1.

Power electronics is a process and control of electric energy by supplying voltage and current in
a form of optimally suited user load
2. - Utility system = smart grids
- Automotive and traction = modern traction system
- Industries = rolling mills
- Renewable energy = wind system
3. The technologies on past 1800s was big and hard to bring, and also no so upgraded systems or
units that used in their time but it was suitable for the people on the world in past 1800s then
the future technologies in was cool and amazing like the invented smart phone that can be TV,
send an email, call a person then play a game on it.
4. deal switch
What is Ideal Switch - Ideal switch are switches that not consumes or dissipate any power from
its sources. The ideal switch is representing in Figure 1.

Figure 1 an ideal switch

When switch is closed, the current flow through the switch is equal to the current absorb by the
load. But, the voltage across the switch terminal is equal to zero. From here, we can write:

Isw (closed) = Iload

Vsw(closed) = 0

So that, the power absorb by the switch while it’s closed:

Pclosed = Vsw(closed) . Isw (closed) = 0

What happen if the switch is open? While switch is open, there is no current flow to the load, so
the voltage across the switch is equal to the voltage source. Thus, we can write:

Isw (open) = 0
Vsw(open) = Vsource

So that, the power absorb by the switch while its closed:

Popen = Vsw(open) . Isw (open) = 0
 From all equations above, we get:
Plosses = Pclosed + Popen = 0 + 0 = 0
So basically ideal switch doesn’t have power losses
5. s
6.

BJTs vs FETs
BJTs FETs
FETs are voltage-controlled. They only
How it operates BJTs are current-controlled. They
require voltage applied to the gate to turn
require a biasing current to the base
the FET either on or off. They do not require
terminal for operation.
a biasing current for operation.
BJTs offer smaller input impedances,
FETs offer greater input impedance than
meaning they draw more current
BJTs. This means that they practically draw
Input Impedance from the power circuit feeding it,
no current and therefore do not load down
which can cause loading of the
the power circuit that's feeding it.
circuit.
Gain BJTs offer greater gain at the output The gain (or transconductance) of FETs are
(Transconductance) than FETs. smaller than for BJTs.
FETs can be manufactured much smaller
BJTs are larger in size and therefore
than BJTs. This is especially important for
Size take up more physical space
integrated circuits that are composed up of
than FETs normally.
many transistors.
BJTs are less popular and less widely FETS are definitely more popular and widely
Popularity
used used in commercial circuits today than BJTs
FETs, especially MOSFETs, are more
Cost BJTs are cheaper to manufacture
expensive to manufacture
- BJTs are used widely in hobby electronics and many times too in some consumer electronics
and have the advantage of being able to produce higher gains than FETS, FETs still offer
many advantages for large-scale commercial devices. When it comes to consumer products,
FETs are overwhelmingly preferred due to size, high input impedance, as well as other
factors. Intel, one of the largest chip makers in the world, uses practically only FET
transistors to build its chips which power billions of devices in the world.
7. S

8. Power Converter, definition from Wikipedia A power converter is an electrical or electro-

mechanical device for converting electrical energy. It may be converting AC to or from DC, or the
voltage or frequency, or some combination of these. One way of classifying power conversion
systems is according to whether the input and output are alternating current (AC) or direct
current (DC):
  AC to DC - converter simply means a device which can convert AC waveforms to another AC
waveform. The output voltage and frequency can be managed according to requirements and
usage
 DC to AC - is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating
current (AC). The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling
depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry.
 DC to DC - is an electronic circuit or electromechanical device that converts a source of direct
current (DC) from one voltage level to another It is a type of electric power converter. Power
levels range from very low (small batteries) to very high (high-voltage power transmission).
 AC to AC - converter simply means a device which can convert AC waveforms to another AC
waveform. The output voltage and frequency can be managed according to requirements and
usage
9. Switching power supply - a switch mode power supply system, input filtering helps to provide
immunity from mains-borne noise while also reducing emission back into the mains supply,
which is a greater concern with switch mode power supplies than with their linear counterparts.
After filtering the AC line voltage is rectified before power factor correction is applied to reduce
power losses together with current harmonics that can cause interference to other appliances
connected to the same supply.

- The DC voltage is then switched at a frequency much higher than that of the AC line,
allowing it to be converted via the transformer to another voltage, with reduced core losses
whilst using a much smaller and lighter transformer. Switching is controlled via the SMPS
Controller, which typically generates a PWM signal, taking feedback from the power supply
output.

Pros and cons compared to linear power supplies

 Pro: Typically much smaller and lighter

 Pro: More efficient than regulated linear power supplies
 Pro: Often lower cost due to much smaller transformers used
 Con: More complex
 Con: Can be a potential source of EMI and RFI*
 Con: Slower transient response times*

Linear power supply - In a linear power supply system, mains power is supplied to the
transformer via input filtering, which helps to provide immunity from mains-borne noise whilst
also reducing emission back into the mains supply. The AC voltage output from the transformer
is rectified, before being filtered to remove ripple, which is typically achieved using one or more
electrolytic capacitors.
 - A regulated linear power supply also has voltage regulation in order to maintain a constant
output voltage as the AC input line voltage and load current varies. Unregulated power
supplies do not have this and their output voltage can vary by a much greater degree.
- Protection is optional and can protect both the power supply and connected equipment
from faults in either of these

Pros and cons compared to switch mode power supplies

 Pro: Simpler and more robust

 Pro: Easier to design and maintain
 Pro: Low noise – suited to noise sensitive applications*
 Pro: Typically faster transient response times – therefore may be better suited to more dynamic
loads*
 Con: Larger and heavier
 Con: Less efficient if regulated
 Con: Can be more expensive
10.

The difference between DCM and BCM is shown in the figure above. Now that it is clear that DCM has
dead bands in it while BCM operates at the boundary of CCM lets have evaluation of these conduction
modes.

Boundary Conduction Mode

 BCM is feasible for high power levels.

 The control of BCM is much complicated because of variable switching frequency.

 We need to sense both the transformer current paths, that mean, more component count, less
reliability more expensive and more complicated algorithm.

 Output filter design is much complicated because the cutoff frequencies need to cater for the online and
load conditions.

 The use of BCM however, doubles the inverter power processed. Which means that the energy density
is higher and it fits well for PV applications with smallest desired volumes? See reference 2 for filter
design.
 Discontinous Conduction Mode
 DCM has a simple control loop.

 DCM increases the efficiency at light load conditions.

 Feasible only for low power PV applications.

 Fixed frequency operation.

 In DCM operation there are power switching losses only during the turn off transition.

 Inverter design is very critical because it does not measure the transformer current which means that
the fly back may enter into the Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM). It should be remember that CCM is
a disaster for PV fly back operation.

 The mains current harmonics is independent of irradiation and ambient temperature changes.

 Filter design is easy as compared to the BCM mode of operation. See reference 2 for filter design.

11. NON - ISOLATED SWITCHING REGULATORS According to the position of the switch and the
rectifier, different types of voltage converters can be made:
- Step down “Buck” regulator
- Step up “Boost” regulator
- Step up / Step down “Buck - Boost” regulator
A. The “Buck” converter: Step down voltage regulator the circuit diagram, often referred to
as a “chopper” circuit and its principal waveforms are represented in figure 1:

Figure 1: The step down “Buck” regulator

The power device is switched at a
Frequency f = 1/T with a conduction duty
Cycle, δ = ton/T. The output voltage can also
Be expressed as: Vout = Vin . δ

Device selection:
* Power switch: Vcev or VDSS > Vin max
∆𝐼
Icmax or Idmax > Iout +
2

* Rectifier: VRRM ≥ Vin max I F(AV) ≥ Iout (1-δ)

B. The “Boost” converter: Step up voltage regulator

Figure 2 : The step up “Boost” regulator
In normal operation, the energy is fed from the inductor to the load, and then stored in the output
capacitor. For this reason, the output capacitor is stressed a lot more than in the Buck converter
𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡
1−δ
Device selection:
* Power switch:
Vcev or Vdss > Vout
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∆𝐼
Imax ir Idmax > +
1−δ 2

* Rectifier:
VRRM>Vout
IF(av)>Iout

c. “Buck-Boost converter: Step up/Step down voltage regulator

Figure 3: The step up/step down “Buck-Boost” regulator
For a duty cycle under 0.5 the conversion works in step down mode, for a duty cycle over 0.5, the
converter then operates in the step up mode.
𝑉 𝑖𝑛. δ
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
1−δ

Device selection:
*power switch
Vcevmax or VDSS>Vinmax+Vout
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∆𝐼
Imax or IDmax > +
1−δ 2

*rectifier
VRRM > Vinmax +Vout
IF(av) > Iout