www.mathportal.

org

Algebra Formulas
Identity
1. Set identities A∪∅ = A
Definitions: A∩ I = A
I: Universal set Set identities involving union, intersection and
A’: Complement complement
Empty set: ∅ complement of intersection and union
Union of sets A ∪ A′ = I
A ∩ A′ = ∅
A ∪ B = { x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
De Morgan’s laws
Intersection of sets
A ∩ B = { x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B} ( A ∪ B )′ = A′ ∩ B ′
Complement ( A ∩ B )′ = A′ ∪ B ′
A′ = { x ∈ I | x ∈ A} Set identities involving difference

Difference of sets B \ A = B ( A ∪ B)

B \ A = { x | x ∈ B and x ∉ A} B \ A = B ∩ A′
A\ A= ∅
Cartesian product
( A \ B) ∩ C = ( A ∩ C) \ (B ∩ C)
A × B = {( x, y ) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}
A′ = I \ A
Set identities involving union
Commutativity
A∪ B = B∪ A
2. Sets of Numbers
Associativity Definitions:
A ∪ (B ∪ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∪ C N: Natural numbers
No: Whole numbers
Idempotency
Z: Integers
A∪ A = A +
Z : Positive integers
-
Set identities involving intersection Z : Negative integers
commutativity Q: Rational numbers
A∩ B = B∩ A C: Complex numbers
Associativity Natural numbers (counting numbers )
A ∩ (B ∩ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∩ C N = {1, 2, 3,... }
Idempotency
Whole numbers ( counting numbers + zero )
A∩ A = A
Set identities involving union and intersection N o = {0, 1, 2, 3,... }
Distributivity Integers
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C) Z + = N = {1, 2, 3,... }
A ∩ (B ∪ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C)
Z − = {..., − 3, − 2, − 1 }
Domination
A∩∅ = ∅ Z = Z − ∪ {0} ∪ Z = .{ .., − 3, − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,... }
A∪ I = I
 www.mathportal.org
Roots of complex numbers
Irrational numbers: 1
 θ + 2k π 
1
θ + 2k π
Nonerepeating and nonterminating integers  r ( cos θ + sin θ )  n = r n  cos + sin 
 n n 
Real numbers:
From this the n nth roots can be obtained by putting k = 0,
Union of rational and irrational numbers 1, 2, . . ., n - 1
Complex numbers:
C = { x + iy | x ∈ R and y ∈ R} 4. Factoring and product
N ⊂Z ⊂Q⊂R⊂C Factoring Formulas
a 2 − b 2 = ( a − b )( a + b )

3. Complex numbers (
a 3 − b3 = ( a − b ) a 2 + ab + b 2 )
Definitions: a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a 2
− ab + b )
2

A complex nuber is written as a + bi where a and b are

real numbers an i, called the imaginary unit, has the a 4 − b 4 = ( a − b)( a + b)( a 2 + b 2 )
2
property that i =-1.
The complex numbers a+bi and a-bi are called complex
conjugate of each other.
(
a 5 − b5 = ( a − b ) a 4 + a 3b + a 2 b 2 + ab3 + b 4 )
Equality of complex numbers Product Formulas
a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d ( a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
Addition of complex numbers ( a − b) 2 = a 2 − 2ab + b 2
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a 2b + 3ab2 + b3
Subtraction of complex numbers (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a 2b + 3ab 2 − b3
(a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i 4
(a + b) = a 4 + 4a 3 b + 6 a 2 b 2 + 4ab3 + b 4
Multiplication of complex numbers
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i ( a − b )4 = a 4 − 4a3b + 6a 2 b2 − 4ab3 + b4
Division of complex numbers (a + b + c)2 = a 2 + b2 + c 2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc
a + bi a + bi c − di ac + bd  bc − ad  (a + b + c + ...) 2 = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + ...2(ab + ac + bc + ...)
= ⋅ = + i
c + di c + di c − di c 2 + d 2  c 2 + d 2 
Polar form of complex numbers
x + iy = r ( cosθ + i sinθ ) r − modulus, θ − amplitude
5. Algebric equations
Multiplication and division in polar form Quadric Eqation: ax2 + bx + c = 0
 r1 ( cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) ⋅  r2 ( cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )  = Solutions (roots):
= r1r2 cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ 2 ) −b ± b2 − 4ac
x1,2 =
r1 ( cosθ1 + sinθ1 ) r 2a
⋅ = 1 cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + sin (θ1 − θ2 )  2
if D=b -4ac is the discriminant, then the roots are
r2 ( cosθ2 + sin θ2 ) r2
(i) real and unique if D > 0
De Moivre’s theorem (ii) real and equal if D = 0
n
(iii) complex conjugate if D < 0
 r ( cos θ + sin θ )  = r n ( cos nθ + sin nθ )
 www.mathportal.org

Cubic Eqation: x3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3 = 0
Let
3a2 − a12 9a1a2 − 27a3 − 2a13
Q= , R=
9 54
S = 3 R + Q3 + R2 , T = 3 R − Q3 + R2

then solutions are:

1
x1 = S + T − a1
3
1 1 1
x2 = − ( S + T ) − a1 + i 3 ( S − T )
2 3 2
1 1 1
x3 = − ( S + T ) − a1 − i 3 ( S − T )
2 3 2
3 3
if D = Q + R is the discriminant, then:
(i) one root is real and two complex conjugate if D > 0
(ii) all roots are real and at last two are equal if D = 0
(iii) all roots are real and unequal if D < 0

Cuadric Eqation: x4 + a1x3 + a2 x2 + a3x + a4 = 0

Let y1 be a real root of the cubic equation

( )
y3 − a2 y2 + ( a1a3 − 4a4 ) y + 4a2 a4 − a32 − a12 a4 = 0
Solution are the 4 roots of
1 1
z2 +
2
( ) (
a1 ± a12 − 4a2 + 4y1 z + y1 ± y12 − 4a4 = 0
2
)