivity depends on a
large extent on the condition of the specimen.
• Susceptible to bacterial contamination.
• Susceptible to toxic substances which may be
present in the specimen.
• Many viruses will not grow in cell culture e.g.
Hepatitis B, Diarrhoeal viruses, parvovirus,
papillomavirus.
Rapid Culture Techniques
• Rapid culture techniques are available whereby viral
antigens are detected 2 to 4 days after inoculation. The CMV
DEAFF test is the best example, whereby
• The cell sheet is grown on individual cover slips in a plastic
bottle.
• Following inoculation, the bottle then is spun at a low speed
for one hour (to speed up the adsorption of the virus) and
then incubated for 2 to 4 days.
• The cover slip is then taken out and examined for the
presence of CMV early antigens by immunofluorescence.
DEAFF test for CMV
(Virology Laboratory, Yale-New Haven Hospital)
Viruses Isolated by Cell Culture
Viruses readily isolated by cell culture Less frequently isolated viruses
Herpes Simplex Varicella-Zoster
Cytomegalovirus Measles
Adenoviruses Rubella
Polioviruses Rhinoviruses
Coxsackie B viruses Coxsackie A viruses
Echoviruses
Influenza
Parainfluenza
Mumps
Respiratory Syncytial Virus
Electron Microscopy
106 virus particles per ml required for visualization, 50,000 - 60,000
magnification normally used. Viruses may be detected in the following
specimens.
Faeces Rotavirus, Adenovirus
Norwalk like viruses
Astrovirus, Calicivirus
Vesicle Fluid HSV
VZV
Skin scrapings papillomavirus, orf
molluscum contagiosum
Electronmicrographs
Adenovirus Rotavirus
(courtesy of Linda Stannard, University of Cape Town, S.A.)
Immune Electron Microscopy
• The sensitivity and specificity of EM may be enhanced by
immune electron microscopy. There are two variants:‐
• Classical Immune electron microscopy (IEM) ‐ the sample is
treated with specific anti‐sera before being put up for EM.
Viral particles present will be agglutinated and thus
congregate together by the antibody.
• Solid phase immune electron microscopy (SPIEM) ‐ the grid
is coated with specific anti‐sera. Virus particles present in
the sample will be absorbed onto the grid by the antibody.
Problems with Electron
Microscopy
• Expensive equipment
• Expensive maintenance
• Require experienced observer
• Sensitivity often low
Serology
• Criteria for diagnosing Primary Infection
• 4 fold or more increase in titre of IgG or total antibody
between acute and convalescent sera
• Presence of IgM
• Seroconversion
• A single high titre of IgG (or total antibody) ‐ very unreliable
• Criteria for diagnosing Reinfection
• fold or more increase in titre of IgG or total antibody between
acute and convalescent sera
• Absence or slight increase in IgM
Typical Serological Profile After Acute Infection
Note that during reinfection, IgM may be absent or present at a low level transiently
Complement Fixation Test
Complement Fixation Test in Microtiter Plate. Rows 1 and 2 exhibit complement
fixation obtained with acute and convalescent phase serum specimens,
respectively. (2-fold serum dilutions were used) The observed 4-fold increase is
significant and indicates recent infection.
ELISA for HIV antibody
Microplate ELISA for HIV antibody: coloured wells indicate reactivity
Western Blot
HIV-1 Western Blot
• Lane1: Positive Control
• Lane 2: Negative Control
• Sample A: Negative
• Sample B: Indeterminate
• Sample C: Positive
Usefulness of Serological Results
• Depends on the individual virus
• For viruses such as rubella and hepatitis A, the onset of
clinical symptoms coincide w/ development of Abs. The
detection of IgM or rising titers of IgG in the serum of the
patient would indicate active disease
• However, many viruses often produce clinical disease before
the appearance of Abs such as respiratory & diarrheal
viruses. So in this case, any serological diagnosis would be
retrospective & therefore will not be that useful
• There are also viruses which produce clinical disease mons
or years after seroconversion (HIV & rabies). In the case of
these viruses, the mere presence of Ab is sufficient to make
a definitive diagnosis
Problems with Serology
• Long period of time required for diagnosis for paired acute
& convalescent sera
• Mild local infections such as HSV genitalis may not produce
a detectable humoral immune response
• Extensive antigenic cross‐reactivity between related viruses
(HSV and VZV, Japanese B encephalitis & Dengue) may lead
to false positive results
• Immunocompromised patients often give a reduced or
absent humoral immune response
• Patients w/ IM & those with connective tissue dses (SLE)
may react non‐specifically giving a false positive result
• Patients given blood or blood products may give a false
positive result due to the transfer of Ab
CSF antibodies
• Used mainly for the diagnosis of herpes simplex and VZV
encephalitis
• CSF normally contain little or no antibodies
• presence of antibodies suggest meningitis or
meningoencephalitis
CSF antibody titre > _1_ is indicative of meningitis
Serum antibody titre 100
• Diagnosis depends on the presence of an intact blood-brain
barrier
Rapid Diagnosis Based on the
Detection of Viral Antigens
Nasopharyngeal Aspirate RSV
Influenza A and B
Parainfluenza
Adenovirus
Faeces Rotaviruses
Adenoviruses
Astrovirus
Skin HSV
VZV
Blood CMV (pp65 antigenaemia test)
Immunofluorescense
Positive immunofluorescence test for
rabies virus antigen. (Source: CDC)
(Virology Laboratory, Yale-New
Haven Hospital)
CMV pp65 antigenaemia test
(Virology Laboratory, Yale-New Haven Hospital)
Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages
• Result available quickly, usually within a few hours.
• Potential Problems
• Often very much reduced sensitivity compared to cell
culture, can be as low as 20%. Specificity often poor as
well.
• Requires good specimens.
• The procedures involved are often tedious and time‐
consuming and thus expensive in terms of laboratory
time.
Specimens for Routine Tests
C linical C ategory B lood Throat Faeces CSF O ther
swab
1. M eningitis + + + +
2. Encephalitis + + + + Brain biopsy
3. Paralytic disease + + + +
4. Respiratory illness + + Nasopharyngeal aspirate
5. H epatitis +
6. G astroenteritis +
7. Congenital diseases + Urine, saliva
8. Skin lesions + + Lesion sam ple e.g. vesicle
fluid, skin scrapping
9. Eye lesions Eye sw ab
10. M yocarditis + Pericardial fluid
11. M yositis + +
12. G landular fever +
13. Post M ortem + Autopsy
After use, swabs should be broken into a sm all bottle containing 2 m l of virus transport m edium .
Swabs should be sent to the laboratory as soon as possible without freezing. Faeces, CSF, biopsy or
autopsy specim ens should be put into a dry sterile container.
Molecular Methods
• Methods based on the detection of viral genome
• Future direction of viral diagnosis
• Role played in a routine diagnostic virus laboratory
is still small compared to conventional methods
Classical Molecular Techniques
• Dot‐blot, Southern blot, in‐situ hydridization
• Depend on the use of specific DNA/RNA probes for
hybridization
• Specificity of the reaction depends on the
conditions used for hybridization
• Sensitivity is not better than conventional viral
diagnostic methods
• More tedious & expensive than conventional
techniques, they never found widespread
acceptance
Polymerase Chain Reaction (1)
• In vitro amplification of specific target DNA sequences
by a factor of 106 thus an extremely sensitive
technique
• Based on an enzymatic rxn involving use of synthetic
oligonucleotides flanking target nucleic sequence of
interest
• Oligonucleotides act as primers for the thermostable
Taq polymerase
• Repeated cycles (usually 25 to 40) of denaturation of
the template DNA (at 94oC), annealing of primers to
their complementary sequences (50oC), and primer
extension (72oC) result in the exponential production
of the specific target fragment
Polymerase Chain Reaction (2)
• Further sensitivity and specificity may be obtained
by the nested PCR
• Detection & ID of the PCR product is usually carried
out by:
• Agarose gel electrophoresis
• Hybridization with a specific oligonucleotide probe
• Restriction enzyme analysis, or
• DNA sequencing
Polymerase Chain Reaction (3)
• Advantages of PCR:
• Extremely high sensitivity, may detect down to one viral
genome per sample volume
• Easy to set up
• Fast turnaround time
• Disadvantages of PCR
• Extremely liable to contamination
• High degree of operator skill required
• Not easy to set up a quantitative assay.
• A positive result may be difficult to interpret, especially w/
latent viruses such as CMV, where any seropositive person
will have virus present in their blood irrespective whether
they have disease or not
Polymerase Chain Reaction (4)
• Problems addressed by arrival of commercial
closed systems (Roche Cobas Amplicor) which
requires minimum handling
• Use of synthetic internal competitive targets in
these commercial assays has facilitated accurate
quantification of results. However, these assays are
very expensive
Schematic of PCR
Each cycle doubles the copy number of the target
Other Newer Molecular
Techniques
• Branched DNA: sensitive hydridization technique involving linear
amplification vs exponential amplification occurs in PCR.
• Therefore, the sensitivity of bDNA lies between classical
amplification techniques & PCR.
• Commercial proprietary techniques such as LCR, NASBA, TMA
depend on exponential amplification of the signal or the target.
• Therefore, these techniques are as susceptible to contamination
as PCR & share the same advantages & disadvantages.
• PCR & related techniques are bound to play an increasingly
important role in the diagnosis of viral infections.
• DNA chip is another promising technology where it would be
possible to detect a large number of viruses, their pathogenic
potential, and their drug sensitivity at the same time.
Comparison between PCR and other nucleic
acid Amplification Techniques
Target Signal Commercial
Method Amplification Amplification Thermocycling Sensitivity Examples
PCR Exponential No Yes High Roche Amplicor
LCR No Exponential Yes High Abbot LCX
NASBA Exponential No No High Organon Teknika
TMA Exponential No No High Genprobe
Qß-Replicase No Exponential No High None
Branched DNA No Linear No Medium Chiron Quantiplex
End