ORGANIC CHEMISTRY the defined physical state under standard

Enantiomers conditions.
Stereoisomers which rotate plane-polarized ½H2(g)  H(g)
light in opposite directions ∆ Hөr = ∆ Hөatom [H2(g)]

Racemic mixture Standard enthalpy change of solution -

A mixture of equal proportions of ∆ Hөsoln
enantiomers where there is no net optical The heat change when 1 mole of solute is
activity completely dissolved in enough solvent so
that no further heat change takes place on
Meso compound adding more solvent (infinite dilution) at
An optically inactive compound with a plane standard conditions.
of symmetry and more than one chiral CuSO4(s)  Cu2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
center. ∆ H өr =
∆ Hөsoln
[CuSO4(s)]
Electrophile
Electron-deficient species Standard enthalpy change of hydration -
∆ Hөhyd
Nucleophile The heat energy evolved when 1 mole of the
Electron-rich species gaseous ion is dissolved in a large amount of
water at standard conditions
ENERGETICS Na+(g)  Na+(aq)
Hess’ Law states that the enthalpy change ∆ Hөr = ∆ Hөhyd [Na]
of a reaction is determined by the initial and
final state of the system and is independent Bond energy - BE
of the pathway taken. The average energy absorbed when 1 mole
of X-Y bonds are broken in gaseous state
Standard enthalpy change of reaction - CH4(g)  C(g) + 4H(g)
∆ H өr ∆ Hөr = 4BE [C-H]
The heat change when molar quantities of
reactants as specified by the chemical Bond dissociation energy - BDE
equation react to form products at standard The energy required to break 1 mole of that
conditions particular X-Y bond in a particular compound
in gaseous state.
Standard enthalpy change of formation - CH4(g)  CH3(g) + H(g)
∆ H өf ∆ Hөr = BDE [C-H]
The heat change when 1 mole of a pure
compound in a specified state is formed from First ionization energy - 1st IE
its constituent elements in their standard The energy required to remove 1 mole of
states at standard conditions. electrons from 1 mole of gaseous atoms in
H2(g) + ½O2(g)  H2O(l) the ground state to form 1 mole of gaseous
∆ HrӨ = ∆ HfӨ [H2O(l)] unipositive charged cations.
Na(g)  Na+(g) + e-
Standard enthalpy change of Hөr = 1st IE [Na]
combustion - ∆ Hөc
The heat evolved when 1 mole of a Second ionization energy - 2nd IE
substance is completely burned in oxygen at The energy required to remove 1 mole of
standard conditions. electrons from 1 mole of gaseous X+ ions to
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) form 1 mole of gaseous X2+ charged cations.
∆ HrӨ = ∆ HcӨ [C(s)] Na+(g)  Na2+(g) + e-
Hөr = 2nd IE [Na]
Standard enthalpy change of
neutralization - ∆ Hөneut First electron affinity – 1st EA
The heat change when an amount of acid The energy change when 1 mole of electrons
neutralizes a base to form 1 mole of water (in are added to 1 mole of atoms in the gaseous
dilute aqueous solution) at standard state to form 1 mole of gaseous X- ions
conditions. Cl(g) + e-  Cl-(g)
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq)  KNO3(aq) + Hөr = 1st EA [Cl]
H2O(l) ∆ Hөr = ∆ Hөneut
Second electron affinity – 2nd EA
Standard enthalpy change of The energy change when 1 mole of electrons
atomization - ∆ Hөatom are added to 1 mole of gaseous X- ions to
The heat change when 1 mole of atoms in form 1 mole of gaseous X2- ions
the gas phase is formed from the element in Cl-(g) + e-  Cl2-(g)
Hөr = 2nd EA [Cl]
 Apparent molecular mass – Mapp
Lattice energy - |LE| The weighted average of the relative
The heat change when 1 mole of pure solid molecular masses of all gases present in
ionic compound is formed from its equilibrium
constituent gaseous ions under standard
conditions Le Chatelier’s Principle states that if a
Mg2+(g) + 2Cl-(g)  MgCl2(s) system in equilibrium is subjected to a
Hөr = |LE| [MgCl2(s)] change which disturbs the equilibrium, the
system responds in such a way as to
counteract the effect of the change.

IONIC EQUILBRIA
Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and
bases
A acid is a proton donor. A base is a proton
acceptor. An acid-base reaction involves the
transfer of a proton from an acid to a base.

Strong acid
An acid which undergoes complete
KINETICS dissociation in aqueous solution
Rate Equation
A mathematical equation that shows how the Weak acid
rate of reaction is dependent on the An acid which undergoes partial dissociation
concentrations of the reactants. It relates the in aqueous solution
rate of reaction to the concentrations of the
reactants raised to the appropriate power.

Rate constant – k Strong base

A proportionality constant in the rate A base which undergoes complete ionization
equation of the reaction in aqueous solution

Order of reaction w.r.t. a reactant Weak base

The power to which the concentration of that A base which undergoes partial ionization in
reagent is raised in the rate equation aqueous solution

Overall order or reaction Degree of ionization – α

The sum of all powers to which The fraction of molecules which is ionized at
concentrations of reactants are raised in the equilibrium
rate equation
Buffer solution
Half-life – t½ A solution which is able to resist a change in
The time required for the concentration of a pH upon the addition of a small amount of
limiting reagent to decrease to half of its acid or base
initial concentration
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA Standard electrode potential – Eө
Reversible reaction The potential of a half-cell relative to a
Reactions that take place in both directions standard hydrogen half-cell under standard
at comparable rates conditions

Static equilibrium Standard cell potential – Eөcell

A state in which there is no change in both The potential difference between two half-
macroscopic and microscopic properties in a cells under standard conditions
system
TRANSITION METALS
Dynamic equilibrium Transition metal
A reversible reaction in which the rate of the A metal which forms one or more stable ions
forward and backward reactions are equal which have incompletely filled d-subshells
and nonzero.
Complex
Degree of dissociation – α A complex contains a central metal ion linked
The fraction of a reactant that has to one or more surrounding ligands.
dissociated at a particular temperature
Ligand
An anion or a molecule which contains at
least one atom bearing one lone pair of
electrons which can be donated into the low-
lying vacant orbital of the central metal
atom/ion forming a dative bond.